Chronic Noise and Psychological Stress

Effect of concurrent exposure to noise and hand-transmitted vibration on auditory and cognitive attention under simulated work with construction tools

Objectives. This study aimed to investigate the effects of separate and concurrent exposure to occupational noise and hand-transmitted vibration (HTV) on auditory and cognitive attention. Methods. The experimental study was conducted with 40 construction workers who were exposed to noise (A-weighted equivalent sound pressure level of 90 dB) and to HTV (10 m/s2 at 31.5 Hz), and concurrent exposure to both for 30 min under simulated work with vibrating equipment used in construction. Cognitive performance aspects were then evaluated from each individual in two pre-exposure and post-exposure settings for each session. Results. The effect sizes of concurrent exposure (HTV + noise) and separate exposure to noise on auditory attention were very close (effect size = 0.648 and 0.626). The largest changes in the difference of response time in both types of attention (selective and divided attention) were related to the concurrent exposure scenario and then exposure to HTV, respectively. The highest effects for the correct response of selective and divided attention are related to concurrent exposure (HTV + noise) and then noise exposure, respectively. Conclusion. The HTV effect during concurrent exposure is hidden in auditory attention, and noise has the main effects. The divided attention was more affected than the selective attention in the different scenarios.

Lower Childhood Socioeconomic Status Is Associated with Greater Neural Responses to Ambient Auditory Changes in Adulthood

Humans' early life experience varies by socioeconomic status (SES), raising the question of how this difference is reflected in the adult brain. An important aspect of brain function is the ability to detect salient ambient changes while focusing on a task. Here, we ask whether subjective social status during childhood is reflected by the way young adults' brain detecting changes in irrelevant information. In two studies (total n = 58), we examine electrical brain responses in the frontocentral region to a series of auditory tones, consisting of standard stimuli (80%) and deviant stimuli (20%) interspersed randomly, while participants were engaged in various visual tasks. Both studies showed stronger automatic change detection indexed by MMN in lower SES individuals, regardless of the unattended sound's feature, attended emotional content, or study type. Moreover, we observed a larger MMN in lower-SES participants, although they did not show differences in brain and behavior responses to the attended task. Lower-SES people also did not involuntarily orient more attention to sound changes (i.e., deviant stimuli), as indexed by the P3a. The study indicates that individuals with lower subjective social status may have an increased ability to automatically detect changes in their environment, which may suggest their adaptation to their childhood environments.

Verification of EasyGain Settings in the Roger Remote Microphone System

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate how the EasyGain settings on a wireless receiver used with a remote microphone (RM) affected output as a function of hearing loss and receiver type.

METHOD

To assess the effects of the EasyGain setting on a Roger receiver, a Phonak Naida V90 superpower hearing aid (HA), two universal Roger X (02) receivers, two Roger 18 integrated receivers, and a Roger Inspiro transmitter were used. An electroacoustic evaluation was performed for five degrees of hearing loss ranging from a flat 40 to 80 dB HL, and for nine EasyGain settings from +8 to -8 dB with each Roger receiver.

RESULTS

A three-way analysis of variance indicated significant main effects of hearing loss, receiver type and EasyGain settings, as well as their two-way interactions (p < .05). Overall, the output of the integrated receiver was 2.77 dB higher than that of the universal receiver. The change in output with 2-dB changes in EasyGain setting varied with the degree of hearing loss. For mild hearing loss (40 and 50 dB), every 2-dB change in EasyGain produced an average of 1.93 dB (SD = 0.17) change in the root-mean-square (RMS) output. For the higher degrees of hearing loss (60, 70, and 80 dB HL), the change in RMS varied depending on the range of EasyGain setting as follows: when EasyGain was > 0 dB, every 2-dB change in EasyGain setting produced an average change in RMS output of 1.32 dB (SD = 0.41); however, when EasyGain was ≤ 0 dB, every 2-dB change resulted in a mean 1.95 dB (SD = 0.16) change.

CONCLUSIONS

The benefits of EasyGain technology on the RMS output are dependent on the interaction of the receiver type, degree of hearing loss, and EasyGain settings. The results highlight the importance of electroacoustic verification to determine appropriate settings for optimal audibility when using an RM system.

A study on the impact of road traffic noise exposure on work efficiency of housewives

Housewives are individuals who take on the caregiving role in the family in virtually every society and while discharging their duties experience serious psychological difficulties due to external environmental pollutants like air, noise, etc., which influences their efficiency of performing household activities. This study hypothesizes a causal association between perception of traffic noise and the reduction in performance of housewives in their daily household activities. A simple mediation model was utilized for the study with traffic noise perception as the exposure variable. The sensitivity to traffic noise, annoyance caused due to traffic noise, and the effect of traffic noise on housewives were evaluated using questionnaire survey. Of the respondents, 57.33% reported high level of traffic noise perception, while 65.81% reported high annoyance due to traffic noise perception. Of the respondents, 88.69% reported higher levels of agreement with regard to negative effect of traffic noise on their household activities. The results supported the hypothesis with respondents belonging to high and moderate noise perception groups reporting a higher reduction in performance as compared to those belonging to the low noise perception group at higher values of sensitivity. There was no significant direct effect among those who perceived traffic noise as high and moderate. However, the indirect path revealed that there was a significantly higher reduction in performance among those belonging to the high and moderate noise perception group as compared to those belonging to the low noise perception group while those who perceived traffic noise as high and moderate did not differ significantly only at higher levels of sensitivity. Using OGRS computational tool, a sensitivity value of 5.586 was identified as the Johnson-Neyman boundary of significance for the direct effect. The results from the study highlight the need for including environmental noise related regulations with regard to residential structures by the concerned authorities and also the need for undertaking more rigorous studies by health authorities and organizations so that the effects are minimized if not eliminated completely.

The Effects of Noise on Cognitive Performance and Helplessness in Childhood: A Review

Environmental noise affects our daily functioning in many ways, and the cognitive, motivational, and emotional effects of noise are intertwined. Our task performance under noisy conditions depends on our ability to cope with the noise and our cognitive resources. The process of (failed) coping may wear us out cognitively, lead to learned helplessness, and, consequently, alter the motivation to persist in a task. The direct effect of irrelevant sounds on cognitive functioning in children is relatively well-established, however, the research on the framework of learned helplessness is limited when it comes to children. Learned helplessness can give more insight into effects of environmental noise on learning and child development and how the effects of short-term and long-term exposure interact. A systematic literature review is performed to assess to what extent the current evidence addresses the (interaction) effects of the sound environment on cognition and learned helplessness as measured by motivation in children and young adults up to the age of 21. The search resulted in 8 included papers that addressed both cognition and learned helplessness in their research. The included papers study children between 8-13 years old and show evidence for a relation between environmental noise, cognition, and helplessness individually, but none study a possible interaction. Based on the individual study designs, it could be hypothesized that cognitive fatigue may play a role in the interaction. Studies that conducted motivation tasks after cognitive tasks found stronger effects than those that conducted tasks in a random order. More research is needed using the same methods in different age groups to further assess the interaction between cognition and learned helplessness in relation to the sound environment.

Noise Indicators Relating to Non-Auditory Health Effects in Children-A Systematic Literature Review

A systematic literature review was conducted to investigate which objective noise indicators related to various noise sources (i.e., aircraft, road-traffic, and ambient noise) are the best predictors of non-auditory health-effects in children. These relationships are discussed via a conceptual framework, taking into account main parameters such as the type of noise source, the exposure locations and their environments, the type of noise indicators, the children's mediating factors, and the type of non-auditory health effects. In terms of the procedure, four literature databases were screened and data was extracted on study design, types of noise sources, assessment method, health-based outcomes and confounders, as well as their associations. The quality of the studies was also assessed. The inclusion criteria focused on both indoor and outdoor environments in educational buildings and dwellings, considering that children spend most of their time there. From the 3337 uniquely collected articles, 36 articles were included in this review based on the defined inclusion and exclusion criteria. From the included literature, it was seen that noise exposure, assessed by energetic indicators, has significant associations with non-auditory health effects: psychophysiological, cognitive development, mental health and sleep effects. Percentile and event-based indicators provided significant associations to cognitive performance tasks and well-being dimension aspects.

Children’s Effortful Control Skills, but Not Their Prosocial Skills, Relate to Their Reactions to Classroom Noise

Environmental noise is one of the main sources of pollution in today’s modern world. Health effects associated with noise depend on both environmental exposure and individuals’ noise sensitivity. However, still little is known as to why some children are more noise sensitive than others. Studies to date have focused on adult populations and have not considered both cognitive and personality factors when explaining noise sensitivity. The current research investigates individual differences in noise sensitivity among elementary school children, with the aim of shedding light on its underlying mechanisms. Study 1 (n = 112) validated a novel questionnaire assessing children’s reactions to classroom noise against two measures of noise sensitivity that are commonly used in adult populations. Study 2 (n = 237) investigated how children’s reactions to classroom noise covaried with their effortful control and prosocial skills, both measured through a teacher report. Prosocial skills were not related to children’s reactions to noise. However, children with lower effortful control skills reported more negative reactions to classroom noise. Given the importance of effortful control skills to succeed at school, children at risk of school difficulty might also be the ones who are particularly vulnerable to noise.

Association between community noise and children's cognitive and behavioral development: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Noise exposure has been associated with adverse cognitive and behavioral outcomes in children, but evidence on longitudinal associations between community noise and child development in low- and middle-income countries is rare. We investigated associations between community noise and behavioral and cognitive development in preschool children in São Paulo.

METHODS

We linked child development data from the São Paulo Western Region Birth Cohort with average (Lden) and night-time (Lnight) community noise exposure at children's home, estimated by means of a land use regression model using various predictors (roads, schools, greenness, residential and informal settlements). Outcomes were the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and Regional Project on Child Development Indicators (PRIDI) at 3 years of age and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and International Development and Early Learning Assessment (IDELA) at 6 years of age. We investigated the relationship between noise exposure and development using cross-sectional and longitudinal regression models.

RESULTS

Data from 3385 children at 3 years of age and 1546 children at 6 years of age were analysed. Mean Lden and Lnight levels were 70.3 dB and 61.2 dB, respectively. In cross-sectional analyses a 10 dB increase of Lden above 70 dB was associated with a 32% increase in the odds of borderline or abnormal SDQ total difficulties score (OR = 1.32, 95% CI: 1.04; 1.68) and 0.72 standard deviation (SD) increase in the CBCL total problems z-score (95% CI: 0.55; 0.88). No cross-sectional association was found for cognitive development. In longitudinal analyses, each 10 dB increase was associated with a 0.52 SD increase in behavioral problems (95% CI: 0.28; 0.77) and a 0.27 SD decrease in cognition (95%-CI: 0.55; 0.00). Results for Lnight above 60 dB were similar.

DISCUSSION

Our findings suggest that community noise exposure above Lden of 70 dB and Lnight of 60 dB may impair behavioral and cognitive development of preschool children.

To cope with a changing aquatic soundscape: Neuroendocrine and antioxidant responses to chronic noise stress in fish

Anthropogenic underwater noises that change aquatic soundscapes represent an important issue in marine conservation. While it is evident that strong underwater acoustic pollutants may cause significant damage to fish at short ranges, the physiological effects of long-term exposure to relatively quiet but continuous noise are less well understood. Here, we present a summary of the known impacts of long-term underwater noise on hypothalamic-pituitary-interrenal (HPI) axis-mediated physiological responses, oxidant/antioxidant balance, and neurotransmitter regulation in fish. Cortisol is known to play a central role in physiological stress response, most often as a mediator of acute response. However, recent research indicates that noise exposure may also induce chronic corticosteroid responses, which involve increased rates of cortisol turnover. Moreover, continuous noise affects oxidative stress and antioxidant systems in vertebrates and fish, suggesting that oxidative species may mediate some noise-induced physiological responses and make these systems valuable noise stress markers. Lastly, noise stress is also known to affect neurotransmitters in the brain that may cause neurophysiological and behavioral changes. The neurochemical mechanisms underlying observed behavioral disorders in fish after exposure to changing acoustic environments are a topic of active research. Overall, a growing body of evidence suggests that chronic noise pollution could be a threat to fish populations. In future work, systematic and comparative investigations into long-term and transgenerational adaptive neuronal and metabolic responses to noise will be important to understand the physiological patterns and dynamics of noise response relevant to fish conservation.

Effects of Nocturnal Aircraft Noise and Non-Acoustical Factors on Short-Term Annoyance in Primary School Children

Children are considered at higher risk for harmful noise effects due to their sensitive development phase. Here, we investigated the effects of nocturnal aircraft noise exposure on short-term annoyance assessed in the morning in 51 primary school children (8-10 years) living in the surrounding community of Cologne-Bonn Airport. Child-appropriate short-term annoyance assessments and associated non-acoustical variables were surveyed. Nocturnal aircraft noise exposure was recorded inside the children's bedrooms. Exposure-response models were calculated by using random effects logistic regression models. The present data were compared with those from a previous study near Cologne-Bonn Airport in adults using very similar methodology. Short-term annoyance reaction in children was not affected by the nocturnal aircraft noise exposure. Non-acoustical factors (e.g., the attitude that "aircraft are dangerous" or noise sensitivity), however, significantly impacted on children's short-term annoyance. In contrast to children, the probability of moderate to high annoyance in adults increased with the number of aircraft flyovers during the time in bed. It is concluded that short-term annoyance from nocturnal aircraft noise in children is mainly determined by non-acoustical factors. Unlike in adults, acoustical factors did not play a significant role.

Loudness Perceptions Influence Feelings of Interpersonal Closeness and Protect Against Detrimental Psychological Effects of Social Exclusion

We propose that perceptions of auditory loudness and interpersonal closeness are bidirectionally related. Across 12 experiments (total N = 2,219; 10 preregistered; with Singaporean, British, U.S. American, and Australian participants), we demonstrated that louder audio made people feel physically (Study 1a) and socially (Study 1b) closer to others, presumably because loudness activates interpersonal closeness-related concepts implicitly (Studies 1c and 1d). This loudness-interpersonal closeness effect was observed across diverse samples (Studies 2a, 3a, and S1), for longer listening intervals (Study 2b), and in natural settings (Studies 3a and 3b). Conversely, individuals made to feel socially excluded rated their surroundings as quieter (Study 4). Furthermore, following social exclusion, individuals showed a preference for louder volume (Study 5). Finally, exposure to loud stimuli mitigated detrimental psychological effects of social exclusion (Study 6). Theoretical implications for the social cognition of loudness, social exclusion and compensatory strategies, and practical implications for ameliorating loneliness are discussed.

Oil and gas production and spontaneous preterm birth in the San Joaquin Valley, CA: A case-control study

BACKGROUND

Recent studies report an association between preterm birth and exposure to unconventional oil and gas wells. There has been limited previous study on exposure to conventional wells, which are common in California. Our objective was to determine whether exposure to well sites was associated with increased odds of spontaneous preterm birth (delivery at <37 weeks).

METHODS

We conducted a case-control study using data on 27,913 preterm birth cases and 197,461 term birth controls. All births were without maternal comorbidities and were located in the San Joaquin Valley, CA, between 1998 and 2011. We obtained data for 83,559 wells in preproduction or production during the study period. We assessed exposure using inverse distance-squared weighting and, for each birth and trimester, we assigned an exposure tertile. Using logistic regression, we estimated adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for the association between exposure to well sites and preterm birth at 20-27, 28-31, and 32-36 weeks.

RESULTS

We observed increased ORs for preterm birth with high exposure to wells in the first and second trimesters for births delivered at ≤31 weeks (adjusted ORs, 1.08-1.14). In stratified analyses, the associations were confined to births to Hispanic and non-Hispanic Black women and to women with ≤12 years of educational attainment. In a secondary analysis, we found evidence that exposure to wells in preproduction is associated with higher concentrations of particulate matter.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence that exposure to oil and gas well sites is associated with increased risk of spontaneous preterm birth.

Night noise exposure and risk of death by suicide in adults living in metropolitan areas

BACKGROUND

Noise is defined as "sound that is unwanted, unpleasant, or harmful to health." It may induce negative emotions and mental health problems and even may leads to increased suicide risk. Little attention has been paid so far to a potential link between noise and suicide. We investigated the association between nighttime environmental noise and suicide death in adults in the Republic of Korea.

METHODS

We analyzed the data from the National Health Insurance Service-National Sample Cohort, with a 4-year baseline (2002-2005) and an 8-year follow-up (2006-2013) assessment. A total of 155,492 adults constituted the study sample: younger adults (20-54 years, n = 124,994), or older adults (≥55 years, n = 30,498), and adults with mood and anxiety disorders (n = 34,615). Suicide death was defined as per International Classification of Diseases-10 code X60-X84. Data on nighttime noise were obtained from the National Noise Information System.

RESULTS

During the study period, 315 (0.2%) died of suicide. The incidence of suicide per 100,000 person-years was 25.71. With interquartile range increases in nighttime noise, the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for suicide death was significantly increased: 1.32 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-1.70) for younger adults, 1.43 (95% CI: 1.01-2.02) for older adults, and 1.55 (95% CI: 1.10-2.19) for adults with mental illness. In the penalized regression spline models, the HRs for suicide death were gradually increased with environmental noise levels, and the risk was the highest for adults with mental illness.

CONCLUSIONS

We found a significant association between exposure to nighttime noise and the risk of suicide death in adults in the Republic of Korea.

Psychophysiological measurement of affective responses during speech perception

When people make decisions about listening, such as whether to continue attending to a particular conversation or whether to wear their hearing aids to a particular restaurant, they do so on the basis of more than just their estimated performance. Recent research has highlighted the vital role of more subjective qualities such as effort, motivation, and fatigue. Here, we argue that the importance of these factors is largely mediated by a listener's emotional response to the listening challenge, and suggest that emotional responses to communication challenges may provide a crucial link between day-to-day communication stress and long-term health. We start by introducing some basic concepts from the study of emotion and affect. We then develop a conceptual framework to guide future research on this topic through examination of a variety of autonomic and peripheral physiological responses that have been employed to investigate both cognitive and affective phenomena related to challenging communication. We conclude by suggesting the need for further investigation of the links between communication difficulties, emotional response, and long-term health, and make some recommendations intended to guide future research on affective psychophysiology in speech communication.

Associations of unconventional natural gas development with depression symptoms and disordered sleep in Pennsylvania

Environmental and community factors may influence the development or course of depression and sleep problems. We evaluated the association of unconventional natural gas development (UNGD) with depression symptoms and disordered sleep diagnoses using the Patient Health Questionnaire-8 and electronic health record data among Geisinger adult primary care patients in Pennsylvania. Participants received a retrospective metric for UNGD at their residence (very low, low, medium, and high) that incorporated dates and durations of well development, distance from patient homes to wells, and well characteristics. Analyses included 4,762 participants with no (62%), mild (23%), moderate (10%), and moderately severe or severe (5%) depression symptoms in 2014-2015 and 3,868 disordered sleep diagnoses between 2009-2015. We observed associations between living closer to more and bigger wells and depression symptoms, but not disordered sleep diagnoses in models weighted to account for sampling design and participation. High UNGD (vs. very low) was associated with depression symptoms in an adjusted negative binomial model (exponentiated coefficient = 1.18, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.04-1.34). High and low UNGD (vs. very low) were associated with depression symptoms (vs. none) in an adjusted multinomial logistic model. Our findings suggest that UNGD may be associated with adverse mental health in Pennsylvania.

Stress experiences in neighborhood and social environments (SENSE): a pilot study to integrate the quantified self with citizen science to improve the built environment and health

BACKGROUND

Identifying elements of one's environment-observable and unobservable-that contribute to chronic stress including the perception of comfort and discomfort associated with different settings, presents many methodological and analytical challenges. However, it also presents an opportunity to engage the public in collecting and analyzing their own geospatial and biometric data to increase community member understanding of their local environments and activate potential environmental improvements. In this first-generation project, we developed a methodology to integrate geospatial technology with biometric sensing within a previously developed, evidence-based "citizen science" protocol, called "Our Voice." Participants used a smartphone/tablet-based application, called the Discovery Tool (DT), to collect photos and audio narratives about elements of the built environment that contributed to or detracted from their well-being. A wrist-worn sensor (Empatica E4) was used to collect time-stamped data, including 3-axis accelerometry, skin temperature, blood volume pressure, heart rate, heartbeat inter-beat interval, and electrodermal activity (EDA). Open-source R packages were employed to automatically organize, clean, geocode, and visualize the biometric data.

RESULTS

In total, 14 adults (8 women, 6 men) were successfully recruited to participate in the investigation. Participants recorded 174 images and 124 audio files with the DT. Among captured images with a participant-determined positive or negative rating (n = 131), over half were positive (58.8%, n = 77). Within-participant positive/negative rating ratios were similar, with most participants rating 53.0% of their images as positive (SD 21.4%). Significant spatial clusters of positive and negative photos were identified using the Getis-Ord Gi* local statistic, and significant associations between participant EDA and distance to DT photos, and street and land use characteristics were also observed with linear mixed models. Interactive data maps allowed participants to (1) reflect on data collected during the neighborhood walk, (2) see how EDA levels changed over the course of the walk in relation to objective neighborhood features (using basemap and DT app photos), and (3) compare their data to other participants along the same route.

CONCLUSIONS

Participants identified a variety of social and environmental features that contributed to or detracted from their well-being. This initial investigation sets the stage for further research combining qualitative and quantitative data capture and interpretation to identify objective and perceived elements of the built environment influence our embodied experience in different settings. It provides a systematic process for simultaneously collecting multiple kinds of data, and lays a foundation for future statistical and spatial analyses in addition to more in-depth interpretation of how these responses vary within and between individuals.

The Adverse Effects of Environmental Noise Exposure on Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular Risk

Epidemiological studies have provided evidence that traffic noise exposure is linked to cardiovascular diseases such as arterial hypertension, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Noise is a nonspecific stressor that activates the autonomous nervous system and endocrine signaling. According to the noise reaction model introduced by Babisch and colleagues, chronic low levels of noise can cause so-called nonauditory effects, such as disturbances of activity, sleep, and communication, which can trigger a number of emotional responses, including annoyance and subsequent stress. Chronic stress in turn is associated with cardiovascular risk factors, comprising increased blood pressure and dyslipidemia, increased blood viscosity and blood glucose, and activation of blood clotting factors, in animal models and humans. Persistent chronic noise exposure increases the risk of cardiometabolic diseases, including arterial hypertension, coronary artery disease, diabetes mellitus type 2, and stroke. Recently, we demonstrated that aircraft noise exposure during nighttime can induce endothelial dysfunction in healthy subjects and is even more pronounced in coronary artery disease patients. Importantly, impaired endothelial function was ameliorated by acute oral treatment with the antioxidant vitamin C, suggesting that excessive production of reactive oxygen species contributes to this phenomenon. More recently, we introduced a novel animal model of aircraft noise exposure characterizing the underlying molecular mechanisms leading to noise-dependent adverse oxidative stress-related effects on the vasculature. With the present review, we want to provide an overview of epidemiological, translational clinical, and preclinical noise research addressing the nonauditory, adverse effects of noise exposure with focus on oxidative stress. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 28, 873-908.

Road traffic noise and determinants of saliva cortisol levels among adolescents

OBJECTIVES

The understanding of determinants for saliva cortisol levels in adolescents is limited. This study investigated the role of road traffic noise exposure, noise annoyance and various other factors for saliva cortisol levels.

METHODS

We collected morning and evening saliva samples from 1751 adolescents from the BAMSE birth cohort based in Stockholm County. Façade noise levels from road traffic were estimated at the residences of the study subjects and repeated questionnaires and medical examinations provided extensive information on various exposures and conditions, including annoyance to noise from different sources. Cortisol was measured using radioimmunoassay. Associations between determinants and saliva cortisol levels were analysed using linear regression.

RESULTS

Morning saliva cortisol levels were significantly higher in females than in males (geometric mean 42.4 and 35.0 nmol/l, respectively) as well as in subjects with allergy related diseases. Height and age were related to saliva cortisol levels as well as sampling season. Road traffic noise exposure was not associated with saliva cortisol, however, annoyance to noise tended to increase the levels. Saliva cortisol levels appeared particularly high among those who were highly annoyed and exposed to road traffic noise levels ≥ 55 dB L_den (50.5 nmol/l, p = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that individual perception of noise may be of importance for saliva cortisol levels. The results also point to the complexity of using saliva cortisol as a marker of noise exposure in adolescents.

A Review of the Benefits of Nature Experiences: More Than Meets the Eye

Evidence that experiences of nature can benefit people has accumulated rapidly. Yet perhaps because of the domination of the visual sense in humans, most research has focused on the visual aspects of nature experiences. However, humans are multisensory, and it seems likely that many benefits are delivered through the non-visual senses and these are potentially avenues through which a physiological mechanism could occur. Here we review the evidence around these lesser studied sensory pathways—through sound, smell, taste, touch, and three non-sensory pathways. Natural sounds and smells underpin experiences of nature for many people, and this may well be rooted in evolutionary psychology. Tactile experiences of nature, particularly beyond animal petting, are understudied yet potentially fundamentally important. Tastes of nature, through growing and consuming natural foods, have been linked with a range of health and well-being benefits. Beyond the five senses, evidence is emerging for other non-visual pathways for nature experiences to be effective. These include ingestion or inhalation of phytoncides, negative air ions and microbes. We conclude that (i) these non-visual avenues are potentially important for delivering benefits from nature experiences; (ii) the evidence base is relatively weak and often based on correlational studies; and (iii) deeper exploration of these sensory and non-sensory avenues is needed.

Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, Residential Segregation, and Spatial Variation in Noise Exposure in the Contiguous United States

BACKGROUND

Prior research has reported disparities in environmental exposures in the United States, but, to our knowledge, no nationwide studies have assessed inequality in noise pollution.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to a) assess racial/ethnic and socioeconomic inequalities in noise pollution in the contiguous United States; and b) consider the modifying role of metropolitan level racial residential segregation.

METHODS

We used a geospatial sound model to estimate census block group–level median (L₅₀) nighttime and daytime noise exposure and 90th percentile (L₁₀) daytime noise exposure. Block group variables from the 2006–2010 American Community Survey (ACS) included race/ethnicity, education, income, poverty, unemployment, homeownership, and linguistic isolation. We estimated associations using polynomial terms in spatial error models adjusted for total population and population density. We also evaluated the relationship between race/ethnicity and noise, stratified by levels of metropolitan area racial residential segregation, classified using a multigroup dissimilarity index.

RESULTS

Generally, estimated nighttime and daytime noise levels were higher for census block groups with higher proportions of nonwhite and lower-socioeconomic status (SES) residents. For example, estimated nighttime noise levels in urban block groups with 75% vs. 0% black residents were 46.3 A-weighted decibels (dBA) [interquartile range (IQR): 44.3–47.8 dBA] and 42.3 dBA (IQR: 40.4–45.5 dBA), respectively. In urban block groups with 50% vs. 0% of residents living below poverty, estimated nighttime noise levels were 46.9 dBA (IQR: 44.7–48.5 dBA) and 44.0 dBA (IQR: 42.2–45.5 dBA), respectively. Block groups with the highest metropolitan area segregation had the highest estimated noise exposures, regardless of racial composition. Results were generally consistent between urban and suburban/rural census block groups, and for daytime and nighttime noise and robust to different spatial weight and neighbor definitions.

CONCLUSIONS

We found evidence of racial/ethnic and socioeconomic differences in model-based estimates of noise exposure throughout the United States. Additional research is needed to determine if differences in noise exposure may contribute to health disparities in the United States. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP898

Chaotic home environment is associated with reduced infant processing speed under high task demands

Early adversity has profound long-term consequences for child development across domains. The effects of early adversity on structural and functional brain development were shown for infants under 12 months of life. However, the causal mechanisms of these effects remain relatively unexplored. Using a visual habituation task we investigated whether chaotic home environment may affect processing speed in 5.5 month-old infants (n=71). We found detrimental effects of chaos on processing speed for complex but not for simple visual stimuli. No effects of socio-economic status on infant processing speed were found although the sample was predominantly middle class. Our results indicate that chaotic early environment may adversely affect processing speed in early infancy, but only when greater cognitive resources need to be deployed. The study highlights an attractive avenue for research on the mechanisms linking home environment with the development of attention control.

Speech Perception in Classroom Acoustics by Children With Cochlear Implants and With Typical Hearing

PURPOSE

This study measured speech perception ability in children with cochlear implants and children with typical hearing when listening across ranges of reverberation times (RTs) and speech-to-noise ratios.

METHOD

Participants listened in classroom RTs of 0.3, 0.6, and 0.9 s combined with a 21-dB range of speech-to-noise ratios. Subsets also listened in a low-reverberant audiological sound booth. Performance measures using the Bamford-Kowal-Bench Speech-in-Noise Test (Etymotic Research, Inc., 2005) were 50% correct word recognition across these acoustic conditions, with supplementary analyses of percent correct.

RESULTS

Reduction in RT from 0.9 to 0.6 s benefited both groups of children. A further reduction in RT to 0.3 s provided additional benefit to the children with cochlear implants, with no further benefit or harm to those with typical hearing. Scores in the sound booth were significantly higher for the participants with implants than in the classroom.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the acoustic standards of 0.6 s RT for children with typical hearing and 0.3 s RT for children with auditory issues in learning spaces (≤283 m3) as specified in standards S12.60-2010/Part 1 of the American National Standards Institute /Acoustical Society of America (2010). In addition, speech perception testing in a low-reverberant booth overestimated classroom listening ability in children with cochlear implants.

Chronic Noise Exposure and Physiological Response: A Prospective Study of Children Living Under Environmental Stress

Chronic exposure to aircraft noise elevated psychophysiological stress (resting blood pressure and overnight epinephrine and norepinephrine) and depressed quality-of-life indicators over a 2-year period among 9- to 11-year-old children. Data collected before and after the inauguration of a major new international airport in noise-impacted and comparison communities show that noise significantly elevates stress among children at ambient levels far below those necessary to produce hearing damage.

Health Effects of Noise Exposure in Children

Environmental noise exposure, such as road traffic noise and aircraft noise, is associated with a range of health outcomes in children. Children demonstrate annoyance responses to noise, and noise is also related to lower well-being and stress responses, such as increased levels of adrenaline and noradrenaline. Noise does not cause more serious mental health problems, but there is growing evidence for an association with increased hyperactivity symptoms. Studies also suggest that noise might cause changes in cardiovascular functioning, and there is some limited evidence for an effect on low birth weight. There is robust evidence for an effect of school noise exposure on children's cognitive skills such as reading and memory, as well as on standardised academic test scores. Environmental noise does not usually reach levels that are likely to affect children's hearing; however, increasing use of personal electronic devices may leave some children exposed to harmful levels of noise.

Background Stress Inventory: Developing a Measure of Understudied Stress

Background stress is an understudied source of stress that involves both ambient stress and daily hassles upon which new stressors are superimposed. To date, an accurate measure of the background stress construct has not been available. We developed the Background Stress Inventory, a 25-item self-report measure that asks respondents to indicate how distressed they have felt over the past month and the majority of the past year across five domains: financial, occupation, environment, health and social. Seven hundred seventy-two participants completed the paper-and-pencil measure; the sample was randomly split into two separate subsamples for analyses. Exploratory factor analysis suggested five factors corresponding to these domains, and confirmatory factor analysis showed acceptable global fit (X(2)(255) = 456.47, comparative fit index = 0.94, root mean square error of approximation = 0.045). Cronbach's alpha (0.89) indicated good internal reliability. Construct validity analyses showed significant positive relationships with measures of perceived stressfulness (r = 0.62) and daily hassles (0.41), p's < 0.01. Depressive symptoms (0.62) and basal blood pressure (0.21) were both significantly associated with background stress, p's < 0.01. The importance of the proposed measure is reflected in the limited research base on the impact of background stress. Systematic investigation of this measure will provide insight into this understudied form of chronic stress and its potential influence on both psychological and physical endpoints.

Meirelles P. Dimethylglycine supplementation in horses performing incremental treadmill exercise

Our objective was to verify the effect of the period of dimethylglycine (DMG) supplementation in horses subjected to incremental treadmill exercise, on the metabolic and physiologic variables and indices related to physical performance. Four adult Arabian horses with a mean age of 8±1.5 years and a mean body weight of 340±10.8 kg were used. The utilised experimental design was the 4×4 Latin square, constituted by four periods of four weeks of evaluation, intercalated with four weeks of wash-out periods. The treatments consisted of periods of DMG (30 g of commercial product) administration: without supplementation, and with supplementation for 10, 20 and 30 days. There was a significant effect of the DMG supplementation given during 30 days over the reduction in the lactate concentration after the test exercise. Alterations of V200 (speed in which the horse reaches 200 heart beats/min) and VL4 (speed which corresponds to a blood lactate of 4 mmol/l) were not observed (P>0.05), however there was a travelled distance elevation in the tests in function of the increase on the days of supplementation, by linear regression (P<0.05) analysis. It was verified that there was no effect from the DMG supplementation in horses on the heart rate and there was only a significant difference between treatments for the rectal temperature after exercise, where the supplementation for 30 days resulted in values statistically superior to the control group. Therefore, we can conclude that the equine supplementation with a DMG product in the dosage of 30 g/day for a one-month period affects the lactate metabolisms, as well as increases the travelled distance during an incremental treadmill test.

Street-level noise in an urban setting: assessment and contribution to personal exposure

BACKGROUND

The urban soundscape, which represents the totality of noise in the urban setting, is formed from a wide range of sources. One of the most ubiquitous and least studied of these is street-level (i.e., sidewalk) noise. Mainly associated with vehicular traffic, street level noise is hard to ignore and hard to escape. It is also potentially dangerous, as excessive noise from any source is an important risk factor for adverse health effects. This study was conducted to better characterize the urban soundscape and the role of street level noise on overall personal noise exposure in an urban setting.

METHODS

Street-level noise measures were obtained at 99 street sites located throughout New York City (NYC), along with data on time, location, and sources of environmental noise. The relationship between street-level noise measures and potential predictors of noise was analyzed using linear and logistic regression models, and geospatial modeling was used to evaluate spatial trends in noise. Daily durations of street-level activities (time spent standing, sitting, walking and running on streets) were estimated via survey from a sample of NYC community members recruited at NYC street fairs. Street-level noise measurements were then combined with daily exposure durations for each member of the sample to estimate exposure to street noise, as well as exposure to other sources of noise.

RESULTS

The mean street noise level was 73.4 dBA, with substantial spatial variation (range 55.8-95.0 dBA). Density of vehicular (road) traffic was significantly associated with excessive street level noise levels. Exposure duration data for street-level noise and other common sources of noise were collected from 1894 NYC community members. Based on individual street-level exposure estimates, and in consideration of all other sources of noise exposure in an urban population, we estimated that street noise exposure contributes approximately 4% to an average individual's annual noise dose.

CONCLUSIONS

Street-level noise exposure is a potentially important source of overall noise exposure, and the reduction of environmental sources of excessive street- level noise should be a priority for public health and urban planning.

A prospective follow-up study of the effects of chronic aircraft noise exposure on learners' reading comprehension in South Africa

The purpose of this epidemiological study was to investigate the long-term effects of exposure to aircraft noise on reading comprehension on a sample of South African children. Given the impairment of reading comprehension found within the noised-exposed group before the relocation of the airport, it was the intention of this study to determine whether the effects of aircraft noise on reading comprehension remained after the relocation of the airport or whether they disappeared. A cohort of 732 learners with a mean age of 11.1 years participated at baseline measurements in 2009 and 650 (mean age=12.3) and 178 (mean age=13.1) learners were reassessed after the relocation of the airport in 2010 and 2011, respectively. The results revealed no significant effect of the groups on reading comprehension across the testing periods, but significant effects of home language were demonstrated on reading comprehension. These findings suggest that exposure to chronic aircraft noise may have a lasting impact on children's reading comprehension functioning.

Les effets du bruit sur la santé mentale : recension des écrits

La présente étude est une revue critique de la documentation scientifique sur les effets du bruit sur la santé mentale. Cette étude a été réalisée sur la base de la recherche de mots-clés, de l’impact factor des revues, du nombre de fois que l’article a été cité. Hinari a servi de base des données. L’analyse et la sélection des articles scientifiques nous ont permis de les regrouper en trois catégories d’études. Les études fondamentales ont dosé les taux des hormones de stress dans le plasma, les urines et la salive. Les études expérimentales ont exposé les sujets humains à la pollution sonore pour évaluer les déficits de leurs mémoire, attention et performance. Les études épidémiologiques ont évalué les déficits cognitifs chez les élèves étudiant dans des milieux bruyants et l’état de santé mentale des individus habitant aux alentours des aéroports, voies ferrées et des autoroutes. Les études fondamentales et expérimentales ont abouti à un consensus scientifique sur les effets négatifs du bruit tandis que les résultats des études épidémiologiques ne permettent pas de tirer des conclusions solides, des études ultérieures s’avèrent donc nécessaires.

Household chaos moderates the link between maternal attribution bias and parenting: Parenting: Science and Practice

OBJECTIVE

Parents who attribute child misbehavior to children's intentions and dismiss situational factors tend to show more hostility and less warmth in their parenting behavior, and are at greater risk for maltreatment. We extended this literature by investigating the role of household chaos as a moderator of the link between maternal attribution biases and parenting behaviors.

DESIGN

The current sample included 160 mothers of 3- to7-year-old children. Mothers provided reports on their attribution biases and household chaos levels. Maternal negativity and positivity were measured using self-reports and observers' ratings.

RESULTS

The links between attribution bias and parenting behavior were stronger in more chaotic environments, with the moderating effect of chaos being particularly strong for internal attribution bias.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings point to the importance of social cognitive biases in the etiology of maternal behavior in family contexts that lack order and predictability.

Social resources and disordered living conditions: evidence from a national sample of community-residing older adults

For older adults aging in the community, living conditions can promote health, enhance coping, and reduce disablement--but they can also create stress and increase risks of illness, accidents, and decline. Although socioeconomic disparities in housing likely contribute to inequalities in interior conditions, I argue that living conditions are also shaped by social resources such as coresidential relationships, social network ties, and social support. In this article, I examine the distribution of a set of risky or stressful physical and ambient living conditions including structural disrepair, clutter, lack of cleanliness, noise, and odor. Using data from the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (NSHAP), I find that low-income and African American older adults have more disordered living conditions as do those with poorer physical and mental health. In addition, older adults who have a coresident partner, more nonresidential network ties, and more sources of instrumental support are exposed to fewer risky or harmful living conditions. This suggests that living conditions are an important, though overlooked, mechanism through which household composition, social networks, and social support affect health and well-being in later life.

Housing and child health

The connection between housing and health is well established. Physical, chemical, and biological aspects of the child's home, such as cleanliness, moisture, pests, noise, accessibility, injury risks, and other forms of housing environmental quality, all have the potential to influence multiple aspects of the health and development of children. Basic sanitation, reduced household crowding, other improvements in housing and expanded, and improved housing regulations have led to advances in children's health. For example, lead poisoning prevention policies have profoundly reduced childhood lead exposure in the United States. This and many other successes highlight the health benefits for families, particularly children, by targeting interventions that reduce or eliminate harmful exposures in the home. Additionally, parental mental health problems, food insecurity, domestic violence, and the presence of guns in children's homes all are largely experienced by children in their homes, which are not as yet considered part of the Healthy Homes agenda. There is a large movement and now a regulatory structure being put in place for healthy housing, which is becoming closely wedded with environmental health, public health, and the practice of pediatrics. The importance of homes in children's lives, history of healthy homes, asthma, and exposures to lead, carbon monoxide, secondhand/thirdhand smoke, radon, allergy triggers is discussed, as well as how changes in ambient temperature, increased humidity, poor ventilation, water quality, infectious diseases, housing structure, guns, electronic media, family structure, and domestic violence all affect children's health.

An epidemiological prospective study of children's health and annoyance reactions to aircraft noise exposure in South Africa

The purpose of this study was to investigate health and annoyance reactions to change in chronic exposure to aircraft noise on a sample of South African children. It was the intention of this study to examine if effects of noise on health and annoyance can be demonstrated. If so, whether such effects persist over time, or whether such effects are reversible after the cessation of exposure to noise. A cohort of 732 children with a mean age of 11.1 (range = 8–14) participated at baseline measurements in Wave 1 (2009), and 649 (mean age = 12.3; range = 9–15) and 174 (mean age = 13.3; range = 10–16) children were reassessed in Wave 2 (2010) and Wave 3 (2011) after the relocation of the airport, respectively. The findings revealed that the children who were exposed to chronic aircraft noise continued to experience significantly higher annoyance than their counterparts in all the waves at school, and only in Wave 1 and Wave 2 at home. Aircraft noise exposure did not have adverse effects on the children’s self-reported health outcomes. Taken together, these findings suggest that chronic exposure to aircraft noise may have a lasting impact on children’s annoyance, but not on their subjective health rating. This is one of the first longitudinal studies of this nature in the African continent to make use of an opportunity resulting from the relocation of airport.

The ecological context of soundscapes for children's blood pressure

Although the majority of studies on community noise levels and children's physiological stress responses are positive, effect sizes vary considerably, and some studies do not confirm these effects. Employing a contextual perspective congruent with soundscapes, a carefully constructed sample of children (N = 115, M = 10.1 yr) living in households in relatively high (>60 dBA) or low (<50 dBA) noise areas created by proximity to major traffic arterials in Austria was reanalyzed. Several personal and environmental factors known to affect resting cardiovascular parameters measured under well-controlled, clinical conditions were incorporated into the analyses. Children with premature births and elevated chronic stress (i.e., overnight cortisol) were more susceptible to adverse blood pressure responses to road traffic noise. Residence in a multi-dwelling unit as well as standardized assessments of perceived quietness of the area did not modify the traffic noise impacts but each had its own, independent effect on resting blood pressure. A primary air pollutant associated with traffic volume (NO2) had no influence on any of these results. The scope of environmental noise assessment and management would benefit from incorporation of a more contextualized approach as suggested by the soundscape perspective.

Objective and subjective socioeconomic gradients exist for sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep duration, weekend oversleep, and daytime sleepiness in adults

Socioeconomic gradients exist for multiple health outcomes. Lower objective socioeconomic position (SEP), whether measured by income, education, or occupation, is associated with inadequate sleep. Less is known about whether one's perceived ranking of their social status, or subjective SEP, affects sleep. This study examined whether a subjective socioeconomic gradient exists for sleep while controlling for objective SEP. Participants (N = 177; age, M = 45.3 years, SD = 6.3 years) completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, MacArthur Ladder, and other self-report measures to assess sleep and objective SEP. Subjective SEP trumped objective SEP as a better predictor of sleep duration, daytime sleepiness, and weekend oversleep. These findings highlight the need to expand our framework to better understand the mechanisms underlying socioeconomic gradients and sleep.

Externalizing problems, attention regulation, and household chaos: a longitudinal behavioral genetic study

Previous research documented a robust link between difficulties in self-regulation and development of externalizing problems (i.e., aggression and delinquency). In this study, we examined the longitudinal additive and interactive genetic and environmental covariation underlying this well-established link using a twin design. The sample included 131 pairs of monozygotic twins and 173 pairs of same-sex dizygotic twins who participated in three waves of annual assessment. Mothers and fathers provided reports of externalizing problems. Teacher report and observer rating were used to assess twin's attention regulation. The etiology underlying the link between externalizing problems and attention regulation shifted from a common genetic mechanism to a common environmental mechanism in the transition across middle childhood. Household chaos moderated the genetic variance of and covariance between externalizing problems and attention regulation. The genetic influence on individual differences in both externalizing problems and attention regulation was stronger in more chaotic households. However, higher levels of household chaos attenuated the genetic link between externalizing problems and attention regulation.

Maternal executive function, harsh parenting, and child conduct problems

BACKGROUND

Maternal executive function and household regulation both are critical aspects of optimal childrearing, but their interplay is not understood. We tested the hypotheses that (a) the link between challenging child conduct problems and harsh parenting would be strongest for mothers with poorer executive function and weakest among those with better executive function, and (b) this mechanism would be further moderated by the degree of household chaos.

METHODS

The socioeconomically diverse sample included 147 mothers of 3-to-7 year old children. Mothers completed questionnaires and a laboratory assessment of executive function.

RESULTS

Consistent with hypotheses, harsh parenting was linked with child conduct problems only among mothers with poorer executive function. This effect was particularly strong in calm, predictable environments, but was not evident in chaotic environments.

CONCLUSION

Maternal executive function is critical to minimizing harsh parenting in the context of challenging child behavior, but this self-regulation process may not operate well in chaotic environments.

Aggravating conditions: cynical hostility and neighborhood ambient stressors

This study is the first to investigate neighborhood clustering of a personality trait--cynical hostility (a sense of mistrust of others amplified by suspicious antagonism.) Cynical hostility increases physiological reactivity by influencing appraisal and coping when stressful events occur and that has been well established as a predictor of cardiovascular disease, inflammation, and all-cause mortality. The analysis examines the associations of a variety of neighborhood physical and social conditions (especially ambient stressors) with individual cynical hostility, controlling for individual sociodemographics. Data are from the Chicago Community Adult Health Survey, a clustered population-based study of 3105 adults. Variation by neighborhood in cynical hostility is larger than variation of other selected health outcomes, which are commonly studied using ecological methods or for other personality measures. Controlling for neighborhood context reduces the black/white cynical hostility disparity by one-third. A measure of neighborhood ambient stressors (notably noise) significantly predicts cynical hostility, even after individual characteristics are controlled, and the effect size is larger than for other contextual predictors. Health-related psychosocial and personality traits may both cluster in and be influenced by contemporaneous neighborhoods rather than mere exogenous results of genes or early life conditions. Health-relevant psychosocial characteristics may also mediate effects of neighborhood deleterious physical conditions, thereby influencing downstream health outcomes and social disparities therein. Because residential location and neighborhood physical conditions are both modifiable, research on how ambient stressors influence health psychology may be particularly fruitful for health policy and practice.

Examining nocturnal railway noise and aircraft noise in the field: sleep, psychomotor performance, and annoyance

BACKGROUND

Traffic noise is interfering during day- and nighttime causing distress and adverse physiological reactions in large parts of the population. Railway noise proved less annoying than aircraft noise in surveys which were the bases for a so called 5 dB railway bonus regarding noise protection in many European countries.

OBJECTIVES

The present field study investigated railway noise-induced awakenings during sleep, nighttime annoyance and the impact on performance the following day. Comparing these results with those from a field study on aircraft noise allowed for a ranking of traffic modes concerning physiological and psychological reactions.

METHODS

33 participants (mean age 36.2 years ± 10.3 (SD); 22 females) living alongside railway tracks around Cologne/Bonn (Germany) were polysomnographically investigated. These data were pooled with data from a field study on aircraft noise (61 subjects) directly comparing the effects of railway and aircraft noise in one random subject effects logistic regression model. Annoyance was rated in the morning evaluating the previous night.

RESULTS

Probability of sleep stage changes to wake/S1 from railway noise increased significantly from 6.5% at 35 dB(A) to 20.5% at 80 dB(A) LAFmax. Rise time of noise events had a significant impact on awakening probability. Nocturnal railway noise led to significantly higher awakening probabilities than aircraft noise, partly explained by the different rise times, whereas the order was inversed for annoyance. Freight train noise compared to passenger train noise proved to have the most impact on awakening probability. Nocturnal railway noise had no effect on psychomotor vigilance.

CONCLUSIONS

Nocturnal freight train noise exposure in Germany was associated with increased awakening probabilities exceeding those for aircraft noise and contrasting the findings of many annoyance surveys and annoyance ratings of our study. During nighttime a bonus for railway noise seems not appropriate.

Neurobehavioral effects of exposure to traffic-related air pollution and transportation noise in primary schoolchildren

BACKGROUND

Children living close to roads are exposed to both traffic noise and traffic-related air pollution. There are indications that both exposures affect cognitive functioning. So far, the effects of both exposures have only been investigated separately.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the relationship between air pollution and transportation noise on the cognitive performance of primary schoolchildren in both the home and school setting.

METHODS

Data acquired within RANCH from 553 children (aged 9-11 years) from 24 primary schools were analysed using multilevel modelling with adjustment for a range of socio-economic and life-style factors.

RESULTS

Exposure to NO(2) (which is in urban areas an indicator for traffic-related air pollution) at school was statistically significantly associated with a decrease in the memory span length measured during DMST (χ(2)=6.8, df=1, p=0.01). This remained after additional adjustment for transportation noise. Statistically significant associations were observed between road and air traffic noise exposure at school and the number of errors made during the 'arrow' (χ(2)=7.5, df=1, p=0.006) and 'switch' (χ(2)=4.8, df=1, p=0.028) conditions of the SAT. This remained after adjustment for NO(2). No effects of air pollution exposure or transportation noise exposure at home were observed. Combined exposure of air pollution and road traffic noise had a significant effect on the reaction times measured during the SRTT and the 'block' and the 'arrow' conditions of the SAT.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provide some support that prolonged exposure to traffic-related air pollution as well as to noise adversely affects cognitive functioning.

The role of annoyance in the relation between transportation noise and children's health and cognition

On the basis of this study it cannot be ruled out that the appraisal of the noise affects the association between air and road traffic noise exposure and children's health and cognition. However, the conclusion is limited due to the relatively small group of annoyed children, which may have influenced our group comparisons. Furthermore, the observed relation between annoyance and perceived health is possibly biased due to the fact that both were measured within the same questionnaire. These are the main conclusions of a cross-sectional multi-center study carried out among 2,844 schoolchildren (age 9-11 years) attending 89 primary schools around three European airports. The aim was to investigate how annoyance affects the relation between air and road traffic noise exposure and children's health and cognition. Different, sometimes competing, working mechanisms of how noise affects children's health are suggested. Some effects are supposed to be precipitated through (chronic) stress, while others may arise directly. There is still no theory that can adequately account for the circumstances in which noise will affect cognitive performance.

Associations between chronic community noise exposure and blood pressure at rest and during acute noise and non-noise stressors among urban school children in India

The present study builds on prior research that has examined the association between children's chronic exposure to community noise and resting blood pressure and blood pressure dysregulation during exposure to acute stressors. A novel contribution of the study is that it examines how chronic noise exposure relates to blood pressure responses during exposure to both noise and non-noise acute stressors. The acute noise stressor was recorded street noise and the non-noise stressor was mental arithmetic. The sample consisted of 189 3rd and 6th grade children (51.9% percent boys; 52.9% 3rd graders) from a noisy (n = 95) or relatively quiet (n = 94) public school in the city of Pune, India. There were no statistically significant differences between chronic noise levels and resting blood pressure levels. However, relative to quiet-school children, noisy-school children had significantly lower increases in blood pressure when exposed to either an acute noise or non-noise stressor. This finding suggests that chronic noise exposure may result in hypo-reactivity to a variety of stressors and not just habituation to noise stressors.