Impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy on blood pressure in HIV-infected patients. A prospective study in a cohort of naive patients

Why is there a gap in self-rated health among people with hypertension in Zambia? A decomposition of determinants and rural‒urban differences

BACKGROUND

Hypertension affects over one billion people globally and is one of the leading causes of premature death. Low- and middle-income countries, especially the sub-Saharan Africa region, bear a disproportionately higher share of hypertension globally. Recent evidence shows a steady shift in the burden of hypertension from more affluent and urban populations towards poorer and rural communities. Our study examined inequalities in self-rated health (SRH) among people with hypertension and whether there is a rural‒urban gap in the health of these patients. We then quantified factors driving the health gap. We also examined how much HIV accounts for differences in self-rated health among hypertension patients due to the relationship between HIV, hypertension and health in sub-Saharan Africa.

METHODS

We utilized the Zambia Household Health Expenditure and Utilization Survey for data on SRH and other demographic and socioeconomic controls. District HIV prevalence information was from the Zambia Population-Based HIV Impact Assessment (ZAMPHIA) survey. We applied the Linear Probability Model to assess the association between self-rated health and independent variables as a preliminary step. We then used the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition to identify self-rated health inequality between urban and rural patients and determine determinants of the health gap between the two groups.

RESULTS

Advanced age, lower education and low district HIV prevalence were significantly associated with poor health rating among hypertension patients. The decomposition analysis indicated that 45.5% of urban patients and 36.9% of rural patients reported good self-rated health, representing a statistically significant health gap of 8.6%. Most of the identified health gap can be attributed to endowment effects, with education (73.6%), district HIV prevalence (30.8%) and household expenditure (4.8%) being the most important determinants that explain the health gap.

CONCLUSIONS

Urban hypertension patients have better SRH than rural patients in Zambia. Education, district HIV prevalence and household expenditure were the most important determinants of the health gap between rural and urban hypertension patients. Policies aimed at promoting educational interventions, improving access to financial resources and strengthening hypertension health services, especially in rural areas, can significantly improve the health of rural patients, and potentially reduce health inequalities between the two regions.

Characterizing blood pressure trajectories in people living with HIV following antiretroviral therapy: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

The advent of antiretroviral therapy (ART) has reduced AIDS-related morbidity and mortality among people living with HIV (PLWH). Due to increased survival, PLWH have now been found to be at risk of chronic conditions related to ageing, such as cardiovascular disease (CVD). Hypertension is common in PLWH and is a major risk factor for the development of CVD. We conducted a systematic literature review to evaluate the research evidence on longitudinal blood pressure (BP) trajectories following ART initiation in PLWH.

METHODS

We searched the following databases: PubMed, CINHAL, Scopus, and Web of Science (up to 15 March 2021) for peer-reviewed published studies that reported BP trajectories following ART initiation in PLWH. Three reviewers independently screened all studies by title and abstract. We included articles in English, published up to March 2021, that report office BP trajectories in PLWH initiating ART. A total of 10 publications met our inclusion criteria. Eight studies were prospective cohorts and two were retrospective.

RESULTS

Nine out of 10 studies in the literature reported an increase in systolic BP (4.7-10.0 mmHg in studies with a follow-up range of 6 months to 8 years, and 3.0-4.7 mmHg/year in time-averaged studies). In addition, four out of 10 studies reported increases in diastolic BP (2.3-8.0 mmHg for a 6 month to 6.8-year follow-up range and 2.3 mmHg/year).

CONCLUSION

Systolic BP consistently increases while diastolic BP changes are more heterogeneous following ART initiation in PLWH. However, the studies were highly variable with respect to population demographics, ART regimen and duration, and follow-up time. Nevertheless, given the risks of CVD complications, such as stroke, heart failure and myocardial infarction, associated with elevated BP, results highlight the importance of future research in this area. It will be important to better characterize BP trajectories over time, identify the most critical times for interventions to reduce BP, determine the long-term CVD consequences in PLWH with elevated BP, and understand how different ART regimens may or may not influence BP and CVD disease.

Incidence of Hypertension and Blood Pressure Changes in Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus at High Risk for Cardiovascular Disease Switching From Boosted Protease Inhibitors to Dolutegravir: A Post-hoc Analysis of the 96-week Randomised NEAT-022 Trial

BACKGROUND

Integrase inhibitors have been recently linked to a higher risk for hypertension. In NEAT022 randomized trial, virologically suppressed persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV, PWH) with high cardiovascular risk switched from protease inhibitors to dolutegravir either immediately (DTG-I) or after 48 weeks (DTG-D).

METHODS

Primary endpoint was incident hypertension at 48 weeks. Secondary endpoints were changes in systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure; adverse events and discontinuations associated with high blood pressure; and factors associated with incident hypertension.

RESULTS

At baseline, 191 (46.4%) participants had hypertension and 24 persons without hypertension were receiving antihypertensive medications for other reasons. In the 197 PWH (n = 98, DTG-I arm; n = 99, DTG-D arm) without hypertension or antihypertensive agents at baseline, incidence rates per 100 person-years were 40.3 and 36.3 (DTG-I) and 34.7 and 52.0 (DTG-D) at 48 (P = .5755) and 96 (P = .2347) weeks. SBP or DBP changes did not differed between arms. DBP (mean, 95% confidence interval) significantly increased in both DTG-I (+2.78 mmHg [1.07-4.50], P = .0016) and DTG-D (+2.29 mmHg [0.35-4.23], P = .0211) arms in the first 48 weeks of exposure to dolutegravir. Four (3 under dolutegravir, 1 under protease inhibitors) participants discontinued study drugs due to adverse events associated with high blood pressure. Classical factors, but not treatment arm, were independently associated with incident hypertension.

CONCLUSIONS

PWH at high risk for cardiovascular disease showed high rates of hypertension at baseline and after 96 weeks. Switching to dolutegravir did not negatively impact on the incidence of hypertension or blood pressure changes relative to continuing protease inhibitors.

Why is there a gap in self-rated health among people with hypertension? A decomposition of determinants and rural-urban differences

Background

Hypertension affects over one billion people globally and is one of the leading causes of premature death. The low- and middle-income countries, especially the sub-Saharan Africa region, bear a disproportionately higher share of hypertension globally. Recent evidence shows a steady shift in the burden of hypertension from the more affluent and urban population towards the poorer and rural communities. Our study examined inequalities in self-rated health among people with hypertension and whether there is a rural-urban gap in the health of these patients. We then quantified factors driving the health gap. We also examined how much HIV accounts for differences in self-rated health among hypertension patients due to the relationship between HIV, hypertension and health in sub-Saharan Africa.

Methods

We utilized the Zambia Household Health Expenditure and Utilization Survey for the data on SRH and other demographic and socioeconomic controls. District HIV prevalence information was from a previous study. The linear probability model provided a preliminary assessment of the association between self-rated health and independent variables. We then used the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition to identify self-rated health inequality between urban and rural patients and determine determinants of the health gap between the two groups.

Results

Advanced age, lower education and low district HIV prevalence were significantly associated with poor health rating among hypertension patients. The decomposition analysis indicated that 45.5% of urban patients and 36.9% of rural patients reported good self-rated health, representing a statistically significant health gap of 8.6%. Most of the identified health gap can be attributed to endowment effects, with education (62%), district HIV prevalence (26%) and household expenditure (12%) being the most important determinants that explain the health gap.

Conclusions

Urban hypertension patients have better SRH than rural patients in Zambia. Educational interventions, financial protection schemes and strengthening hypertension health services in rural areas can significantly reduce the health gap between the two regions.

Echocardiography Assessment of Cardiac Function in Adults Living with HIV: A Speckle Tracking Study in the Era of Antiretroviral Therapy

Adults living with HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) infection (ALHIV) have high rates of cardiovascular events. New approaches are needed to detect subclinical cardiac dysfunction. We used conventional and speckle tracking echocardiography to investigate whether ALHIV display latent cardiac dysfunction. We analyzed 85 young subjects with HIV infection and free from cardiovascular risk factors (31 ± 4 years) and 80 matched healthy volunteers. We measured left ventricular (LV) layered global longitudinal strain, circumferential strain, peak longitudinal strain in the reservoir and contraction phases of the left atrium (LASr respectively LASct). In the HIV group, LV ejection fraction and s’ TDI (tissue doppler imaging) were slightly lower but still in the normal ranges. Layered longitudinal strain showed no significant difference, whereas circumferential global strain was significantly lower in the HIV group (−20.3 ± 3.9 vs. −22.3 ± 3.0, p < 0.001). LASr (34.3% ± 7.3% vs. 38.0% ± 6.9%, p < 0.001) was also lower in ALHIV and multivariate analysis showed that age (β = −0.737, p = 0.01) and infection duration (β = −0.221, p = 0.02) were independently associated with LASr. In the absence of cardiovascular risk factors, adults living with HIV display normal LV systolic function. Left atrial reservoir strain, is, however, decreased and suggests early diastolic dysfunction.

The magnitude of undiagnosed hypertension and associated factors among HIV-positive patients attending antiretroviral therapy clinics of Butajira General Hospital, Gurage Zone, Southern Ethiopia

Objectives:

The study aimed to assess the magnitude of undiagnosed hypertension, and its associated factors among adult HIV-positive patients receiving antiretroviral therapy at Butajira General Hospital, southern Ethiopia.

Methods:

We applied an institutional-based cross-sectional study design at Butajira General Hospital from 1 May to 1 July 2021. We used a systematic random sampling technique to select the total number of participants. A structured interviewer-administered questionnaire was applied to collect the data (sociodemographic characteristics, clinical-related factors, and lifestyle-related factors from the study participants. Data were entered using Epi-data version 3.1 and analyzed by statistical package for social science version 25. We applied a multivariable logistic regression analysis model to identify variables significantly associated with hypertension.

Results:

The study comprised 388 participants with 39 years (10.6 SD) as the mean age of the participants. Of the total participants, 235 (60.6%) were female. In this study the magnitude of undiagnosed hypertension among HIV-positive patients was 18.8% (95% CI: 14.7%–23.2%). Having comorbidity of diabetes mellitus (adjusted odds ratio = 5.29, 95% CI: 2.154, 12.99), habit of alcohol drinking (adjusted odds ratio = 2.909, 95% CI: 1.306, 6.481), duration of antiretroviral therapy ⩾ 5 years (adjusted odds ratio = 3.087, 95% CI: 1.558, 6.115), and age ⩾ 40 years (adjusted odds ratio = 2.642, 95% CI: 1.450, 4.813) were factors significantly associated with undiagnosed hypertension.

Conclusions and recommendations:

The magnitude of undiagnosed hypertension among HIV-positive patients attending the antiretroviral therapy clinic of Butajira General Hospital is high. The findings of this study implied that HIV-positive patients attending antiretroviral therapy clinics should be monitored routinely for hypertension; especially participants aged ⩾40 years, highly active antiretroviral therapy duration ⩾5 years, having diabetes mellitus comorbidity need more attention. Primary healthcare integration is also vital to enhance the health of HIV-positive patients on antiretroviral therapy.

Research priorities for accelerating the achievement of three 95 HIV goals in Cameroon: a consensus statement from the Cameroon HIV Research Forum (CAM-HERO)

INTRODUCTION

the Treat-All remains the globally endorsed approach to attain the 95-95-95 targets and end the AIDS pandemic by 2030, but requires some country-level contextualization. In Cameroon, the specific research agenda to inform strategies for improving HIV policy was yet to be defined.

METHODS

under the patronage of the Cameroon Ministry of health, researchers, policy makers, implementing partners, and clinicians from 13 institutions, used the Delphi method to arrive at a consensus of HIV research priorities. The process had five steps: 1) independent literature scan by 5 working groups; 2) review of the initial priority list; 3) appraisal of priorities list in a larger group; 4) refinement and consolidation by a consensus group; 5) rating of top research priorities.

RESULTS

five research priorities and corresponding research approaches, resulted from the process. These include: 1) effectiveness, safety and active toxicity monitoring of new and old antiretrovirals; 2) outcomes of Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) with focus in children and adolescents; 3) impact of HIV and ART on aging and major chronic diseases; 4) ART dispensation models and impact on adherence and retention; 5) evaluations of HIV treatment and prevention programs.

CONCLUSION

the research priorities resulted from a consensus amongst a multidisciplinary team and were based on current data about the pandemic and science to prevent, treat, and ultimately cure HIV. These priorities highlighted critical areas of investigation with potential relevance for the country, funders, and regulatory bodies.

The magnitude of hypertension and associated factors among clients on highly active antiretroviral treatment in Southern Ethiopia, 2020: A hospital-based cross-sectional study

INTRODUCTION

Following the introduction of Highly Active Anti Retro Viral Treatment (HAART), the survival of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHIV) has improved. However, hypertension remains a major challenge for people living with HIV. Very little effort has been made to examine the magnitude of hypertension and its contributing factors among clients receiving HAART, particularly in southern Ethiopia. Hence, the current study aimed at determining the frequency of Hypertension and associated factors among clients receiving HAART at Wachemo University Nigist Eleni Mohammed Memorial Referral Hospital, southern Ethiopia, 2020.

METHODS

A hospital-based cross-sectional study took place from January 20- March 20, 2020. A systematic sampling technique was employed in the selection of 397 clients. Interviewer administered pretested structured questionnaire was used for data collection. Blood pressure and anthropometric parameters of PLHIV were measured. The data was encoded and entered using Epi Data Version 3.1 and exported to SPSS version 23 for analysis. Then bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify associated factors. Adjusted Odds Ratio (AOR) with 95% CI was used to present the estimated effect size and declare the presence of statistically significant association respectively.

RESULTS

The magnitude of hypertension among clients on HAART was 11.0% 95% CI [7.93, 14.04]. Being on HAART for at least 60 months (AOR: 2.57, 95% CI: 1.24-5.21), being on TDF/3TC/EFV combination (AOR: 4.61, 95% CI: 2.52-8.3), and high alcohol consumption (AOR: 4.31, 95% CI: 1.84-10.02) were identified as significant predictors of hypertension among clients on HAART.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

The magnitude of hypertension in the study area was in a considerable state to plan and implement intervention measures. For those clients who have received TDF/3TC/EFV and TDF/3TC/NVP and those who have been on HAART for 60 months, a strong emphasis should be placed on planning a strict follow-up. A concerted effort among health care providers is needed through counseling and education to discourage the habit of high alcohol consumption among clients.

Prevalence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension amongst the HIV-positive population at a district hospital in eThekwini, South Africa

Background

Life expectancies of HIV-positive patients have been increasing with the rapid implementation of antiretroviral therapy (ART). This has led to an increase in comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension (HT) amongst the HIV population. The burden of the non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as DM and HT need to be quantified in order to ensure that patients receive optimal integrated care as patients often access care at different clinics compromising holistic care.

Aim

The aim of the study was to determine the prevalence of DM and HT amongst the HIV-positive population.

Setting

The study was conducted at Wentworth Hospital, a district facility in South Durban, KwaZulu-Natal.

Methods

This cross-sectional study was undertaken to determine the prevalence of two NCDs, namely DM and HT in HIV-positive patients attending the ART clinic at a district hospital in the eThekwini district. We compared the socio-demographic and clinical profiles of those with and without comorbidities. A sample of 301 HIV-positive patients were administered a structured questionnaire.

Results

Of the 301 patients, 230 (76.41%) had HIV only (95% confidence interval [CI]: 71.25–80.89) and 71 (23.59%) had HIV and at least one comorbidity, namely DM and/or HT (95% CI: 19.11-28.75). Hypertension was the most prevalent comorbidity. This study revealed that there was no association between the duration of ART and comorbidities. Older age and body mass index (BMI) were associated with comorbidities, whilst gender and ethnicity were not associated.

Conclusion

Non-communicable diseases such as DM and HT do pose a burden for HIV-positive patients attending the ARV clinic at this district facility. This study highlights the definite need to plan for the increased burden of NCDs as HIV-positive patients live longer and gain weight.

Incidence and Predictors of Hypertension Among HIV Patients Receiving ART at Public Health Facilities, Northwest Ethiopia: A One-Year Multicenter Prospective Follow-Up Study

Background

The introduction of highly active retroviral therapy has dramatically reduced mortality and improved survival among HIV patients. However, there is a possible risk of comorbid complications such as hypertension. Little evidence is available regarding the incidence of hypertension among HIV patients receiving anti-retroviral therapy in Ethiopia.

Purpose

To assess the incidence and predictors of hypertension among HIV positive patients receiving ART at Public Health Facilities, Northwest Ethiopia.

Patients and Methods

A one-year prospective follow-up study was conducted among a cohort of 302 new adult individuals initiating on a standard anti-retroviral therapy regimen with a median (IQR) age of 35 years (IQR=30-41). A pretested data extraction checklist was used to extract baseline patient records. The collected data were entered into Epi-Data version 3.1 and exported to STATA version 14 for analysis. The incidence rate was calculated, and a Kaplan-Meier survival curve was used to estimate the survival probabilities of developing hypertension. Cox proportional hazards model was fitted to identify the predictors of hypertension.

Results

About 40 (13.25) new hypertensive cases were observed during the follow-up period, and the remaining 262 (86.75%) were censored. The overall incidence rate of hypertension was 16.35 per 1000 person-month with 2447 patient-month observations. Male sex (AHR = 2.45, 95% CI: 1.02, 6.14), old age (AHR = 2.83, 95% CI: 1.08, 7.45), high BMI (AHR = 6.54, 95% CI: 2.03, 21.13), diabetic comorbidity (AHR = 2.36, 95% CI: 1.07, 5.22), and patients who were on Zidovudine (AZT)-based ART regimen (AHR =3.47, 95% CI: 1.10, 10.94) were significant predictors for the development of hypertension.

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that incident hypertension is a common problem among HIV patients receiving ART. Routine monitoring of blood pressure and screening and treating high blood pressure should be an integral part of follow-up for HIV patients in ART clinics.

Association of HIV Infection and Antiretroviral Therapy With Arterial Stiffness: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

[Figure: see text].

Stroke and HIV-associated neurological complications: A retrospective nationwide study

There is an increased risk of stroke and other neurological complications in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients with no large population-based studies in the literature. We aim to evaluate the prevalence of stroke, HIV-associated neurological complications, and identify risk factors associated with poor outcomes of stroke among HIV admissions in the United States. In the nationwide inpatient sample with adult HIV hospitalizations, patients with primary cerebrovascular disease (CeVDs) and HIV-associated neurological complications were identified by ICD-9-CM codes. We performed a retrospective study with weighted analysis to evaluate the prevalence of stroke and neurological complications and outcomes of stroke among HIV patients. We included 1,559,351 HIV admissions from 2003 to 2014, of which 22470 (1.4%) patients had CeVDs (transient ischemic attack [TIA]: 3240 [0.2%], acute ischemic stroke [AIS]: 14895 [0.93%], and hemorrhagic stroke [HS]: 4334 [0.27%]), 7781 (0.49%) had neurosyphilis, 29,925 (1.87%) meningitis, 39,190 (2.45%) cytomegalovirus encephalitis, 4699 (0.29%) toxoplasmosis, 9964 (0.62%) progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, and 142,910 (8.94%) epilepsy. There is increased overall prevalence trend for CeVDs (TIA: 0.17%-0.24%; AIS: 0.62%-1.29%; HS: 0.26%-0.31%; pTrend < .0001) from 2003 to 2014. Among HIV admissions, variables associated with AIS were neurosyphilis (odds ratio: 4.38; 95% confidence interval: 3.21-5.97), meningitis (4.87 [4.10-5.79]), and central nervous system tuberculosis (6.72 [3.85-11.71]). Toxoplasmosis [4.27 [2.34-7.76]), meningitis (2.91 [2.09-4.06)], and cytomegalovirus encephalitis (1.62 [1.11-2.37]) were associated with higher odds of HS compared to patients without HS. There was an increasing trend of CeVDs over time among HIV hospitalizations. HIV-associated neurological complications were associated with the risk of stroke, together with increased mortality, morbidity, disability, and discharge to long-term care facilities. Further research would clarify stroke risk factors in HIV patients to mitigate adverse outcomes.

Beneficial and Adverse Effects of cART Affect Neurocognitive Function in HIV-1 Infection: Balancing Viral Suppression against Neuronal Stress and Injury

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) persist despite the successful introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). While insufficient concentration of certain antiretrovirals (ARV) may lead to incomplete viral suppression in the brain, many ARVs are found to cause neuropsychiatric adverse effects, indicating their penetration into the central nervous system (CNS). Several lines of evidence suggest shared critical roles of oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stress, compromised neuronal energy homeostasis, and autophagy in the promotion of neuronal dysfunction associated with both HIV-1 infection and long-term cART or ARV use. As the lifespans of HIV patients are increased, unique challenges have surfaced. Longer lives convey prolonged exposure of the CNS to viral toxins, neurotoxic ARVs, polypharmacy with prescribed or illicit drug use, and age-related diseases. All of these factors can contribute to increased risks for the development of neuropsychiatric conditions and cognitive impairment, which can significantly impact patient well-being, cART adherence, and overall health outcome. Strategies to increase the penetration of cART into the brain to lower viral toxicity may detrimentally increase ARV neurotoxicity and neuropsychiatric adverse effects. As clinicians attempt to control peripheral viremia in an aging population of HIV-infected patients, they must navigate an increasingly complex myriad of comorbidities, pharmacogenetics, drug-drug interactions, and psychiatric and cognitive dysfunction. Here we review in comparison to the neuropathological effects of HIV-1 the available information on neuropsychiatric adverse effects and neurotoxicity of clinically used ARV and cART. It appears altogether that future cART aiming at controlling HIV-1 in the CNS and preventing HAND will require an intricate balancing act of suppressing viral replication while minimizing neurotoxicity, impairment of neurocognition, and neuropsychiatric adverse effects. Graphical abstract Schematic summary of the effects exerted on the brain and neurocognitive function by HIV-1 infection, comorbidities, psychostimulatory, illicit drugs, therapeutic drugs, such as antiretrovirals, the resulting polypharmacy and aging, as well as the potential interactions of all these factors.

Predictors of glucose metabolism and blood pressure among Ethiopian individuals with HIV/AIDS after one-year of antiretroviral therapy

OBJECTIVE

Better understanding of glucose metabolism in patients with HIV after initiating antiretroviral therapy (ART) is important to target treatment and follow-up for diabetes risk and other non-communicable diseases in resource-limited settings. The aim of this study was to assess the changes and predictors of glucose metabolism and blood pressure among patients with HIV on ART for 12 months.

METHODS

One-year follow-up of Ethiopian patients with HIV after initiation of ART was done. Outcomes were changes in fasting plasma glucose (FPG), and 30-minute (30mPG) and 2-hour plasma glucose (2hPG) after oral glucose tolerance test, glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting plasma insulin (p-insulin), homeostatic model assessment index for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and blood pressure.   RESULTS: The mean age was 33 years, and the majority were women. During the first 12 months, levels of all plasma glucose parameters decreased, while p-insulin (10^B 3.1; 95% CI2.4, 4.0), HOMA-IR (10^B 3.1; 95% CI2.3, 4.0) and systolic blood pressure (B 4.0; 95% CI2.5, 5.5) increased. Fat-free mass at baseline predicted higher increments in p-insulin, HOMA-IR and blood pressure; whereas, fat mass predicted higher increment in HbA1c.

CONCLUSIONS

Among Ethiopian patients with HIV, blood pressure and insulin increased, and all glucose parameters declined during 12-month of ART. Only longer-term follow-up will tell us whether insulin increase is due to insulin resistance or from recovering β-cells.

High Prevalence of AH in HIV Patients on ART, in Bahia, Brazil

INTRODUCTION

The prevalence of arterial hypertension (AH) in HIV-patients is highly variable and its association with antiretroviral therapy (ART) is controversial.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the prevalence of AH and associated factors in HIV-patients on ART.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted in HIV-patients attended in a referral center in Salvador, Brazil. We evaluated clinical, socio-demographic and anthropometric data. Student's ttests or Mann-Whitney's and Pearson's chi-square tests were used to compare the groups. Values of p <0.05 were considered significant. The variables that presented a value of p <0.20 were included in a logistic regression model.

RESULTS

We evaluated 196 patients (60.7% male) with a mean age of 46.8 ± 11.7 years and a mean body mass index of 24.9 ± 5.3 kg / m2. The median elapsed time since HIV diagnosis and ART use was 11.8 (4.4 - 18.1) and 7.2 (2.7 - 15.3) years, respectively. The prevalence of AH was 41.8%. For individuals > 50 years old, there was a significant association between the increased abdominal circumference and AH and patients ≤ 50 years old presented significant association between AH and overweight, increased abdominal circumference and number of previous ART regimens. After multivariate analysis, age [OR:1.085; 95% CI 1,039 - 1,133], overweight [OR: 4.205; 95% CI 1,841 - 9,606], family history of AH [OR: 2.938; 95% CI 1,253 - 6.885], increased abdominal circumference [OR: 2.774; 95% CI 1.116 - 6.897] and life-time number of ART regimens used [OR: 3.842; 95% CI 1.307 - 11.299] remained associated with AH.

CONCLUSION

AH was highly prevalent and was associated not only with classical risk factors for arterial hypertension, but also with specific ART regimens.

The importance of bone marrow and the immune system in driving increases in blood pressure and sympathetic nerve activity in hypertension

NEW FINDINGS

What is the topic of this review? This manuscript provides a review of the current understanding of the role of the sympathetic nervous system in regulation of bone marrow-derived immune cells and the effect that the infiltrating bone marrow cells may have on perpetuation of the sympathetic over-activation in hypertension. What advances does it highlight? We highlight the recent advances in understanding of the neuroimmune interactions both peripherally and centrally as they relate to blood pressure control.

ABSTRACT

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) plays a crucial role in maintaining physiological homeostasis, in part by regulating, integrating and orchestrating processes between many physiological systems, including the immune system. Sympathetic nerves innervate all primary and secondary immune organs, and all cells of the immune system express β-adrenoreceptors. In turn, immune cells can produce cytokines, chemokines and neurotransmitters capable of modulating neuronal activity and, ultimately, SNS activity. Thus, the essential role of the SNS in the regulation of innate and adaptive immune functions is mediated, in part, via β-adrenoreceptor-induced activation of bone marrow cells by noradrenaline. Interestingly, both central and systemic inflammation are well-established hallmarks of hypertension and its co-morbidities, including an inflammatory process involving the transmigration and infiltration of immune cells into tissues. We propose that physiological states that prolong β-adrenoreceptor activation in bone marrow can disrupt neuroimmune homeostasis and impair communication between the immune system and SNS, leading to immune dysregulation, which, in turn, is sustained via a central mechanism involving neuroinflammation.

Comorbidity of HIV, hypertension, and diabetes and associated factors among people receiving antiretroviral therapy in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia

Background:

People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are facing an increased burden of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) comorbidity. There is, however, paucity of information on the magnitude of HIV-NCDs comorbidity, its associated factors, and how the health system is responding to the double burden in Ethiopia.

Objective:

To determine the magnitude of comorbidity between HIV and hypertension or diabetes and associated factors among HIV-positive adults receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Bahir Dar city, Ethiopia.

Methods:

A facility-based cross-sectional study was conducted among 560 randomly selected HIV-positive adults taking ART. Data were collected using a structured questionnaire and analyzed using SPSS version 23. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the data. A logistic regression model was fit to identify associated factors with comorbidity of HIV and NCDs.

Results:

The magnitude of comorbidity was 19.6% (95% confidence interval (CI): 16.0–23.0). Being older (55 and above years) adjusted odds ratio (AOR: 8.5; 95% CI: 3.2–15.1), taking second-line ART regimen containing tenofovir (AOR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.3–5.6), and increased body mass index (BMI) ≥25 (AOR: 2.7; 95% CI: 1.2–6.5) were the factors associated with comorbidity. Participants reported that they were not managed in an integrated and coordinated manner.

Conclusions:

The magnitude of comorbidity among adults was high in the study area. Being older, second-line ART regimen and high BMI ≥25 increased the odds of having NCDs among HIV-positive adults. Targeted screening for the incidences of NCDs, addressing modifiable risk factors, and providing integrated care would help to improve the quality of life comorbid patients.

Trends and Adaptive Optimal Set Points of CD4+ Count Clinical Covariates at Each Phase of the HIV Disease Progression

In response to invasion by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the self-regulatory immune system attempts to restore the CD4+ count fluctuations. Consequently, many clinical covariates are bound to adapt too, but little is known about their corresponding new optimal set points. It has been reported that there exist few strongest clinical covariates of the CD4+ count. The objective of this study is to harness them for a streamlined application of multidimensional viewing lens (statistical models) to zoom into the behavioural patterns of the adaptive optimal set points. We further postulated that the optimal set points of some of the strongest covariates are possibly controlled by dietary conditions or otherwise to enhance the CD4+ count. This study investigated post-HIV infection (acute to therapy phases) records of 237 patients involving repeated measurements of 17 CD4+ count clinical covariates that were found to be the strongest. The overall trends showed either downwards, upwards, or irregular behaviour. Phase-specific trends were mostly different and unimaginable, with LDH and red blood cells producing the most complex CD4+ count behaviour. The approximate optimal set points for dietary-related covariates were total protein 60-100 g/L (acute phase), <85 g/L (early phase), <75 g/L (established phase), and >85 g/L (ART phase), whilst albumin approx. 30-50 g/L (acute), >45 g/L (early and established), and <37 g/L (ART). Sodium was desirable at approx. <45 mEq/L (acute and early), <132 mEq/L (established), and >134 mEq/L (ART). Overall, desirable approximates were albumin >42 g/L, total protein <75 g/L, and sodium <137 mEq/L. We conclude that the optimal set points of the strongest CD4+ count clinical covariates tended to drift and adapt to either new ranges or overlapped with the known reference ranges to positively influence the CD4+ cell counts. Recommendation for phase-specific CD4+ cell count influence in adaptation to HIV invasion includes monitoring of the strongest covariates related to dietary conditions (sodium, albumin, and total protein), tissue oxygenation (red blood cells and its haematocrit), and hormonal control (LDH and ALP).

Prevalence of hypertension and cardiovascular risk factors among long-term AIDS survivors: A report from the field

HIV infection is associated with increased risk and progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD), yet little is known about the prevalence of CVD risk factors among long-term AIDS survivors in resource-limited settings. Using routinely collected data, we conducted a retrospective study to describe the prevalence of CVD risk factors among a cohort of HIV-infected patients followed for over 10 years in Port-au Prince, Haiti. This cohort includes 910 adults who initiated antiretroviral therapy (ART) between 2003 and 2004 and remained in care between 2014 and 2016 when routine screening for CVD risk factors was implemented at a large clinic in Haiti. A total of 397 remained in care ≥10 years and received screening. At ART initiation, 59% were female, median age was 38 years (IQR 33-44), and median CD4 count was 117 cells/mm3 (IQR 34-201). Median follow-up time from ART initiation was 12.1 years (IQR 11.7-12.7). At screening, median CD4 count was 574 cells/mm3 (IQR 378-771), and 84% (282 of 336 screened) had HIV-1 RNA < 1000 copies/mL. Seventy-four percent of patients had at least 1 risk factor including 58% (224/385) with hypertension, 8% (24/297) diabetes, 43% (119/275) hypercholesterolemia, 8% (20/248) active smoking, and 10% (25/245) obesity. Factors associated with hypertension were age (adjusted OR 1.06, P < .001) and weight at screening (adjusted OR 1.02, P = .019). Long-term AIDS survivors have a high prevalence of CVD risk factors, primarily hypertension. Integration of cardiovascular screening and management into routine HIV care is needed to maximize health outcomes among aging HIV patients in resource-limited settings.

HIV, immune activation and salt-sensitive hypertension (HISH): a research proposal

Objective

The objective of this study is to quantify and compare the effect of excess dietary salt on immune cell activation and blood pressure in HIV versus HIV negative individuals.

Results

Salt-sensitivity is associated with increased immune cell activation in animal studies. This concept has not been tested in people living with HIV. This study will therefore add more information in elucidating the interaction between HIV infection and/or anti-retroviral therapy (ART), immune-activation/inflammation and hypertension.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13104-019-4470-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association of Gut Intestinal Integrity and Inflammation with Insulin Resistance in Adults Living with HIV in Uganda

We conducted a cross-sectional study of 148 HIV+ on HIV antiretroviral therapy and 149 HIV- adults in Mbarara, Uganda, to estimate the association between HIV infection and homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) using multivariable regression analysis. In addition, we evaluated whether intestinal fatty acid-binding protein (I-FABP), monocyte activation markers soluble (s)CD14 and sCD163, and proinflammatory cytokine interleukin 6 (IL-6) mediated this association. HOMA-IR was greater among HIV+ than HIV- adults [median (interquartile range): 1.3 (0.7-2.5) vs. 0.9 (0.5-2.4); p = 0.008]. In models adjusted for sociodemographic variables, diet, hypertension, and smoking history, HIV infection was associated with 37% [95% confidence intervals (95% CIs): 5-77] greater HOMA-IR compared with HIV- participants. The magnitude of association was greater when I-FABP was included as a covariate although the additive effect was modest (40% CI: 8-82). By contrast adding sCD14 to the model was associated with greater HOMA-IR (59%; 95% CI: 21-109) among HIV+ participants compared with HIV- participants. Among HIV+ participants, greater CD4 nadir was non-significantly associated with greater HOMA-IR (22%; 95% CI: -2 to 52). Each 5-unit increase in body mass index (BMI; 49% greater HOMA-IR; 95% CI: 18-87) and female sex (71%; 95% CI: 17-150) remained associated in adjusted models. In this study of mainly normal-weight Ugandan adults, HIV infection, female sex, and greater BMI were all associated with greater insulin resistance (IR). This association was strengthened modestly after adjustment for sCD14, suggesting possible distinct immune pathways to IR that are independent of HIV or related to inflammatory changes occurring on HIV treatment.

Association between highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and hypertension in persons living with HIV/AIDS at the Bamenda regional hospital, Cameroon

Introduction

The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in the treatment of HIV infection has provided different good results: like long-term viral suppression, the decrease of opportunistic infections, and repair of the immune system.

Methods

We carried out a hospital-based cross-sectional analytic study involving 315 participants 228 were on HAART (group 1) and 87 were HAART-naïve (group 2) at the HIV treatment centre of the Bamenda regional hospital with our study population being all people living with HIV (PLWHIV) in the North West region of Cameroon. The sampling was performed from the 15^th of March to the 30^th of June 2017. The questionnaire was administered face to face with participants and their vital signs taken. Blood pressure was measured using an automated electronic blood pressure monitor and hypertension (HTN) was considered as systolic blood pressure (BP) ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥ 90mmHg.

Results

The prevalence of hypertension in the HAART group was 36.44% (n=82, CI: 30.15%-43.10%) compared to that of the HAART-naïve group which was 13.33% (n=12, CI: 7.08%-22.13%, P=0.01). HAART was associated with HTN after controlling for gender, family history of hypertension, body mass index (BMI), smoking and alcohol consumption. The odds ratio of the HAART-treated versus the HAART-naïve was 3.86 (95% CI: 1.98-7.50). We also found an association between TDF/3TC/EFV (OR=2.83), AZT/3TC/NVP (OR=2.82), AZT/3TC+EFV (OR=3.48) and TDF/3TC+NVP (OR=2.36) and HTN whereas those on AZT+3TC+ATV/r (OR=0.84) and TDF+3TC+ATV/r (OR=0.45) were not associated to hypertension.

Conclusion

Our result suggests that blood pressure should be periodically measured and treated when necessary in PLWHIV on HAART.

An Evaluation to Determine the Strongest CD4 Count Covariates during HIV Disease Progression in Women in South Africa

INTRODUCTION

Past endeavours to deal with the obstacle of expensive Cluster of Difference 4 (CD4+) count diagnostics in resource-limited settings have left a long trail of suggested continuous CD4+ count clinical covariates that turned out to be a potentially important integral part of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) treatment process during disease progression. However, an evaluation to determine the strongest candidates among these CD4+ count covariates has not been well documented.

METHODS

The Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA) initially enrolled HIV-negative (phase 1) patients into different study cohorts. The patients who seroconverted (237) during follow-up care were enrolled again into a post-HIV infection cohort where they were further followed up with weekly to fortnightly visits up to 3 months (phase 2: acute infection), monthly visits from 3-12 months (phase 3: early infection) and quarterly visits thereafter (phase 4: established infection) until antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation (phase 5). The CD4+ count and 46 covariates were repeatedly measured at each phase of the HIV disease progression. A multilevel partial least squares approach was applied as a variable reduction technique to determine the strongest CD4+ count covariates.

RESULTS

Only 18 of the 46 investigated clinical attributes were the strongest CD4+ count covariates and the top 8 were positively and independently associated with the CD4+ count. Besides the confirmatory lymphocytes, these were basophils, albumin, haematocrit, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), mean corpuscular volume (MCV), platelets, potassium and monocytes. Overall, electrolytes, proteins and red blood cells were the dominant categories for the strongest covariates.

CONCLUSION

Only a few of the many previously suggested continuous CD4+ count clinical covariates showed the potential to become an important integral part of the treatment process. Prolonging the pre-treatment period of the HIV disease progression by effectively incorporating and managing the covariates for long-term influence on the CD4+ cell response has the potential to delay challenges associated with ART side effects.

Covariate random effects on the CD4 count variation during HIV disease progression in women

Purpose: To investigate the variation in CD4 count between HIV positive patients due to clinical covariates at each phase of the HIV disease progression. Patients and methods: The Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA) conducted different studies in which female patients were initially enrolled in HIV negative cohorts (phase 1). Seroconverts were further followed-up weekly to fortnightly visits up to 3 months (phase 2: acute infection), monthly visits from 3 to 12 months (phase 3: early infection), quarterly visits thereafter (phase 4: established infection) until antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation (phase 5). Results: Eighteen out of the 46 CD4 count covariates investigated were significant. Low average CD4 counts at acute and early phase entry improved at a faster rate than entries at higher average CD4 count. During therapy, all the 18 covariates induced significantly different patients' average CD4 counts. The rate of change of CD4 count greatly varied in response to lactate dehydrogenase during the acute phase. Red blood cells increase resulted in the patients' CD4 counts approaching a common higher level during the early phase. During therapy, the already high CD4 counts improved faster than lower ones in response to the red blood cells increase. As the monocytes increased, patients with lower average CD4 counts became worse than those with higher average CD4 counts. Conclusion: Changes in the covariates measurements either induced no variation effects in certain phases or improved the CD4 count at a faster rate for those patients whose average CD4 was already high or worsen the CD4 level which was already low or caused the patients' CD4 counts to approach the same level - higher or lower than the general cohort. The studied covariates induced wide variations in the CD4 count between HIV positive patients during the ART phase.

Magnitude and associated factors of diabetes mellitus and hypertension among adult HIV-positive individuals receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy at Jugal Hospital, Harar, Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

People with HIV infection are at increased risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). Diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension are recognized as the major NCDs. Except few findings in general population, there is no well-documented evidence on the magnitude of NCDs and associated factors among HIV-positive patients.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to determine the magnitude and associated factors of DM and hypertension among adult HIV-positive subjects receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

METHODS

A hospital-based cross-sectional study was conducted from February to April at Jugal Hospital, Harar, Eastern Ethiopia. Sociodemographic and anthropometric data and blood pressure (BP) were collected by senior clinical nurses. A total of 5 mL of venous blood was collected. Serum glucose and lipid profile were measured using the Autolab 18 clinical chemistry analyzer. Data were analyzed using STATA version 13.

RESULTS

A total of 425 HIV-infected individuals taking HAART of age ranging from 18 to 68 years were included. The prevalence of DM and hypertension were 7.1% (95% CI: 4.9-9.9) and 12.7% (95% CI: 9.8-16.2), respectively. Increased blood triglyceride (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] =4.7, 95% CI: 1.7-13.1), high BP (AOR =3.3, 95% CI: 1.1-9.5), and high baseline body mass index (BMI) (AOR =8.7, 95% CI: 2.4-31.8) were significantly associated with DM. In contrast, raised waist-hip ratio (AOR =4.6, 95% CI: 1.6-13.3), raised blood glucose (AOR =3.5, 95% CI: 1.1-11.4), increased total cholesterol (AOR =3.9, 95% CI: 1.3-11.9), high current BMI (AOR =3.8, 95% CI: 1.5-9.6), drinking alcohol (AOR =3.4, 95% CI: 1.5-8.1), CD4 count <500 cell/mL (AOR =2.7, 95% CI: 1.3-5.6), and longer duration of HAART (AOR =2.3, 95% CI: 1.1-5.1) were significantly associated with hypertension.

CONCLUSION

DM and hypertension were frequent among HIV patients on HAART, and they were linked to the well-known risk factors. Therefore, regular screening and monitoring of DM and hypertension before and after the initiation of HAART is of paramount importance.

Systemic Arterial Hypertension in people living with HIV/AIDS: integrative review

OBJECTIVE

To analyze scientific productions about the relationship between HIV and Systemic Arterial Hypertension (SAH) in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA).

METHOD

Integrative literature review in six databases, held in March 2016. "AIDS" and "hypertension" were the keywords used in Portuguese, English and Spanish languages. We found 248 articles and selected 17. The categories formulated were "prevalence of SAH in PLWHA," "risk factors for SAH in PLWHA" and "adverse events of antiretroviral therapy (ART) that contribute to HAS."

RESULTS

There is no consensus whether HIV and ART influence the SAH development, but there are several risk factors for SAH among PLWHA. It was observed that protease inhibitors medicines influence SAH the most.

CONCLUSION

Guidelines for SAH prevention must be performed in all individuals, however, in PLWHA, they must focus on characteristic risk factors of this population.

The association between antiretroviral therapy and selected cardiovascular disease risk factors in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

With increasing adverse cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes in HIV/AIDS patients, the possible contribution of antiretroviral therapy (ART) to the prevailing CVD epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) through its effect on CVD risk factors has rather been under investigated. This study aimed to assess the extent to which ART is associated with hypertension, diabetes mellitus (DM) and dyslipidemia in SSA.

METHODS

This is a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies from SSA, published between January 1946 and December 2017, from Medline, Embase, Africa-wide Information, the Cochrane library, African Index and Medicus databases. Both observational and interventional studies with comparable ART-treated and ART-naïve populations were selected and data was extracted from eligible studies. Pooled estimates of the effect of ART on the outcomes of interest (hypertension, diabetes and abnormal lipid profiles) were obtained using random effects meta-analysis, and meta-regression analysis was used to explore between-study heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Twenty cross-sectional studies were included involving 5386 participants. There was no association between ART use and hypertension (OR: 1.9, 95%CI: 0.96-3.76, n = 8, I2 = 73.8%) and DM (OR: 2.53, 95%CI: 0.87-7.35, n = 8, I2 = 73.8%). ART use was associated with high total cholesterol (OR: 3.85, 95%CI: 2.45-6.07, n = 8, I2 = 67.0%), high triglycerides (OR: 1.46, 95%CI: 1.21-1.75, n = 14, I2 = 10.0%) and high LDL-cholesterol (OR: 2.38, 95%CI: 1.43-3.95, n = 11, I2 = 87.6%). ART was associated with rather lower odds of having low HDL-cholesterol (OR: 0.53, 95%CI: 0.32-0.87, n = 8, I2 = 78.2%). There was evidence of between-study heterogeneity for all outcomes except high triglycerides.

CONCLUSIONS

ART appears to be associated with CVD risk in HIV/AIDS patients in SSA only through dyslipidemia but not through hypertension and DM, however, high quality and robust research in SSA is mandated to accurately ascertain the actual contribution of ART to the CVD burden in this part of the world. Nevertheless, HIV/AIDS patients should still benefit from systematic CVD screening alongside their regular care services.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Prospero Registration - CRD42016042306.

Hypertension in people living with HIV

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review describes what is known concerning the burden of hypertension among people living with HIV (PLHIV), and also addresses relevant topics with respect to its risk factors and clinical management.

RECENT FINDINGS

Hypertension is highly prevalent in HIV-positive populations, and may be more common than in HIV-negative populations. Risk factors contributing to the development of hypertension in PLHIV include demographic factors, genetic predisposition, lifestyle, comorbidities such as obesity, antiretroviral therapy-related changes in body composition, and potentially also immunodeficiency, immune activation and inflammation, as well as effects from antiretroviral therapy itself. Clinical management of hypertension in PLHIV requires awareness for drug-drug interactions between antiretroviral drugs and antihypertensive drugs. Awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension in PLHIV is currently suboptimal and should be improved.

SUMMARY

The burden of hypertension among PLHIV is high and its pathophysiology most likely multifactorial. Elucidating the exact pathophysiology of hypertension in PLHIV is vital as this may provide new targets to impact and improve clinical management. In the meantime, efforts should be made to improve hypertension management as per existing clinical guidelines in order to safeguard cardiovascular health and quality of life in PLHIV.

Triad of the Ischemic Cardiovascular Disease in People Living with HIV? Association Between Risk Factors, HIV Infection, and Use of Antiretroviral Therapy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review is focused on cardiovascular risk factors in HIV-infected people.

RECENT FINDINGS

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) has significantly increased the life expectancy of HIV-infected people. Thus, this population has experienced non-HIV-related diseases, mainly cardiovascular diseases. Thus, in our review, we intend to understand the cardiovascular risk factors that trigger this situation. We have demonstrated that both ART and traditional cardiovascular risk factors contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected people. Thus, it becomes important to stratify the risk factors to reduce this scenario.

Hypertension in treated and untreated patients with HIV: a study from 2011 to 2013 at the Jos University Teaching Hospital, Nigeria

Background

Individuals with HIV, especially those on antiretroviral therapy (ART), may have increased risk of hypertension. We investigated the prevalence of hypertension at enrolment and 12 months after commencing ART in a Nigerian HIV clinic.

Methods

Data from patients enrolled for ART from 2011 to 2013 were analysed, including 2310 patients at enrolment and 1524 re-evaluated after 12 months of ART. The presence of hypertension, demographic, clinical and biochemical data were retrieved from standardized databases. Bivariate and logistic regressions were used to identify baseline risk factors for hypertension.

Results

Prevalence of hypertension at enrolment was 19.3% (95% CI 17.6-20.9%), and age (p<0.001), male sex (p=0.004) and body mass index (BMI) (p<0.001) were independent risk factors for hypertension. Twelve months after initiating ART, a further 31% (95% CI 17.6-20.9%) had developed hypertension. Total prevalence at that point was 50.2%. Hypertension among those on ART was associated with age (p=0.009) and BMI (p=0.008), but not with sex. There were no independently significant associations between hypertension and CD4+ counts, viral load or type of ART.

Conclusions

Hypertension is common in HIV infected individuals attending the HIV clinic. Patients initiating ART have a high risk of developing hypertension in the first year of ART. Since BMI is modifiable, life-style advice aimed at weight reduction is strongly advisable.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection And Hypertension. Is There a Connection?

Data support that hypertension (HTN) is prevalent among human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients contributing to increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Immunodeficiency and prolonged antiretroviral treatment along with common risk factors including older age, male gender, and high body mass index might conduce to greater incidence of HTN. The purpose of this review was to summarize recent evidence of the increased cardiovascular risk in these patents linking HIV infection to HTN.

High Prevalence of Hypertension in Ethiopian and Non-Ethiopian HIV-Infected Adults

Objectives

Prevalence of hypertension has not been studied in the Ethiopian HIV-infected population, which represents 60% of the patients in our AIDS unit. Our aim was to identify risk factors and characterize the prevalence of hypertension in the population monitored at our unit.

Methods

A retrospective chart review categorized subjects according to their blood pressure levels. Hypertension prevalence was determined and stratified according to variables perceived to contribute to elevated blood pressure.

Results

The prevalence of hypertension in our study population was significantly higher compared to the general population (53% versus 20%, P < 0.0001) and was associated with known risk factors and not with patients' viral load and CD4 levels. Ethiopian HIV-infected adults had a prominently higher rate of blood pressure rise over time as compared to non-Ethiopians (P = 0.016).

Conclusions

The high prevalence of hypertension in this cohort and the rapid increase in blood pressure in Ethiopians are alarming. We could not attribute high prevalence to HIV-related factors and we presume it is part of the metabolic syndrome. The lifelong cardiovascular risk associated with HIV infection mandates hypertension screening and close monitoring in this population.

Association between HIV and blood pressure in adults and role of body weight as a mediator: Cross-sectional study in Uganda

The authors sought to describe the association between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and blood pressure (BP) levels, and determined the extent to which this relationship is mediated by body weight in a cross-sectional study of HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected controls matched by age, sex, and neighborhood. Mixed-effects models were fit to determine the association between HIV and BP and amount of effect of HIV on BP mediated through body mass index. Data were analyzed from 577 HIV-infected and 538 matched HIV-uninfected participants. HIV infection was associated with 3.3 mm Hg lower systolic BP (1.2-5.3 mm Hg), 1.5 mm Hg lower diastolic BP (0.2-2.9 mm Hg), 0.3 m/s lower pulse wave velocity (0.1-0.4 mm Hg), and 30% lower odds of hypertension (10%-50%). Body mass index mediated 25% of the association between HIV and systolic BP. HIV infection was inversely associated with systolic BP, diastolic BP, and pulse wave velocity. Comprehensive community-based programs to routinely screen for cardiovascular risk factors irrespective of HIV status should be operationalized in HIV-endemic countries.

Global prevalence of hypertension among people living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The purpose of this study was to estimate, through meta-analysis, the global prevalence of hypertension among people living with HIV (PLWH). A total of 49 studies published during 2011-2016 with 63,554 participants were included in analysis. These studies were conducted in America (25), Europe (13), Africa (10), and Asia (1) with data collected during 1996-2014. Prevalence of hypertension and confidence interval was estimated and stratified by participants' age, antiretroviral therapy (ART), and calendar-years using random effects modeling. The quality assessed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Prevalence Critical Appraisal Tool was high for all included studies. The estimated prevalence (95% confidence interval) of hypertension was 25.2% (21.2%, 29.6%) for the overall sample, 34.7% (27.4%, 42.8%) for ART-experienced, and 12.7% (7.4%, 20.8%) for ART-naïve participants. The estimated prevalence was found increased with age and in studies conducted after 2010. Hypertension among PLWH shows an increasing trend and is associated with receiving ART and older age. Findings of this study provide data for decision makers to incorporate blood pressure assessment in primary prevention and for researchers to further investigate factors and mechanisms related to hypertension among PLWH.

D-Dimer Levels and Traditional Risk Factors Are Associated With Incident Hypertension Among HIV-Infected Individuals Initiating Antiretroviral Therapy in Uganda

OBJECTIVES

We sought to describe blood pressure (BP) changes after antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation and evaluate the association of markers of inflammation with incident hypertension in a cohort of HIV-infected individuals in Uganda.

METHODS

We used mixed effects linear regression to model changes in systolic BP over time among a cohort of HIV-infected individuals initiating ART in Uganda. After exclusion of participants with preexisting hypertension, we identified participants with normal BP throughout follow-up (controls) and those with elevated BP on ≥3 consecutive visits (cases). Before ART initiation, participants had testing for interleukin 6, kynurenine/tryptophan ratio, lipopolysaccharide, soluble CD14, soluble CD163, and D-dimer and those with viral suppression at 6 months during ART had repeat tests. We fit logistic regression models to estimate associations between biomarkers and risk of incident hypertension.

RESULTS

In the entire cohort, systolic BP increased by 9.6 mm Hg/yr (95% CI: 7.3 to 11.8) in the first 6 months of ART, then plateaued. Traditional factors: male gender (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 2.76, 95% CI: 1.34 to 5.68), age (AOR 1.09, 95% CI: 1.04 to 1.13), overweight (AOR 4.48, 95% CI: 1.83 to 10.97), and a CD4 count <100 cells (AOR 3.08, 95% CI: 1.07 to 8.89) were associated with incident hypertension. After adjusting for these, D-dimer levels at month 6 were inversely associated with incident hypertension (AOR 0.61, 95% CI: 0.37 to 0.99). Although not significant, similar associations were seen with sCD14 and kynurenine/tryptophan ratio.

CONCLUSION

BP increases early after ART initiation in Ugandans. Traditional risk factors, rather than immune activation, were associated with incident hypertension in this population.

Incidence and risk factors for hypertension among HIV patients in rural Tanzania - A prospective cohort study

Introduction

Scarce data are available on the epidemiology of hypertension among HIV patients in rural sub-Saharan Africa. We explored the prevalence, incidence and risk factors for incident hypertension among patients who were enrolled in a rural HIV cohort in Tanzania.

Methods

Prospective longitudinal study including HIV patients enrolled in the Kilombero and Ulanga Antiretroviral Cohort between 2013 and 2015. Non-ART naïve subjects at baseline and pregnant women during follow-up were excluded from the analysis. Incident hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic blood pressure ≥ 90 mmHg on two consecutive visits. Cox proportional hazards models were used to assess the association of baseline characteristics and incident hypertension.

Results

Among 955 ART-naïve, eligible subjects, 111 (11.6%) were hypertensive at recruitment. Ten women were excluded due to pregnancy. The remaining 834 individuals contributed 7967 person-months to follow-up (median 231 days, IQR 119–421) and 80 (9.6%) of them developed hypertension during a median follow-up of 144 days from time of enrolment into the cohort [incidence rate 120.0 cases/1000 person-years, 95% confidence interval (CI) 97.2–150.0]. ART was started in 630 (75.5%) patients, with a median follow-up on ART of 7 months (IQR 4–14). Cox regression models identified age [adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.34 per 10 years increase, 95% CI 1.07–1.68, p = 0.010], body mass index (aHR per 5 kg/m² 1.45, 95% CI 1.07–1.99, p = 0.018) and estimated glomerular filtration rate (aHR < 60 versus ≥ 60 ml/min/1.73 m² 3.79, 95% CI 1.60–8.99, p = 0.003) as independent risk factors for hypertension development.

Conclusions

The prevalence and incidence of hypertension were high in our cohort. Traditional cardiovascular risk factors predicted incident hypertension, but no association was observed with immunological or ART status. These data support the implementation of routine hypertension screening and integrated management into HIV programmes in rural sub-Saharan Africa.

Novel Immune Mechanisms in Hypertension and Cardiovascular Risk

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Hypertension is a common disorder with substantial impact on public health due to highly elevated cardiovascular risk. The mechanisms still remain unclear and treatments are not sufficient to reduce risk in majority of patients. Inflammatory mechanisms may provide an important mechanism linking hypertension and cardiovascular risk. We aim to review newly identified immune and inflammatory mechanisms of hypertension with focus on their potential therapeutic impact.

RECENT FINDINGS

In addition to the established role of the vasculature, kidneys and central nervous system in pathogenesis of hypertension, low-grade inflammation contributes to this disorder as indicated by experimental models and GWAS studies pointing to SH2B3 immune gene as top key driver of hypertension. Immune responses in hypertension are greatly driven by neoantigens generated by oxidative stress and modulated by chemokines such as RANTES, IP-10 and microRNAs including miR-21 and miR-155 with other molecules under investigation. Cells of both innate and adoptive immune system infiltrate vasculature and kidneys, affecting their function by releasing pro-inflammatory mediators and reactive oxygen species.

SUMMARY

Immune and inflammatory mechanisms of hypertension provide a link between high blood pressure and increased cardiovascular risk, and reduction of blood pressure without attention to these underlying mechanisms is not sufficient to reduce risk.

Predictors of hypertension in an urban HIV-infected population at the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar, Nigeria

Background

The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has remarkably improved the prognosis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients, at the expense of the development of long-term complications such as cardiovascular and renal diseases. Hypertension (HTN) is a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases and its associated mortality. In this study, we aimed to determine the prevalence of HTN and to identify possible predictors among HIV-infected patients attending the HIV Special Treatment Clinic at the University of Calabar Teaching Hospital, Calabar.

Materials and methods

A cross-sectional study was carried out over a 5-month period from February to July 2016. A total of 112 HIV-infected persons were consecutively recruited and their blood pressures were measured in two consecutive clinic visits. They were compared with the HIV-negative control group (n=309). Data collected were analyzed with SPSS 18, and statistical significance was set at P<0.05.

Results

There was a female preponderance in both the HIV-infected individuals and HIV-negative control group (57.5% vs. 57.4%). The mean ages were 39.3 and 33.9 years in HIV-infected and HIV-negative subjects, respectively. The risk factors that were associated with HTN in both groups were older age (>40 years), increased weight and body mass index (BMI), and presence of obesity. Male sex and duration of exposure to HAART and CD₄ count levels >200 cells/mm³ were associated with HTN in HIV-infected patients, whereas the absence of family history of HTN was significantly associated with HTN in both groups. However, in a multivariate logistic regression, the predictors of HTN in both groups are absence of family history of HTN and older age in HIV-infected patients and HIV-negative subjects, respectively.

Conclusion

Traditional risk factors such as older age, increased BMI, and obesity were linked to HTN in both HIV-infected and HIV-negative subjects, but higher CD₄ count level and cumulative HAART exposure were associated with HTN in HIV-positive individuals. In a multivariate logistic regression, the predictors of HTN in both groups are absence of family history of HTN and older age in HIV-infected patients and HIV-negative subjects, respectively.

Serious Non-AIDS Events: Therapeutic Targets of Immune Activation and Chronic Inflammation in HIV Infection

In the antiretroviral therapy (ART) era, serious non-AIDS events (SNAEs) have become the major causes of morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected persons. Early ART initiation has the strongest evidence for reducing SNAEs and mortality. Biomarkers of immune activation, inflammation and coagulopathy do not fully normalize despite virologic suppression and persistent immune activation is an important contributor to SNAEs. A number of strategies aimed to reduce persistent immune activation including ART intensification to reduce residual viremia; treatment of co-infections to reduce chronic antigen stimulation; the use of anti-inflammatory agents, reducing microbial translocation as well as interventions to improve immune recovery through cytokine administration and reducing lymphoid tissue fibrosis, have been investigated. To date, there is little conclusive evidence on which strategies beyond treatment of hepatitis B and C co-infections and reducing cardiovascular risk factors will result in clinical benefits in patients already on ART with viral suppression. The use of statins seems to show early promise and larger clinical trials are underway to confirm their efficacy. At this stage, clinical care of HIV-infected patients should therefore focus on early diagnosis and prompt ART initiation, treatment of active co-infections and the aggressive management of co-morbidities until further data are available.

Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in an Aging HIV Population: Where Are We Now?

With more effective and widespread antiretroviral treatment, the overall incidence of AIDS- or HIV-related death has decreased dramatically. Consequently, as patients are aging, cardiovascular disease (CVD) has emerged as an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the HIV population. The incidence of CVD overall in HIV is relatively low, but it is approximately 1.5-2-fold higher than that seen in age-matched HIV-uninfected individuals. Multiple factors are believed to explain this excess in risk such as overrepresentation of traditional cardiovascular risk factors (particularly smoking), toxicities associated with cumulative exposure to some antiretroviral agents, together with persistent chronic inflammation, and immune activation associated with HIV infection. Tools are available to calculate an individual's predicted risk of CVD and should be incorporated in the regular follow-up of HIV-infected patients. Targeted interventions to reduce this risk must be recommended, including life-style changes and medical interventions that might include changes in antiretroviral therapy.

HIV Infection in the Elderly: Arising Challenges

Globally there is an increase in the number of people living with HIV at an advanced age (50 years and above). This is mainly due to prolonged survival following the use of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Living with HIV at an advanced age has been shown to be associated with a number of challenges, both clinical and immunological. This minireview aims at discussing the challenges encountered by elderly HIV-infected patients.

Incidence and predictors of hypertension in adults with HIV-initiating antiretroviral therapy in south-western Uganda

OBJECTIVE

The successful scale-up of antiretroviral therapy (ART) in sub-Saharan Africa has led to increasing life expectancy, and thus increased risk of hypertension. We aimed to describe the incidence and predictors of hypertension in HIV patients receiving ART at a publicly funded clinic in rural Uganda.

METHODS

We abstracted data from medical records of adult patients who initiated ART at an HIV clinic in south-western Uganda during 2010-2012. We defined hypertension as at least two consecutive clinical visits, with a SBP at least 140 mmHg and/or SBP of at least 90 mmHg, or prescription for an antihypertensive medication. We calculated the incidence of hypertension and fit multivariable Cox proportional-hazards models to identify predictors of hypertension.

RESULTS

A total of 3389 patients initiated ART without a prior diagnosis of hypertension during the observation period. Over 3990 person-years of follow-up, 445 patients developed hypertension, for a crude incidence of 111.5/1000 (95% confidence interval 101.9-121.7) person-years. Rates were highest among men aged at least 40 years (158.8 per/1000 person-years) and lowest in women aged 30-39 years (80/1000 person-years). Lower CD4 cell count at ART initiation, as well as traditional risk factors including male sex, increasing age, and obesity, were independently associated with hypertension.

CONCLUSION

We observed a high incidence of hypertension in HIV-infected persons on ART in rural Uganda, and increased risk with lower nadir CD4 cell counts. Our findings call for increased attention to screening of and treatment for hypertension, along with continued prioritization of early ART initiation.

Impact of body fat changes in mediating the effects of antiretroviral therapy on blood pressure in HIV-infected persons in a sub-Saharan African setting

Background

Previous studies of HIV-infected patients have shown significant associations between highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) and increased blood pressure; however, the mechanisms involved are less clear. Therefore, we sought to investigate the potential impact of body fat changes in mediating the effects of HAART on blood pressure changes among people living with HIV.

Methods

Four hundred six consenting patients (≥18 years of age) attending a tertiary HIV clinic in semi-urban Nigeria were recruited between August and November 2014 as part of a cross-sectional study. We performed bias-corrected bootstrap tests of mediation using 95 % confidence intervals (CI) to determine the mediating effects of body mass index and waist circumference (mediators) on the total effects of HAART exposure (primary predictor) on blood pressure (outcome), while controlling for age, sex and other potential confounders.

Results

Waist circumference remained a significant partial mediator of the total effects of HAART exposure on increasing systolic blood pressure (coefficient: 1.01, 95 % CI: 0.33 to 2.52, 11 % mediated) and diastolic blood pressure (coefficient: 0.68, 95 % CI: 0.26 to 1.89, 9 % mediated) after adjusting for age, sex, smoking status, CD4 count and duration of HIV infection. No significant mediating effect was observed with body mass index alone or in combination with waist circumference after adjusting for all potential confounders.

Conclusion

Waist circumference significantly mediates the effects of HAART on blood pressure in persons living with HIV, independent of the role of traditional risk factors. The use of waist circumference as a complementary body fat measure to body mass index may improve the clinical prediction of hypertension in HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40249-016-0152-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Prevalence of Hypertension in HIV/AIDS Patients on Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART) Compared with HAART-Naïve Patients at the Limbe Regional Hospital, Cameroon

BACKGROUND

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has greatly reduced the morbidity and mortality of HIV/AIDS patients but has also been associated with increased metabolic complications and cardiovascular diseases. Data on the association between HAART and hypertension (HTN) in Africa are scarce.

OBJECTIVES

Primarily to compare the prevalence of HTN in HIV/AIDS patients on HAART and HAART-naïve patients in Limbe, Cameroon; and secondarily to assess other socio-demographic and clinical factors associated with HTN in this population.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted at the Limbe Regional Hospital HIV treatment center between April and June 2013, involving 200 HIV/AIDS patients (100 on first-line HAART regimens for at least 12 months matched by age and sex to 100 HAART-naïve patients). HTN was defined as a systolic blood pressure (BP) ≥ 140 mmHg and/or diastolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg.

RESULTS

The prevalence of HTN in patients on HAART was twice (38%; 95% CI: 28.5-48.3) that of the HAART-naïve patients (19%; 95% CI, 11.8-28.1), p = 0.003. In multivariate analyses adjusted for age, gender, smoking, family history of HTN, and BMI-defined overweight, HAART was associated with HTN, the adjusted odds ratio of the HAART-treated versus HAART-naïve group was 2.20 (95% CI: 1.07-4.52), p = 0.032. HTN was associated with older age and male gender, in the HAART group and with BMI-defined overweight in the HAART-naïve group.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of hypertension in HIV/AIDS patients in Limbe stands out to be elevated, higher in patients on HAART compared to those not on treatment. Blood pressure and cardiovascular risk factors should be routinely monitored. Other factors such as diet, weight control and physical exercise should also be considered.

Mechanisms Influencing Circadian Blood Pressure Patterns Among Individuals with HIV

HIV+ individuals have an increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the mechanisms behind this association are poorly understood. While hypertension is a well-established CVD risk factor, clinic-based blood pressure (BP) assessment by itself cannot identify several important BP patterns, including white coat hypertension, masked hypertension, nighttime hypertension, and nighttime BP dipping. These BP patterns can be identified over a 24-h period by ambulatory BP monitoring (ABPM). In this review, we provide an overview of the potential value of conducting ABPM in HIV+ individuals. ABPM phenotypes associated with increased CVD risk include masked hypertension (i.e., elevated out-of-clinic BP despite non-elevated clinic BP), nighttime hypertension, and a non-dipping BP pattern (i.e., a drop in BP of <10 % from daytime to nighttime). These adverse ABPM phenotypes may be highly relevant in the setting of HIV infection, given that increased levels of inflammatory biomarkers, high psychosocial burden, high prevalence of sleep disturbance, and autonomic dysfunction have been commonly reported in HIV+ persons. Additionally, although antiretroviral therapy (ART) is associated with lower AIDS-related morbidity and CVD risk, the mitochondrial toxicity, oxidative stress, lipodystrophy, and insulin resistance associated with long-term ART use potentially lead to adverse ABPM phenotypes. Existing data on ABPM phenotypes in the setting of HIV are limited, but suggest an increased prevalence of a non-dipping BP pattern. In conclusion, identifying ABPM phenotypes may provide crucial information regarding the mechanisms underlying the excess CVD risk in HIV+ individuals.

Evidence of increased blood pressure and hypertension risk among people living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy: a systematic review with meta-analysis

Owing to antiretroviral drug-induced endothelial dysfunction, HIV-infected patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) may have elevated blood pressure. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to estimate the effects of ART on blood pressure levels and hypertension risk among HIV-infected populations worldwide. We sought articles that compared the mean blood pressure measurements and hypertension prevalence between HIV-infected adults naive and exposed to ART. Thirty-nine studies comprising 44 903 participants met the inclusion criteria. Overall, systolic (mean difference (MD) 4.52 mm Hg, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.65-6.39, I(2)=68.1%, 19 studies) and diastolic blood pressure levels (MD 3.17 mm Hg, 95% CI 1.71-4.64, I(2)=72.5%, 16 studies) were significantly higher among ART-exposed patients compared with treatment-naive patients. Similarly, the risk of hypertension was significantly higher among ART-exposed patients, such that among 28 908 ART-exposed patients, 4195 (14.5%) had hypertension compared with 950 of 9086 (10.5%) in those who were treatment-naive (odds ratio 1.68, 95% CI 1.35-2.10, I(2)=81.5%, 32 studies). In summary, exposure to ART is significantly associated with increased systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels, and increased risk of hypertension, regardless of study-level sociodemographic differences. This meta-analysis supports the need for population-based strategies to reduce the risk of high blood pressure among people living with HIV on ART.

Cardiovascular disease associated with human immunodeficiency virus: a review

The cardiovascular manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection have changed significantly following the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) regimens. On one hand, HAART has altered the course of HIV disease, with longer survival of HIV-infected patients, and cardiovascular complications of HIV infection such as myocarditis have been reduced. On the other hand, HAART is associated with an increase in the prevalence of both peripheral and coronary arterial disease. As longevity increases in HIV-infected individuals, long-term effects, such as cardiovascular disease, are emerging as leading health issues in this population. In the present review article, we discuss HIV-associated cardiovascular disease, focusing on epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, diagnosis, prognosis, management and therapy. Cardiovascular involvement in treatment-naive patients is still important in situations such as non-adherence to treatment, late initiation of treatment, and/or limited access to HAART in developing countries. We therefore describe the cardiovascular consequences in treatment-naive patients and the potential effect of antiretroviral treatment on their regression, as well as the metabolic and cardiovascular implications of HAART regimens in HIV-infected individuals.