Bird functional diversity and wildfires in the Amazon: the role of forest structure

Stochastic processes shape the functional and phylogenetic structure of bird assemblages at the mine area in southwest China

Understanding the mechanisms of community assembly is a key question in ecology. Metal pollution may result in significant changes in bird community structure and diversity, with implications for ecosystem processes and function. However, the relative importance of these processes in shaping the bird community at the polluted area is still not clear. Here, we explored bird species richness, functional, and phylogenetic diversity, and the assembly processes of community at the mine region of southwest China. Our results showed that the 3 dimensions of diversity at the mine area were lower than that at the reference sites. In the community assembly, the result was 0 < NRI/ NFRI < 1.96, which indicated deterministic processes (environmental filtering) might drive community clustering. The results of the neutral community model, and normalized stochasticity ratio, showed the dominant role of stochastic processes in shaping the bird community assembly. We further quantified the community-level habitat niche breadth (Bcom), and we found that there was no difference in Bcom-value between the mine area and reference sites. This indicates that the bird communities at the mine area and 3 reference sites were not subjected to extreme environmental selection (same or different resource allocation) to form a highly specialized niche. These findings provide insights into the distribution patterns and dominant ecological processes of bird communities under metal exposure, and extend the knowledge in community assembly mechanisms of bird communities living in the mine area.

Landscape-wide pulse events predict trait-based responses among wetland birds in perennial channels of a dryland wetland

Wetlands in arid or semiarid zones are vital for maintaining biodiversity but face growing threats. Flooding regime variability is a key driver of ecological dynamism in these systems, dictating primary productivity on a large spatial scale. The functional composition or diversity of wetland-dependent bird species has been found to be sensitive to fluctuations in hydrological regimes and can thus be indicative of cascading ecosystem responses associated with climate change. In this paper, we investigate whether large-scale changes in inundation and fire-a significant additional biodiversity determinant in (semi-)arid landscapes-are reliable predictors of functional group responses of wetland-dependent birds along a perennial channel of the Okavango Delta, Botswana. We fit generalized additive models (GAMs) to 6 years of bird survey data collected along ~190-km-long annual transects and use remotely sensed landscape-level inundation estimates, as well as spatiotemporal distance to fire, to predict the responsiveness of seven trait-based functional group abundances. During the surveys, a total of 89 different wetland-dependent bird species were recorded, including 76 residents, across all years, with below-surface feeding waders consistently the most abundant functional group. Including estimated spatiotemporal variability in flooding and fire, as well as their interactions, improved model fit for all seven functional groups, explaining between 46.8% and 68.3% of variability in functional group abundances. Covariates representing longer-term variability in inundation generally performed better than shorter-term ones. For example, variability in inundation over the 5 months preceding a survey best predicted the responses of all functional groups, which also all exhibited responsiveness to the interaction between flooding and fire. We were able to interpret the responses of individual functional groups, based on the resource exploitation assumption. Overall, our results suggest that perennial waters in dryland wetlands offer functional refugia to wetland-dependent birds and highlight the indicative power of large-scale trait-based bird monitoring. Our findings demonstrate the potential utility of such a monitoring regime for dryland wetland ecosystems vulnerable to industrial-scale anthropogenic pressure and associated climate change.

Vegetation Height as the Primary Driver of Functional Changes in Orthopteran Assemblages in a Roadside Habitat

Simple Summary

This paper reports the results of a field research that investigates functional changes in grasshopper and cricket (Orthoptera) assemblages with distance from a major road (at 10, 25, 50, 100 and 500 m). Expanding on a previous study that adopted a species-based approach to the same subject, in order to gain a different perspective on road-associated dynamics of orthopteran assemblages with potential implications for ecosystem functioning, we aimed for the following: (1) to test how motorway proximity affects functional diversity of orthopteran assemblages and functional traits related to mobility, feeding guild, lifestyle and moisture preference; and (2) to assess the relationships between trait composition and road-influenced environmental factors. We recorded a significant increase in functional diversity and the occurrence of omnivorous and shrub-dwelling orthopterans, and a decrease in larger ground-dwelling orthopterans at sites close to the motorway. Road-induced changes in vegetation height were identified as the primary driver of these changes. Our findings contribute to a more thorough understanding of the links between road-associated changes in vegetation cover and insect community assembly in grassland habitats.

Abstract

Exhibiting manifold ecological impacts on terrestrial biota, roads have become a major driver of environmental change nowadays. However, many insect groups with high indication potential, such as grasshoppers and crickets (Orthoptera), have been largely neglected in road ecology research from a functional perspective. Using two complementary sampling methods, we have investigated the spatial dynamics of functional diversity and six functional traits in orthopteran assemblages, with respect to motorway proximity and the associated environmental factors, in a grassland habitat in the Lika region, Croatia. This research shows, for the first time, that road proximity can facilitate an increase in the functional diversity of orthopteran assemblages, with shifts in functional traits related to mobility, feeding habits and lifestyle being primarily driven by changes in vegetation height. Our findings also suggest that our ability to detect road-related patterns depends on the choice of a diversity measure and sampling method, since different components of orthopteran assemblages (plant-dwelling vs. ground-dwelling) exhibit different functional responses to road proximity.

Environmental Factors Are Stronger Predictors of Primate Species’ Distributions Than Basic Biological Traits

Understanding the neutral, biological, and environmental processes driving species distributions is valuable in informing conservation efforts because it will help us predict how species will respond to changes in environmental conditions. Environmental processes affect species differently according to their biological traits, which determine how they interact with their environment. Therefore, functional, trait-based modeling approaches are considered important for predicting distributions and species responses to change but even for data-rich primate communities our understanding of the relationships between traits and environmental conditions is limited. Here we use a large-scale, high-resolution data set of African diurnal primate distributions, biological traits, and environmental conditions to investigate the role of biological traits and environmental trait filtering in primate distributions. We collected data from published sources for 354 sites and 14 genera with 57 species across sub-Saharan Africa. We then combined a three-table ordination method, RLQ, with the fourth-corner approach to test relationships between environmental variables and biological traits and used a mapping approach to visually assess patterning in primate genus and species’ distributions. We found no significant relationships between any groups of environmental variables and biological traits, despite a clear role of environmental filtering in driving genus and species’ distributions. The most important environmental driver of species distributions was temperature seasonality, followed by rainfall. We conclude that the relative flexibility of many primate genera means that not any one particular set of traits drives their species–environment associations, despite the clear role of such associations in their distribution patterns.

Improvement of vegetation structure enhances bird functional traits and habitat resilience in an area of ongoing restoration in the Atlantic Forest

Ecological restoration is a traditional option for recovering biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Birds perform pollination, seed dispersal, and pest-control services, which catalyze increases in habitat structure. Habitat complexity changes bird composition, but there is little evidence of its effects on bird functional diversity in Neotropical restorations. We tested whether bird functional diversity and composition respond to increased habitat complexity. Point-counts were performed (January-December 2015) in an area undergoing restoration (536 ha) in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil, in restorations with less and more structured vegetation and pastures and forest-fragments. The functional bird traits considered were diet, habitat, biomass, environmental sensitivity, and foraging strata. Increased habitat complexity was evaluated using plant characteristics (exotic grass, canopy, herbaceous cover, and diameter at breast height). A total of 172 bird species (5% endemic; 12% migratory) were recorded. Increased vegetation structure in both restored sites and forest-fragments drove a reorganization and addition of functional bird traits, which positively influenced functional richness, dispersion, and evenness. Shifts in plant-characteristics rearranged bird functional traits (diet-forest-dependence and diet-strata-foraging). The rapid development of vegetation structure is a key factor for restoration because it provides additional habitat for semi-dependent forest birds and enhances resilience and sustainability in new man-made forests.

The conservation value of cacao agroforestry for bird functional diversity in tropical agricultural landscapes

Cacao agroforestry have been considered as biodiversity-friendly farming practices by maintaining habitats for a high diversity of species in tropical landscapes. However, little information is available to evaluate whether this agrosystem can maintain functional diversity, given that agricultural changes can affect the functional components, but not the taxonomic one (e.g., species richness). Thus, considering functional traits improve the understanding of the agricultural impacts on biodiversity. Here, we measured functional diversity (functional richness-FD, functional evenness-FEve, and functional divergence-Rao) and taxonomic diversity (species richness and Simpson index) to evaluate changes of bird diversity in cacao agroforestry in comparison with nearby mature forests (old-growth forests) in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We used data from two landscapes with constraining areas of mature forest (49% Una and 4.8% Ilhéus) and cacao agroforestry cover (6% and 82%, respectively). To remove any bias of species richness and to evaluate assembly processes (functional overdispersion or clustering), all functional indices were adjusted using null models. Our analyses considered the entire community, as well as separately for forest specialists, habitat generalists, and birds that contribute to seed dispersal (frugivores/granivores) or invertebrate removal (insectivores). Our findings showed that small cacao agroforestry in the forested landscape sustains functional diversity (FD and FEve) as diverse as nearby forests when considering the entire community, forest specialist, and habitat generalists. However, we observed declines for frugivores/granivores and insectivores (FD and Rao). These responses of bird communities differed from those observed by taxonomic diversity, suggesting that even species-rich communities in agroforestry may capture lower functional diversity. Furthermore, communities in both landscapes showed either functional clustering or neutral processes as the main driver of functional assembly. Functional clustering may indicate that local conditions and resources were changed or lost, while neutral assemblies may reveal high functional redundancy at the landscape scale. In Ilhéus, the neutral assembly predominance suggests an effect of functional homogenization between habitats. Thus, the conservation value of cacao agroforestry to harbor species-rich communities and ecosystem functions relies on smallholder production with reduced farm management in a forested landscape. Finally, we emphasize that seed dispersers and insectivores should be the priority conservation targets in cacao systems.

Conversion from environmental filtering to randomness as assembly rule of ground beetle assemblages along an urbanization gradient

Urbanization fragments, isolates or eliminates natural habitats, and changes the structure and composition of assemblages living in the remaining natural fragments. Knowing assembly rules is necessary to support and/or maintain biodiversity in urban habitats. We hypothesized that forest communities in rural sites are organized by environmental filtering, but this may be changed by urbanization, and in the suburban and urban forest fragments replaced by randomly organized assemblages, influenced by the colonization of species from the surrounding matrix. Evaluating simultaneously the functional and phylogenetic relationships of co-existing species, we showed that at the rural sites, co-existing ground beetle species were functionally and phylogenetically more similar than expected by chance, indicating that environmental filtering was the likely process structuring these communities. Contrary to this, in urban and suburban sites, the co-occurring species were functionally and phylogenetically not different from the null model, indicating randomly structured assemblages. According to our findings, changes in environmental and habitat characteristics accompanied by urbanization lead to assemblages of randomly colonized species from the surrounding matrix, threatening proper ecosystem functioning. To reassemble stochastically assembled species of urban and suburban fragments to structured, properly functioning communities, appropriate management strategies are needed which simultaneously consider recreational, economic and conservation criteria.

Comparing species richness, functional diversity and functional composition of waterbird communities along environmental gradients in the neotropics

Waterbirds have a major functional role in wetlands, and understanding how functional traits of waterbirds depend on environmental characteristics can facilitate management of ecosystems and their services. We investigate how the waterbird community in a Neotropical river-floodplain system responds to environmental gradients, identifying how they affect waterbird species richness, functional diversity (measured as functional dispersion) and functional composition (specific functional traits). We sampled 22 lakes in the Upper Paraná floodplain system in southern Brazil, and modelled avian functional diversity and species richness as a function of environmental variables. Then we used a unified RLQ and fourth-corner analysis to evaluate environment-trait relationships. Waterbird species richness and functional diversity varied according to different environmental variables. Lake area and diversity of aquatic vegetation were associated with avian species richness, while relative abundance of grass and emergent macrophytes and mean and variation of depth were related to functional diversity. Furthermore, changes in functional diversity seemed to be mainly driven by presence of species that depend on perches for foraging (e.g. kingfishers, cormorants, and kites), whose presence was mainly associated with deep water and emergent macrophytes. Nevertheless, changes in functional diversity and functional composition did not depend on exactly the same set of environmental variables, suggesting that trait combinations (e.g. below surface feeders who feed on fish), not only specific traits, are important drivers of the variation in functional diversity between lakes. Given the observed differences in responses of species richness and functional diversity, both these diversity metrics should be used as complementary tools in ecosystem management. Furthermore, our results show that functional diversity and composition are partially coupled, suggesting that although functional diversity is influenced by the environmental filtering of particular traits, it also reflects other ecological mechanisms (e.g. competitive interactions among species).

Bird diversity and dissimilarity show contrasting patterns along heavy metal pollution gradients in the Urals, Russia

The effects of industrial pollution on bird diversity have been widely studied using traditional diversity measures, which assume all species to be equivalent. We compared species richness and Shannon index with distance-based measures of taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic diversity (the abundance-weighted mean nearest taxon distances), which describe within-community dissimilarity at terminal branches. Analysis of dissimilarity can shed light on the processes underlying community assembly, i.e., environmental filtering decreases dissimilarity whereas competitive exclusion increases it. In the 2-year study near Karabash and Revda copper smelters in Russia, point counts of nesting birds and habitat descriptions were taken at 10 sites (40 plots) along each pollution gradient. The abundance and diversity of birds showed good repeatability in both regions. The total density of birds, number of species per plot, and Shannon diversity decreased at high toxic load in both regions. The taxonomic, functional, and phylogenetic nearest taxon distances showed the same pattern within regions. Species dissimilarity within communities increased with pollution in Karabash (due to loss of functionally similar species), but did not change in Revda (due to mass replacement of forest species by species of open habitats). Pollution-induced changes in bird communities near Karabash were greater due to the stronger deterioration of the forest ecosystems and less favorable natural conditions (more arid climate, lower diversity and vitality of the tree stand and understorey) compared to Revda. This study emphasizes the need for a multi-level approach to the analysis of bird communities using traditional indices of diversity, functional, taxonomic, or phylogenetic distances between species and environmental variables.

Using avian functional traits to assess the impact of land-cover change on ecosystem processes linked to resilience in tropical forests

Vertebrates perform key roles in ecosystem processes via trophic interactions with plants and insects, but the response of these interactions to environmental change is difficult to quantify in complex systems, such as tropical forests. Here, we use the functional trait structure of Amazonian forest bird assemblages to explore the impacts of land-cover change on two ecosystem processes: seed dispersal and insect predation. We show that trait structure in assemblages of frugivorous and insectivorous birds remained stable after primary forests were subjected to logging and fire events, but that further intensification of human land use substantially reduced the functional diversity and dispersion of traits, and resulted in communities that occupied a different region of trait space. These effects were only partially reversed in regenerating secondary forests. Our findings suggest that local extinctions caused by the loss and degradation of tropical forest are non-random with respect to functional traits, thus disrupting the network of trophic interactions regulating seed dispersal by forest birds and herbivory by insects, with important implications for the structure and resilience of human-modified tropical forests. Furthermore, our results illustrate how quantitative functional traits for specific guilds can provide a range of metrics for estimating the contribution of biodiversity to ecosystem processes, and the response of such processes to land-cover change.

Opposing Responses of Bird Functional Diversity to Vegetation Structural Diversity in Wet and Dry Forest

Disturbance regimes are changing worldwide, and the consequences for ecosystem function and resilience are largely unknown. Functional diversity (FD) provides a surrogate measure of ecosystem function by capturing the range, abundance and distribution of trait values in a community. Enhanced understanding of the responses of FD to measures of vegetation structure at landscape scales is needed to guide conservation management. To address this knowledge gap, we used a whole-of-landscape sampling approach to examine relationships between bird FD, vegetation diversity and time since fire. We surveyed birds and measured vegetation at 36 landscape sampling units in dry and wet forest in southeast Australia during 2010 and 2011. Four uncorrelated indices of bird FD (richness, evenness, divergence and dispersion) were derived from six bird traits, and we investigated responses of these indices and species richness to both vertical and horizontal vegetation diversity using linear mixed models. We also considered the extent to which the mean and diversity of time since fire were related to vegetation diversity. Results showed opposing responses of FD to vegetation diversity in dry and wet forest. In dry forest, where fire is frequent, species richness and two FD indices (richness and dispersion) were positively related to vertical vegetation diversity, consistent with theory relating to environmental variation and coexistence. However, in wet forest subject to infrequent fire, the same three response variables were negatively associated with vertical diversity. We suggest that competitive dominance by species results in lower FD as vegetation diversity increases in wet forest. The responses of functional evenness were opposite to those of species richness, functional richness and dispersion in both forest types, highlighting the value of examining multiple FD metrics at management-relevant scales. The mean and diversity of time since fire were uncorrelated with vegetation diversity in wet forest, but positively correlated with vegetation diversity in dry forest. We therefore suggest that protection of older vegetation is important, but controlled application of low-severity fire in dry forest may sustain ecosystem function by enhancing different elements of FD.

The effects of oil palm plantations on the functional diversity of Amazonian birds

Oil palm plantations are rapidly expanding in tropical areas, although the nature of the impacts on the functional roles of the different species in the ecosystem is poorly understood. The present study is the first assessment of how oil palm affects the functional diversity of birds in the Brazilian Amazon and tests the hypothesis that converting forest to oil palm decreases functional diversity of bird communities, selecting species more tolerant to environmental disturbances. We conducted point counts to survey bird communities in 16 plots in the eastern Amazon. We sampled 32 points in riparian forest, 128 in oil palm and 160 in forested habitats. To test whether the conversion of forest into oil palm plantations affects functional diversity of birds we calculated the FD (Functional Diversity) and FRic (Functional Richness) indices. To examine whether oil palm plantations select species functionally more similar than expected by chance we used a null model (SES.FD). FD was significantly higher in the forest plots in comparison with riparian forests and oil palm, and lower in oil palm when compared with riparian forests. FRic, in turn, was greater in forest plots than in oil palm and in riparian forest. These results show that the conversion of forested areas to oil palm represents a great loss of functional strategies. The SES values indicate that in forested habitats bird communities tend to be functionally clustered while in the oil palm they are functionally overdispersed. The functional traits most affected by oil palm were those associated with diet and foraging stratum. In short, oil palm plantations reduced functional diversity of birds, although the presence of riparian forests within the plantations and the fragments of forest adjacent are extremely important for the maintenance of ecosystem services.

Estuarization increases functional diversity of demersal fish assemblages in tropical coastal ecosystems

This study assessed the influence of the seasonal fluctuation of abiotic conditions (wet v. dry season) on the functional diversity (FD) of tropical coastal fish assemblages. Sampling was carried out in three regions of north-east Brazil with contrasting coastlines (influenced by reef, lagoon and estuary). In each region, fishes were sampled from three depth strata (10, 20 and 30 m) and FD was estimated using an index based on key phenotypic and behavioural characteristics. All three regions had higher FD in the wet season at shallower depths, indicating the coexistence of species with low functional redundancy in sites subject to seasonal flushing of fresh water. Deeper sites had lower FD than shallower sites, although this difference was less pronounced for region 3, which is strongly affected by its proximity to the São Francisco estuary. The results broadly support the hypothesis that alterations in abiotic conditions in the wet season allow estuarine-adapted fishes with a different suite of functional traits to invade shallow coastal regions.

Bird functional diversity decreases with time since disturbance: Does patchy prescribed fire enhance ecosystem function?

Animal species diversity is often associated with time since disturbance, but the effects of disturbances such as fire on functional diversity are unknown. Functional diversity measures the range, abundance, and distribution of trait values in a community, and links changes in species composition with the consequences for ecosystem function. Improved understanding of the relationship between time since fire (TSF) and functional diversity is critical given that the frequency of both prescribed fire and wildfire is expected to increase. To address this knowledge gap, we examined responses of avian functional diversity to TSF and two direct measures of environmental heterogeneity, plant diversity, and structural heterogeneity. We surveyed birds across a 70-year chronosequence spanning four vegetation types in southeast Australia. Six bird functional traits were used to derive four functional diversity indices (richness, evenness, divergence, and dispersion) and the effects of TSF, plant diversity and structural heterogeneity on species richness and the functional diversity indices were examined using mixed models. We used a regression tree method to identify traits associated with species more common in young vegetation. Functional richness and dispersion were negatively associated with TSF in all vegetation types, suggesting that recent prescribed fire generates heterogeneous vegetation and provides greater opportunities for resource partitioning. Species richness was not significantly associated with TSF, and is probably an unreliable surrogate for functional diversity in fire-prone systems. A positive, relationship between functional evenness and structural heterogeneity was comnon to all vegetation types, suggesting that fine-scale (tens of meters) structural variation can enhance ecosystem function. Species more common in young vegetation were primarily linked by their specialist diets, indicating that ecosystem services such as seed dispersal and insect control are enhanced in more recently burnt vegetation. We suggest that patchy prescribed fire sustains functional diversity, and that controlled use of patchy fire to break up large expanses of mature vegetation will enhance ecosystem function.

Fish complementarity is associated to forests in Amazonian streams

The functional structure of communities is commonly measured by the variability in functional traits, which may demonstrate complementarity or redundancy patterns. In this study, we tested the influence of environmental variables on the functional structure of fish assemblages in Amazonian streams within a deforestation gradient. We calculated six ecomorphological traits related to habitat use from each fish species, and used them to calculate the net relatedness index (NRI) and the nearest taxon index (NTI). The set of species that used the habitat differently (complementary or overdispersed assemblages) occurred in sites with a greater proportion of forests. The set of species that used the habitat in a similar way (redundant or clustered assemblages) occurred in sites with a greater proportion of grasses in the stream banks. Therefore, the deforestation of entire watersheds, which has occurred in many Amazonian regions, may be a central factor for the functional homogenization of fish fauna.

Functional over-redundancy and high functional vulnerability in global fish faunas on tropical reefs

When tropical systems lose species, they are often assumed to be buffered against declines in functional diversity by the ability of the species-rich biota to display high functional redundancy: i.e., a high number of species performing similar functions. We tested this hypothesis using a ninefold richness gradient in global fish faunas on tropical reefs encompassing 6,316 species distributed among 646 functional entities (FEs): i.e., unique combinations of functional traits. We found that the highest functional redundancy is located in the Central Indo-Pacific with a mean of 7.9 species per FE. However, this overall level of redundancy is disproportionately packed into few FEs, a pattern termed functional over-redundancy (FOR). For instance, the most speciose FE in the Central Indo-Pacific contains 222 species (out of 3,689) whereas 38% of FEs (180 out of 468) have no functional insurance with only one species. Surprisingly, the level of FOR is consistent across the six fish faunas, meaning that, whatever the richness, over a third of the species may still be in overrepresented FEs whereas more than one third of the FEs are left without insurance, these levels all being significantly higher than expected by chance. Thus, our study shows that, even in high-diversity systems, such as tropical reefs, functional diversity remains highly vulnerable to species loss. Although further investigations are needed to specifically address the influence of redundant vs. vulnerable FEs on ecosystem functioning, our results suggest that the promised benefits from tropical biodiversity may not be as strong as previously thought.

Does logging and forest conversion to oil palm agriculture alter functional diversity in a biodiversity hotspot?

Forests in Southeast Asia are rapidly being logged and converted to oil palm. These changes in land-use are known to affect species diversity but consequences for the functional diversity of species assemblages are poorly understood. Environmental filtering of species with similar traits could lead to disproportionate reductions in trait diversity in degraded habitats. Here, we focus on dung beetles, which play a key role in ecosystem processes such as nutrient recycling and seed dispersal. We use morphological and behavioural traits to calculate a variety of functional diversity measures across a gradient of disturbance from primary forest through intensively logged forest to oil palm. Logging caused significant shifts in community composition but had very little effect on functional diversity, even after a repeated timber harvest. These data provide evidence for functional redundancy of dung beetles within primary forest and emphasize the high value of logged forests as refugia for biodiversity. In contrast, conversion of forest to oil palm greatly reduced taxonomic and functional diversity, with a marked decrease in the abundance of nocturnal foragers, a higher proportion of species with small body sizes and the complete loss of telecoprid species (dung-rollers), all indicating a decrease in the functional capacity of dung beetles within plantations. These changes also highlight the vulnerability of community functioning within logged forests in the event of further environmental degradation.

Trophic flexibility and the persistence of understory birds in intensively logged rainforest

Effects of logging on species composition in tropical rainforests are well known but may fail to reveal key changes in species interactions. We used nitrogen stable-isotope analysis of 73 species of understory birds to quantify trophic responses to repeated intensive logging of rainforest in northern Borneo and to test 4 hypotheses: logging has significant effects on trophic positions and trophic-niche widths of species, and the persistence of species in degraded forest is related to their trophic positions and trophic-niche widths in primary forest. Species fed from higher up the food chain and had narrower trophic-niche widths in degraded forest. Species with narrow trophic-niche widths in primary forest were less likely to persist after logging, a result that indicates a higher vulnerability of dietary specialists to local extinction following habitat disturbance. Persistence of species in degraded forest was not related to a species' trophic position. These results indicate changes in trophic organization that were not apparent from changes in species composition and highlight the importance of focusing on trophic flexibility over the prevailing emphasis on membership of static feeding guilds. Our results thus support the notion that alterations to trophic organization and interactions within tropical forests may be a pervasive and functionally important hidden effect of forest degradation.

Conservation actions based on red lists do not capture the functional and phylogenetic diversity of birds in Brazil

Red Lists of threatened species play a critical role in conservation science and practice. However, policy-making based on Red Lists ignores ecological and evolutionary consequences of losing biodiversity because these lists focus on species alone. To decide if relying on Red Lists alone can help to conserve communities' functional (FD) and phylogenetic (PD) diversity, it is useful to evaluate whether Red List categories represent species with diverse ecological traits and evolutionary histories. Additionally, local scale analyses using regional Red Lists should represent more realistic pools of co-occurring species and thereby better capture eventual losses of FD and PD. Here, we used 21 life-history traits and a phylogeny for all Brazilian birds to determine whether species assigned under the IUCN global Red List, the Brazilian national, and regional Red Lists capture more FD and PD than expected by chance. We also built local Red Lists and analysed if they capture more FD and PD at the local scale. Further, we investigated whether individual threat categories have species with greater FD and PD than expected by chance. At any given scale, threat categories did not capture greater FD or PD than expected by chance. Indeed, mostly categories captured equal or less FD or PD than expected by chance. These findings would not have great consequences if Red Lists were not often considered as a major decision support tool for policy-making. Our results challenge the practice of investing conservation resources based only on species Red Lists because, from an ecological and evolutionary point of view, this would be the same as protecting similar or random sets of species. Thus, new prioritization methods, such as the EDGE of Existence initiative, should be developed and applied to conserve species' ecological traits and evolutionary histories at different spatial scales.