1
|
Mattila H, Khorobrykh S, Tyystjärvi E. Flavonols do not affect aphid load in green or senescing birch leaves but coincide with a decrease in Photosystem II functionality. Biol Open 2024; 13:bio060325. [PMID: 38885004 PMCID: PMC11261631 DOI: 10.1242/bio.060325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Instead of red anthocyanins, birches synthesise colourless (to human eye), UV-absorbing flavonols during autumn senescence. To test if flavonols protect against insects, and if leaves with high or low amounts of flavonols differ in their photosynthetic functions, aphid-free and aphid-infested green and senescing birch leaves were collected from outdoor-grown trees and analysed. Photosynthetic parameters were greatly affected by the leaf chlorophyll content (i.e. the phase of senescence). Photochemical quenching and the amount of functional Photosystem I decreased linearly with chlorophyll content, while FV/FM (Photosystem II functionality) decreased strongly only at the end of senescence. Non-photochemical quenching of excitation energy (NPQ) increased towards the end of senescence. However, no significant differences in the total flavonol amounts, nor in individual flavonol species, were found between aphid-free and aphid-infested leaves, suggesting that flavonols play no role in defence against aphid herbivory. Interestingly, both green and senescing leaves with a high flavonol content showed low FV/FM values. High flavonol content slowed down PSII photoinhibition and improved recovery, but only in green leaves. Previously, we proposed that anthocyanins provide an additional sink for photosynthates at the nitrogen resorption phase during autumn senescence, and the present data may suggest that flavonol synthesis plays a similar role.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heta Mattila
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Itäinen Pitkäkatu 4 C 6th floor, 20520 Turku, Finland
- Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, University of Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Sergey Khorobrykh
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Itäinen Pitkäkatu 4 C 6th floor, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Esa Tyystjärvi
- Department of Life Technologies/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Itäinen Pitkäkatu 4 C 6th floor, 20520 Turku, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lin B, Ma H, Zhang K, Cui J. Regulatory mechanisms and metabolic changes of miRNA during leaf color change in the bud mutation branches of Acer pictum subsp. mono. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 13:1047452. [PMID: 36714704 PMCID: PMC9879609 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1047452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Acer pictum subsp. mono is a colorful tree species with considerable ornamental and economic value. However, little is known about the metabolism and regulatory mechanism of leaf color change in A. p. subsp. mono. To reveal the molecular mechanism of leaf color change in A. p. subsp. mono, the present study examined the bud mutation branches and compared the metabolites of the red leaves (AR) of the bud mutation branches of A. p. subsp. mono with those of the green leaves (AG) of the wild-type branches. It was found that the chlorophyll and carotenoids content of the red leaves decreased significantly, while anthocyanins, and various antioxidant enzymes increased significantly compared with the green leaves. The glycosides cyanidin, pelargonidin, malvidin, petunidin, delphinidin, and peonidin were detected in AR by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The cyanidin glycosides increased, and cyanidin 3-O-glycoside was significantly upregulated. We analyzed the transcriptome and small RNA of A. p. subsp. mono leaves and detected 4061 differentially expressed mRNAs and 116 differentially expressed miRNAs. Through miRNA-mRNA association analysis, five differentially expressed modules were found; one miRNA targeted three genes, and four miRNAs targeted a single gene. Among them, miR160b, miR6300, and miR396g were found to be the key miRNAs regulating stable anthocyanin accumulation in A. p. subsp. mono leaves. By revealing the physiological response of leaf color change and the molecular regulatory mechanism of the miRNA, this study provides new insight into the molecular regulatory mechanism of leaf color change, thereby offering a foundation for future studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Baoli Lin
- College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - He Ma
- College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Kezhong Zhang
- College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, China
- Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| | - Jinteng Cui
- College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, China
- Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lev‐Yadun S. The phenomenon of red and yellow autumn leaves: Hypotheses, agreements and disagreements. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1245-1282. [PMID: 35975328 PMCID: PMC9804425 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Yellow and red autumn leaves are typical of many temperate/boreal woody plants. Since the 19th century, it has been either considered the non-functional outcome of chlorophyll degradation that unmasks the pre-existing yellow and red pigments or that the de novo synthesis of red anthocyanins in autumn leaves indicated that it should have a physiological function, although it was commonly ignored. Defending free amino acids and various other resources released especially following the breakdown of the photosynthetic system, and mobilizing them for storage in other organs before leaf fall, is the cornerstone of both the physiological and anti-herbivory hypotheses about the functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration. The complicated phenomenon of conspicuous autumn leaf colouration has received significant attention since the year 2000, especially because ecologists started paying attention to its anti-herbivory potential. The obvious imperfection of the hypotheses put forth in several papers stimulated many other scientists. Hot debates among physiologists, among ecologists, and between physiologists and ecologists have been common since the year 2000, first because the various functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration are non-exclusive, and second because many scientists were trained to focus on a single subject. Here, I will review the debates, especially between the photoprotective and the anti-herbivory hypotheses, and describe both the progress in their understanding and the required progress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev‐Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural SciencesUniversity of HaifaTivonIsrael
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Zhang L, Zhang J, Mao Y, Yin Y, Shen X. Physiological analysis and transcriptome sequencing of a delayed-green leaf mutant 'Duojiao' of ornamental crabapple ( Malus sp.). PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF PLANTS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 28:1833-1848. [PMID: 36484024 PMCID: PMC9723064 DOI: 10.1007/s12298-022-01248-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Malus spectabilis 'Duojiao' is a spontaneous delayed-green leaf color mutant of M. spectabilis 'Riversii' and has chloroplasts with irregularly arranged vesicles and indistinct stromal lamellae. The yellow leaves of mutant have less chlorophyll (Chl), carotenoids, and flavonoids. Measurement of photosynthetic gas exchange indicated that the mutant has lower photosynthetic activity than 'Riversii' plants. Transcriptome sequencing with the Illumina platform was used to characterize differences in gene expression between the leaves of plants with yellow and green colors and elucidate the molecular mechanisms responsible for variation in leaf color in ornamental crabapple. In the comparison group of mutant yellow leaves and the maternal green leaves, 1848 differentially significant expressed genes (DEGs) were annotated by transcriptomic analysis. Many DEGs and transcription factors were identified related to chloroplast development, Chl synthesis and degradation, photosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis, flavonoid biosynthesis and other pathways related to plant leaf color formation. Among these, the Chl biosynthesis-related coproporphyrinogen gene, oxidative decarboxylase gene, and Chl a oxygenase gene were down-regulated, indicating that Chl biosynthesis was blocked. GLK1, which regulates chloroplast development, was down-regulated in yellow leaves. Parallel experiments showed that the content of the Chl synthesis precursors, protoporphyrinogen IX, chlorophyllide a, and chlorophyllide b and the activity of chlorophyllogen III oxidase and chlorophyllide a oxygenase in the yellow leaves of 'Duojiao' were lower than those in the green leaves of 'Riversii'. Thus, leaf color formation is greatly affected by Chl metabolism and chloroplast development. The reliability of the RNA-sequencing data was confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR analysis with 12 selected DEGs. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-022-01248-7.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018 Shandong China
| | - Junkang Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory of Tree Breeding, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, 100083 China
| | - Yunfei Mao
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018 Shandong China
| | - Yijun Yin
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018 Shandong China
| | - Xiang Shen
- State Key Laboratory for Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, 271018 Shandong China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang M, Shen J, Wu Y, Zhang X, Zhao Z, Wang J, Cheng T, Zhang Q, Pan H. Comparative transcriptome analysis identified ChlH and POLGAMMA2 in regulating yellow-leaf coloration in Forsythia. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1009575. [PMID: 36160960 PMCID: PMC9501713 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1009575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Leaf color is one of the most important features for plants used for landscape and ornamental purposes. However, the regulatory mechanism of yellow leaf coloration still remains elusive in many plant species. To understand the complex genetic mechanism of yellow-leaf Forsythia, we first compared the pigment content and leaf anatomical structure of yellow-leaf and green-leaf accessions derived from a hybrid population. The physiological and cytological analyses demonstrated that yellow-leaf progenies were chlorophyll deficient with defected chloroplast structure. With comparative transcriptome analysis, we identified a number of candidate genes differentially expressed between yellow-leaf and green-leaf Forsythia plants. Among these genes, we further screened out two candidates, ChlH (magnesium chelatase Subunit H) and POLGAMMA2 (POLYMERASE GAMMA 2), with consistent relative-expression pattern between different colored plants. To verify the gene function, we performed virus-induced gene silencing assays and observed yellow-leaf phenotype with total chlorophyll content reduced by approximately 66 and 83% in ChlH-silenced and POLGAMMA2-silenced plants, respectively. We also observed defected chloroplast structure in both ChlH-silenced and POLGAMMA2-silenced Forsythia. Transient over-expression of ChlH and POLGAMMA2 led to increased chlorophyll content and restored thylakoid architecture in yellow-leaf Forsythia. With transcriptome sequencing, we detected a number of genes related to chlorophyll biosynthesis and chloroplast development that were responsive to the silencing of ChlH and POLGAMMA2. To summarize, ChlH and POLGAMMA2 are two key genes that possibly related to yellow-leaf coloration in Forsythia through modulating chlorophyll synthesis and chloroplast ultrastructure. Our study provided insights into the molecular aspects of yellow-leaf Forsythia and expanded the knowledge of foliage color regulation in woody ornamental plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Man Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Jianshuang Shen
- Department of Landscape Architecture, Jiyang College, Zhejiang A&F University, Zhuji, China
| | - Yutong Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaolu Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Zhengtian Zhao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Jia Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Tangren Cheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Qixiang Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| | - Huitang Pan
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Ornamental Plants Germplasm Innovation and Molecular Breeding, National Engineering Research Center for Floriculture, Beijing Laboratory of Urban and Rural Ecological Environment, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Belz RG, Sinkkonen A. Low glyphosate doses change reproduction and produce tolerant offspring in dense populations of Hordeum vulgare. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2021; 77:4770-4784. [PMID: 34148282 DOI: 10.1002/ps.6522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low toxin doses that do not affect mean responses in plant populations can still change the growth of subpopulations. Studies covering vegetative stages ascribed fast-growing plants higher thresholds for growth stimulation and inhibition, compared with the rest of the population. We hypothesized that such selective effects also play a role after reproduction; that is, the offspring of glyphosate-treated tolerant, fast-growing phenotypes is more tolerant than the offspring of untreated plants. An experimental, high-density barley population was exposed to a range of glyphosate concentrations in the greenhouse, and reproduction and final growth were analyzed for selective effects. Therefore, F0, F1 treated and F1 non-treated offspring were re-exposed to glyphosate. RESULTS Low doses of glyphosate inhibited the growth and reproduction of slow-growing plants at concentrations that did not change the population mean. Concentrations that inhibited average-sized plants hormetically increased the biomass and seed yield of fast-growing plants. Compared with F0 and F1 non-treated offspring, F1-treated offspring from hormetically stimulated fast-growing plants were more glyphosate tolerant. Hence, a pesticide can shape the reproductive pattern of a plant population and alter offspring tolerance at concentrations that have no effect on average yield. CONCLUSIONS Toxin levels that do not change the population mean still alter the reproductive output of individuals. Sensitive phenotypes suffer, whereas the reproduction of tolerant phenotypes is boosted compared with toxin-free conditions. Because glyphosate is one of the leading herbicides in the world, tolerant phenotypes may benefit from current agricultural practices. If these results apply to other toxicants, low toxin doses may increase the fitness of tolerant phenotypes in a way not previously anticipated. © 2021 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Regina G Belz
- University of Hohenheim, Hans-Ruthenberg Institute, Agroecology Unit, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Aki Sinkkonen
- University of Helsinki, Ecosystems and Environment Research Programme, Environmental Ecology Unit, Lahti, Finland
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE), Turku, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Snyder LD, Gómez MI, Mudrak EL, Power AG. Landscape-dependent effects of varietal mixtures on insect pest control and implications for farmer profits. ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS : A PUBLICATION OF THE ECOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2021; 31:e02246. [PMID: 33124091 PMCID: PMC7988554 DOI: 10.1002/eap.2246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2019] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Intraspecific plant diversity can significantly impact insect herbivore populations in natural systems. Yet, its role as an insect pest control strategy in agriculture has received less attention, and little is known about which crop traits are important to herbivores in different landscape contexts. Moreover, empirical economic analyses on the cost-effectiveness of varietal mixtures are lacking. We used varietal mixtures of Brassica oleracea crops on working farms to examine how two metrics of intraspecific crop diversity, varietal richness and number of plant colors (color richness), affect crop damage and the incidence and abundance of two insect pest species: Pieris rapae and Phyllotreta spp. We evaluated the context-dependency of varietal mixtures by sampling early- and late-season plantings of B. oleracea crops in farms across a gradient of landscape composition. We developed crop budgets and used a net present value analysis to assess the impact of varietal mixtures on input and labor costs, crop revenues, and profit. We found context-dependent effects of varietal mixtures on both pests. In early-season plantings, color richness did not affect Phyllotreta spp. populations. However, increasing varietal richness reduced Phyllotreta spp. incidence in simple landscapes dominated by cropland, but this trend was reversed in complex landscapes dominated by natural habitats. In late-season plantings, color richness reduced the incidence and abundance of P. rapae larvae, but only in complex landscapes where their populations were highest. Varietal richness had the same effect on P. rapae larvae as color richness. Unexpectedly, we consistently found lower pest pressure and reduced crop damage in simple landscapes. Although varietal mixtures did not affect crop damage, increasing color richness corresponded with increased profits, due to increased revenue and a marginal reduction in labor and input costs. We demonstrate varietal mixtures can significantly impact pest populations, and this effect can be mediated by intraspecific variation in crop color. However, the strength and direction of these effects vary by season, landscape composition, and pest species. The association between varietal color richness and profitability indicates farmers could design mixtures to enhance economic returns. We recommend additional research on the benefits of intraspecific trait variation for farmers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren D. Snyder
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaNew York14853USA
| | - Miguel I. Gómez
- Charles H. Dyson School of Applied Economics and ManagementCornell UniversityIthacaNew York14853USA
| | - Erika L. Mudrak
- Cornell Statistical Consulting UnitCornell UniversityIthacaNew York14853USA
| | - Alison G. Power
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary BiologyCornell UniversityIthacaNew York14853USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Pena-Novas I, Archetti M. Biogeography and evidence for adaptive explanations of autumn colors. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2020; 228:809-813. [PMID: 32390154 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ines Pena-Novas
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Marco Archetti
- Department of Biology and Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dong X, Huang L, Chen Q, Lv Y, Sun H, Liang Z. Physiological and Anatomical Differences and Differentially Expressed Genes Reveal Yellow Leaf Coloration in Shumard Oak. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E169. [PMID: 32024044 PMCID: PMC7076436 DOI: 10.3390/plants9020169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Shumard oak (Quercus shumardii Buckley) is a traditional foliage plant, but little is known about its regulatory mechanism of yellow leaf coloration. Here, the yellow leaf variety of Q. shumardii named 'Zhongshan Hongjincai' (identified as 'ZH' throughout this work) and a green leaf variety named 'Shumard oak No. 23' (identified as 'SO' throughout this work) were compared. 'ZH' had lower chlorophyll content and higher carotenoid content; photosynthetic characteristics and chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were also lower. Moreover, the mesophyll cells of 'ZH' showed reduced number of chloroplasts and some structural damage. In addition, transcriptomic analysis identified 39,962 differentially expressed genes, and their expression levels were randomly verified. Expressions of chlorophyll biosynthesis-related glumly-tRNA reductase gene and Mg-chelatase gene were decreased, while pheophorbide a oxygenase gene associated with chlorophyll degradation was up-regulated in 'ZH'. Simultaneously, carotenoid isomerase gene, z-carotene desaturase gene, violaxanthin de-epoxidase gene and zeaxanthin epoxidase gene involved in carotenoid biosynthesis were up-regulated in 'ZH'. These gene expression changes were accompanied by decreased chlorophyll content and enhanced carotenoid accumulation in 'ZH'. Consequently, changes in the ratio of carotenoids to chlorophyll could be driving the yellow leaf coloration in Q. shumardii.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Libin Huang
- Jiangsu Academy of Forestry, Nanjing 211153, China; (X.D.); (Q.C.); (Y.L.); (H.S.); (Z.L.)
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Renner SS, Zohner CM. The occurrence of red and yellow autumn leaves explained by regional differences in insolation and temperature. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:1464-1471. [PMID: 31070794 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Red or yellow autumn leaves have long fascinated biologists, but their geographical concentration in trees in Eastern North America (ENA) has defied evolutionary explanations. In this review, anthocyanins and xanthophylls are discussed in relation to their occurrence in different regions of the Northern Hemisphere, phylogenetic distribution and photoprotective function during the breakdown of chlorophylls. Pigments in senescing leaves that intercept incident light and dissipate the absorbed energy extend the time available for nutrient resorption. Experiments with Arabidopsis have revealed greatest anthocyanin photoprotective function at low temperatures and high light intensities, and high-resolution solar irradiation maps reveal that ENA and Asia receive higher irradiation than does Europe. In addition, ENA experiences higher temperature fluctuations in autumn, resulting in cold snaps during leaf senescence. Under common garden conditions, chlorophyll degradation occurs earlier in ENA species than in their European and East Asian relatives. In combination, strong solar irradiation, temperature fluctuations and, on average, 3-wk shorter vegetation periods of ENA species favour investment in pigments to extend the time for nutrient resorption before abscission, explaining the higher frequency of coloured species in ENA compared to Europe. We end by outlining research that could test this new explanation of bright New England autumns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Susanne S Renner
- Systematic Botany and Mycology, University of Munich (LMU), Menzinger Str. 67, Munich, 80638, Germany
| | - Constantin M Zohner
- Institute of Integrative Biology, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Belz RG, Sinkkonen A. Low toxin doses change plant size distribution in dense populations - Glyphosate exposed Hordeum vulgare as a greenhouse case study. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 132:105072. [PMID: 31401414 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Numerous intentionally released toxins persist in agricultural or natural environments at low concentrations. Such low toxin doses are regularly associated with hormesis, i.e., growth stimulation, and they are suspected to affect mortality and within-population plant size distribution in dense plant stands. However, it is not known whether all these low-dose effects exist when plants grow in soil. We exposed barley to a range of low glyphosate doses and let the plants grow in dense stands for several weeks in soil. Six experiments were done that contained altogether 10,260 seedlings in 572 pots. We evaluated if the changes in average biomass and shoot length occur at the same concentrations as do the effects on slow- and fast-growing individuals, if seed size or early vigor explains variation in the response to glyphosate, and if low toxin doses change within-population mortality. Plant biomass, length and survival of subpopulations changed at doses that did not affect mean biomass. Effects of early vigor faded early, but differences in seed size and particularly vegetative growth had impacts: fast-growing plants hardly showed hormesis, whereas hormesis was particularly strong among slow-growing individuals. Compared to the population mean, glyphosate effects started at lower doses among slow-growing individuals and at higher doses among fast-growing individuals. Several times higher doses were needed before the fast-growing individuals showed the same toxicity as most of the population. Low toxin doses regularly enhanced the growth of the smallest individuals, which reduced size variation within populations and was associated with a higher number of surviving plants. Indeed, in one experiment self-thinning was not observed at low doses that stimulated the growth of slow-growing plants. As glyphosate levels in this study match those observed in agricultural fields and natural environments, we conclude that even low-levels of agro-environmental contamination are likely to shape phenotypic response, which might lead to adaptation and cascading ecological impacts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Regina G Belz
- University of Hohenheim, Hans-Ruthenberg Institute, Agroecology Unit, Garbenstraße 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Aki Sinkkonen
- University of Helsinki, Ecosystems and Environment Research Programme, Environmental Ecology Unit, Niemenkatu 73, 15140 Lahti, Finland.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Belz RG, Patama M, Sinkkonen A. Low doses of six toxicants change plant size distribution in dense populations of Lactuca sativa. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 631-632:510-523. [PMID: 29529439 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Toxicants are known to have negligible or stimulatory, i.e. hormetic, effects at low doses below those that decrease the mean response of a plant population. Our earlier observations indicated that at such low toxicant doses the growth of very fast- and slow-growing seedlings is selectively altered, even if the population mean remains constant. Currently, it is not known how common these selective low-dose effects are, whether they are similar among fast- and slow-growing seedlings, and whether they occur concurrently with hormetic effects. We tested the response of Lactuca sativa in complete dose-response experiments to six different toxicants at doses that did not decrease population mean and beyond. The tested toxicants were IAA, parthenin, HHCB, 4-tert-octylphenol, glyphosate, and pelargonic acid. Each experiment consisted of 14,400-16,800 seedlings, 12-14 concentrations, 24 replicates per concentration and 50 germinated seeds per replicate. We analyzed the commonness of selective low-dose effects and explored if toxic effects and hormetic stimulation among fast- and slow-growing individuals occurred at the same concentrations as they occur at the population level. Irrespective of the observed response pattern and toxicant, selective low-dose effects were found. Toxin effects among fast-growing individuals usually started at higher doses compared to the population mean, while the opposite was found among slow-growing individuals. Very low toxin exposures tended to homogenize plant populations due to selective effects, while higher, but still hormetic doses tended to heterogenize plant populations. Although the extent of observed size segregation varied with the specific toxin tested, we conclude that a dose-dependent alteration in size distribution of a plant population may generally apply for many toxin exposures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Regina G Belz
- University of Hohenheim, Hans-Ruthenberg Institute, Agroecology Unit, Garbenstraße 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Marjo Patama
- University of Hohenheim, Hans-Ruthenberg Institute, Agroecology Unit, Garbenstraße 13, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany; University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Environmental Ecology Unit, Niemenkatu 73, 15140 Lahti, Finland
| | - Aki Sinkkonen
- University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Environmental Ecology Unit, Niemenkatu 73, 15140 Lahti, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Mattila H, Valev D, Havurinne V, Khorobrykh S, Virtanen O, Antinluoma M, Mishra KB, Tyystjärvi E. Degradation of chlorophyll and synthesis of flavonols during autumn senescence-the story told by individual leaves. AOB PLANTS 2018; 10:ply028. [PMID: 29977486 PMCID: PMC6007487 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/ply028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Autumn senescence of deciduous trees is characterized by chlorophyll degradation and flavonoid synthesis. In the present study, chlorophyll and flavonol contents were measured every morning and evening during the whole autumn with a non-destructive method from individual leaves of Sorbus aucuparia, Acer platanoides, Betula pendula and Prunus padus. In most of the studied trees, the chlorophyll content of each individual leaf remained constant until a phase of rapid degradation commenced. The fast phase lasted only ~1 week and ended with abscission. In S. aucuparia, contrary to the other species, the chlorophyll content of leaflets slowly but steadily decreased during the whole autumn, but rapid chlorophyll degradation commenced only prior to leaflet abscission also in this species. An increase in flavonols commonly accompanied the rapid degradation of chlorophyll. The results may suggest that each individual tree leaf retains its photosynthetic activity, reflected by a high chlorophyll content, until a rapid phase of chlorophyll degradation and flavonoid synthesis begins. Therefore, in studies of autumn senescence, leaves whose chlorophyll content is decreasing and leaves with summertime chlorophyll content (i.e. the leaves that have not yet started to degrade chlorophyll) should be treated separately.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heta Mattila
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Dimitar Valev
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Vesa Havurinne
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Sergey Khorobrykh
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Olli Virtanen
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Mikko Antinluoma
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Kumud B Mishra
- Global Change Research Institute, CAS, Bělidla, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Esa Tyystjärvi
- Department of Biochemistry/Molecular Plant Biology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Corresponding author’s e-mail address:
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Mikola J, Silfver T, Paaso U, Possen BJMH, Rousi M. Leaf N resorption efficiency and litter N mineralization rate have a genotypic tradeoff in a silver birch population. Ecology 2018; 99:1227-1235. [DOI: 10.1002/ecy.2176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Juha Mikola
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences Ecosystems and Environment Research Programme University of Helsinki Niemenkatu 73 15140 Lahti Finland
| | - Tarja Silfver
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences Ecosystems and Environment Research Programme University of Helsinki Niemenkatu 73 15140 Lahti Finland
| | - Ulla Paaso
- Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences Ecosystems and Environment Research Programme University of Helsinki Niemenkatu 73 15140 Lahti Finland
| | - Boy J. M. H. Possen
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke) Finlandiantie 18 58450 Punkaharju Finland
| | - Matti Rousi
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke) Latokartanonkaari 9 00790 Helsinki Finland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Paaso U, Keski-Saari S, Keinänen M, Karvinen H, Silfver T, Rousi M, Mikola J. Intrapopulation Genotypic Variation of Foliar Secondary Chemistry during Leaf Senescence and Litter Decomposition in Silver Birch ( Betula pendula). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:1074. [PMID: 28694813 PMCID: PMC5483462 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Abundant secondary metabolites, such as condensed tannins, and their interpopulation genotypic variation can remain through plant leaf senescence and affect litter decomposition. Whether the intrapopulation genotypic variation of a more diverse assortment of secondary metabolites equally persists through leaf senescence and litter decomposition is not well understood. We analyzed concentrations of intracellular phenolics, epicuticular flavonoid aglycones, epicuticular triterpenoids, condensed tannins, and lignin in green leaves, senescent leaves and partly decomposed litter of silver birch, Betula pendula. Broad-sense heritability (H2) and coefficient of genotypic variation (CVG) were estimated for metabolites in senescent leaves and litter using 19 genotypes selected from a B. pendula population in southern Finland. We found that most of the secondary metabolites remained through senescence and decomposition and that their persistence was related to their chemical properties. Intrapopulation H2 and CVG for intracellular phenolics, epicuticular flavonoid aglycones and condensed tannins were high and remarkably, increased from senescent leaves to decomposed litter. The rank of genotypes in metabolite concentrations was persistent through litter decomposition. Lignin was an exception, however, with a diminishing genotypic variation during decomposition, and the concentrations of lignin and condensed tannins had a negative genotypic correlation in the senescent leaves. Our results show that secondary metabolites and their intrapopulation genotypic variation can for the most part remain through leaf senescence and early decomposition, which is a prerequisite for initial litter quality to predict variation in litter decomposition rates. Persistent genotypic variation also opens an avenue for selection to impact litter decomposition in B. pendula populations through acting on their green foliage secondary chemistry. The negative genotypic correlations and diminishing heritability of lignin concentrations may, however, counteract this process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ulla Paaso
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of HelsinkiLahti, Finland
| | - Sarita Keski-Saari
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern FinlandJoensuu, Finland
| | - Markku Keinänen
- Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern FinlandJoensuu, Finland
| | - Heini Karvinen
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of HelsinkiLahti, Finland
| | - Tarja Silfver
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of HelsinkiLahti, Finland
| | - Matti Rousi
- Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)Helsinki, Finland
| | - Juha Mikola
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of HelsinkiLahti, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Green JP, Foster R, Wilkins L, Osorio D, Hartley SE. Leaf Colour as a Signal of Chemical Defence to Insect Herbivores in Wild Cabbage (Brassica oleracea). PLoS One 2015; 10:e0136884. [PMID: 26353086 PMCID: PMC4564265 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leaf colour has been proposed to signal levels of host defence to insect herbivores, but we lack data on herbivory, leaf colour and levels of defence for wild host populations necessary to test this hypothesis. Such a test requires measurements of leaf spectra as they would be sensed by herbivore visual systems, as well as simultaneous measurements of chemical defences and herbivore responses to leaf colour in natural host-herbivore populations. In a large-scale field survey of wild cabbage (Brassica oleracea) populations, we show that variation in leaf colour and brightness, measured according to herbivore spectral sensitivities, predicts both levels of chemical defences (glucosinolates) and abundance of specialist lepidopteran (Pieris rapae) and hemipteran (Brevicoryne brassicae) herbivores. In subsequent experiments, P. rapae larvae achieved faster growth and greater pupal mass when feeding on plants with bluer leaves, which contained lower levels of aliphatic glucosinolates. Glucosinolate-mediated effects on larval performance may thus contribute to the association between P. rapae herbivory and leaf colour observed in the field. However, preference tests found no evidence that adult butterflies selected host plants based on leaf coloration. In the field, B. brassicae abundance varied with leaf brightness but greenhouse experiments were unable to identify any effects of brightness on aphid preference or performance. Our findings suggest that although leaf colour reflects both levels of host defences and herbivore abundance in the field, the ability of herbivores to respond to colour signals may be limited, even in species where performance is correlated with leaf colour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan P. Green
- Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York, United Kingdom
| | - Rosie Foster
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Lucas Wilkins
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel Osorio
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Susan E. Hartley
- Department of Biology, University of York, Heslington, York, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Early shoot growth termination in Betula pendula is associated with the number of overwintering aphid eggs on boreal birches. Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9741-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
18
|
Growth and genotype × environment interactions in Betula pendula: can tree genetic variation be maintained by small-scale forest ground heterogeneity? Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9708-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
19
|
Silfver T, Rousi M, Oksanen E, Roininen H. Genetic and environmental determinants of insect herbivore community structure in a Betula pendula population. F1000Res 2014; 3:34. [PMID: 24715977 PMCID: PMC3962004 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.3-34.v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A number of recent studies have shown that intraspecific genetic variation of plants may have a profound effect on the herbivorous communities which depend on them. However less is known about the relative importance of intraspecific variation compared to other ecological factors, for example environmental variation or the effects of herbivore damage. We randomly selected 22
Betula pendula genotypes from a local population (< 0.9 ha), cloned them and planted cloned seedlings on two study sites separated at a regional scale (distance between sites about 30 km) to examine an insect community of 23-27 species on these genotypes.
B. pendula genotypes did not differ in their species richness, but the total mean abundance and the structure of the insect herbivore community was significantly affected by the genotype, which could account for up to 27% of the total variation in community structure.
B. pendula genotype accounted for two to four times more variation in the arthropod community structure than did environmental (block) variation on a local scale, while on a regional scale, genotypic and environmental (site) variation accounted for 4-14% of the arthropod community structure. The genetic effects were modified by environmental variation on both a local and regional scale over one study year, and locally, the largest part of the variation (38%) could be explained by the genotype × environment (block) interactions. Suppression of insect herbivores during one growing season led to changed arthropod community structure in the following growing season, but this effect was minimal and could explain only 4% of the total variation in insect community structure. Our results suggest that both genetic and environmental factors are important determinants of the community structure of herbivorous insects. Together these mechanisms appear to maintain the high diversity of insects in
B. pendula forest ecosystems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tarja Silfver
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Biology, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Matti Rousi
- Vantaa Research Unit, Finnish Forest Research Institute, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland
| | - Elina Oksanen
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Biology, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Heikki Roininen
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Biology, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Ghelardini L, Berlin S, Weih M, Lagercrantz U, Gyllenstrand N, Rönnberg-Wästljung AC. Genetic architecture of spring and autumn phenology in Salix. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2014; 14:31. [PMID: 24438179 PMCID: PMC3945485 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-14-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/03/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In woody plants from temperate regions, adaptation to the local climate results in annual cycles of growth and dormancy, and optimal regulation of these cycles are critical for growth, long-term survival, and competitive success. In this study we have investigated the genetic background to growth phenology in a Salix pedigree by assessing genetic and phenotypic variation in growth cessation, leaf senescence and bud burst in different years and environments. A previously constructed linkage map using the same pedigree and anchored to the annotated genome of P. trichocarpa was improved in target regions and used for QTL analysis of the traits. The major aims in this study were to map QTLs for phenology traits in Salix, and to identify candidate genes in QTL hot spots through comparative mapping with the closely related Populus trichocarpa. RESULTS All traits varied significantly among genotypes and the broad-sense heritabilities ranged between 0.5 and 0.9, with the highest for leaf senescence. In total across experiment and years, 80 QTLs were detected. For individual traits, the QTLs explained together from 21.5 to 56.5% of the variation. Generally each individual QTL explained a low amount of the variation but three QTLs explained above 15% of the variation with one QTL for leaf senescence explaining 34% of the variation. The majority of the QTLs were recurrently identified across traits, years and environments. Two hotspots were identified on linkage group (LG) II and X where narrow QTLs for all traits co-localized. CONCLUSIONS This study provides the most detailed analysis of QTL detection for phenology in Salix conducted so far. Several hotspot regions were found where QTLs for different traits and QTLs for the same trait but identified during different years co-localised. Many QTLs co-localised with QTLs found in poplar for similar traits that could indicate common pathways for these traits in Salicaceae. This study is an important first step in identifying QTLs and candidate genes for phenology traits in Salix.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Ghelardini
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
- Present address: Institute for Plant Protection, Italian National Research Council CNR, 50019 Sesto fiorentino, Italy
| | - Sofia Berlin
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Martin Weih
- Department of Crop Production Ecology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ulf Lagercrantz
- Department of Plant Ecology and Evolution, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, SE-752 36 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Niclas Gyllenstrand
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ann Christin Rönnberg-Wästljung
- Department of Plant Biology, Uppsala BioCenter, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and Linnean Center for Plant Biology, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
|
22
|
Lev-Yadun S, Keasar T. Prerequisites for evolution: variation and selection in yellow autumn birch leaves. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 195:282-284. [PMID: 22702405 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
- (Author for correspondence: tel +972 4 983 8827; )
| | - Tamar Keasar
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
| |
Collapse
|