Aerobic exercise training and cardiovascular reactivity to psychological stress in sedentary young normotensive men and women

Exercise training improves blood pressure reactivity to stress: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Blood pressure (BP) reactivity to stress is associated with cardiovascular events and the incidence of hypertension, therefore, tolerance to stressors is important for better management of cardiovascular risks. Exercise training is among the strategies that have been investigated as blunting the peak response to stressors, however, its efficacy is poorly explored. The aim was to explore the effects of exercise training (at least four weeks) on BP responses to stressor tasks in adults. A systematic review was performed in five electronic databases (MEDLINE, LILACS, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, and PsycInfo). Twenty-three studies and one conference abstract was included in the qualitative analysis, totaling 1121 individuals, and k = 17 and 695 individuals in the meta-analysis. Favorable results (random-effects) for exercise training were found, with attenuated peak responses in systolic (standardized mean difference (SMD) = -0.34 [-0.56; -0.11], representing average reductions of 2.5 ± 3.6 mmHg) and null effects on diastolic BP (SMD = -0.20 [-0.54; 0.14], representing average reductions of 2.0 ± 3.5 mmHg). The analysis removing outliers' studies improved the effects for diastolic (SMD = -0.21 [-0.38; -0.05]) but not systolic BP (SMD = -0.33 [-0.53; -0.13]). In conclusion, exercise training seems to lower stress-related BP reactivity, therefore has the potential to improve patients' ability to better respond to stressful situations.

Effects of acute endurance, strength, and coordination exercise interventions on attention in adolescents: A randomized controlled study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to compare three different modes of an acute bout of exercise - endurance, strength, and coordination - in their effects on adolescents' attention.

DESIGN

This was a preregistered, prospective, randomized intervention study with four groups and two distinct measurement occasions.

METHOD

Eighty adolescent students aged 15-18 years were randomized to one of three exercise intervention groups (endurance, strength, coordination) or to a non-exercise, control group. The exercise interventions lasted for 25 min. The random assignment to the study groups was stratified according to participants' age and gender. Before and after the exercise intervention, all participants completed the revised d2-test of attention. A 4 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA with contrast-coded test was used as the main analysis method.

RESULTS

Attentional test performance increased from before to after the exercise intervention for all exercise groups, as compared with the control group. The three exercise groups improved equally and did not differ in their attentional scores after the intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

An acute bout of exercise was in general beneficial for adolescent students' attention, while the mode of the provided exercise training was not decisive. School directors and teachers are encouraged to incorporate exercise-related breaks into their school plan.

Kinematic parameters and metabolic power in elite soccer players: A small sided a large sided games comparison

Introduction: The goal of this paper is to determine what happens in one minute (on average) in kinematic parameters and metabolic power in small sided games (SSG) (3v3; 5v5) and large sided games (LSG) (10v10) and in which games kinematic parameters and metabolic power are best developed. Methods: The participants of this study were 22 professional football players, height 182.95±6.52 cm, mass 77.17±8.21 kg, body mass index (BMI) 22.97±1.47 kg/m2, body fat 9.85±2.55 %, aged 27.1±5.4 yrs, who played in the Premier League of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Data total distance (TD), maximum speed (MS), number of accelerations (nAcc), number of decelerations (nDec), number of sprints (nS), high intensity distance (Z4≥19.8 km/h), sprint distance (Z5≥25.2 km/h) and movements requiring a certain metabolic power (Pmet), were collected using a 20 Hz Global positioning system (GPS) system Pro2 (GPEXE, Exelio srl, Udine, Italy), on a total of 307 individual observations. Results: The results showed that the average total distance was significantly higher in the 5v5 (135.16±18.78 m) and 10v10 (133.43±20.06 m) games (F=64.26, p<0.001) compared to the 3v3 (108.24±11.26 m). Furthermore, the values of the variables Z4 (8.32±3.38 m, F=97.59), Z5 (1.84±1.53 m, F=123.64), nS (0.13±0.10 n, F=96.14) as well as Maxspeed (27.06±1.90 km/h, F=139.33), are statistically significantly higher (p<0.001) in the 10v10 game compared to the other two game formats. The average number of nAcc (0.40±0.32 n, F=9.86, p<0.001) and nDec (0.62±0.36 n, F=6.42, p<0.001) is statistically significantly higher in the 5v5 game. The results showed that the 5v5 game is significantly more metabolically demanding Pmet (2.76±0.67 W•kg^-1, F=66.08, p<0.001) compared to the other two game formats. Discussion: The data presented in this paper can be used as a basis for the construction of specific exercises based on kinematic and physiological requirements, and for planning and programming microcycles in football.

Stress and cardiovascular risk burden after the pandemic: current status and future prospects

INTRODUCTION

The recent COVID-19 pandemic has induced an increase in anxiety, stress, and depression in the world population, prompting a reevaluation of these well-known risk factors on cardiovascular burden.

AREAS COVERED

This short report analyzes the impact of the pandemic on stress and depression, highlighting how the phenomenon has particularly affected women and highlights the strategies that can be undertaken after the pandemic to reduce stress and depression. We have analyzed the pandemic because it has completely changed the scenario of cardiovascular risk factors with an important increase in socio-economic stressors.

EXPERT OPINION

It is still difficult to assess the damage produced on cardiovascular risk just as it is almost impossible to predict how the overwhelming and important increase in Long-Covid Syndromes will impact the population. Strong action is needed to support critical situations and to implement social campaigns aimed at restoring healthy lifestyles. Physical activity can be an easy and inexpensive tool to help cope with stress and depression.

Mat Pilates training and blood pressure reactivity responses to psychological stress: comparison between normotensive and hypertensive postmenopausal women

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study is to compare resting blood pressure and blood pressure reactivity responses to psychological stress in normotensive and hypertensive postmenopausal women after 12 weeks of Mat Pilates training.

METHODS

Twenty-three hypertensive and 24 normotensive postmenopausal women, performed Mat Pilates training 3× a week for 12 weeks. Before and after the intervention, resting blood pressure, heart rate, and blood pressure reactivity to psychological stress through the electronic version of Stroop test protocol (3 minutes) were measured. We calculated the variation (Δ) of blood pressure (peak of blood pressure during the Stroop stress test minus resting blood pressure before test).

RESULTS

The two-way ANOVA showed that the Δ of systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and the mean blood pressure was reduced (P < 0.05) after training only in the hypertensive. The resting systolic, diastolic, and mean blood pressures decreased by (P < 0.05) over time in both groups with no interaction or difference.

CONCLUSION

Mat Pilates was able to reduce resting blood pressure in both hypertensive and normotensive, and blood pressure reactivity after psychological stress in hypertensive but not in normotensive postmenopausal women.

The effect of antecedent exercise on the acute stress response and subsequent food consumption: a preliminary investigation

Physical activity has been shown to be protective against many of the deleterious consequences of stress; however, the effects of exercise on stress-induced food consumption are unclear. This study examined the effect of an acute bout of exercise prior to exposure to an acute stressor on subsequent eating behavior, together with the physiological (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure, salivary cortisol) and psychological (e.g., mood, perceived stress) responses to stress. Twenty-three men and women completed four experimental conditions (control, exercise only, stress only, and exercise prior to stress) conducted in a counterbalanced order using a within-subjects repeated measures design. Ad libitum energy intake from a laboratory test meal was assessed at each trial, together with monitoring of physiological and psychological responses. No difference in total energy intake (p = 0.146) or energy intake from 'unhealthy' foods was noted between conditions (p = 0.783), despite lower circulating ghrelin when antecedent exercise was performed compared with stress alone (p < 0.05). Exposure to an acute stressor is not necessarily associated with alterations in subsequent food intake, nor does antecedent exercise prior to stress exposure affect food choices, despite transient alterations in the hunger hormone ghrelin.

The Impact of Aerobic Training on Cardiovascular Reactivity to and Recovery From Psychological and Orthostatic Challenge

OBJECTIVE

Elevated cardiovascular reactivity to, and reduced recovery from, challenging events may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease, and exercise training may reduce this reactivity. However, in a randomized controlled trial of aerobic versus strength training in sedentary, healthy young adults, we found no training group differences in reactivity or recovery. Because strength training also may have a reactivity-reducing effect, we conducted a secondary analysis of data from another trial, this time with a wait-list control condition.

METHODS

One hundred nineteen healthy, young, sedentary adults were randomized to a 12-week aerobic training program or wait-list control. Before (T1) and after (T2) training and after 4 weeks of sedentary deconditioning (T3), we measured heart rate (HR), heart rate variability, and blood pressure at rest and in response to and recovery from psychological and orthostatic challenge. Data were analyzed using a group (aerobic versus wait-list) by session (T1, T2, and deconditioning) and by period (baseline, psychological challenge, recovery, standing) three-way analysis of variance with prespecified contrasts.

RESULTS

Aerobic capacity significantly increased at T2 and decreased at T3 only in the aerobic training group. The groups did not differ on HR, heart rate variability, or blood pressure reactivity to or recovery from challenge. Without baseline adjustment, there were no significant treatment differences in response to challenges. With baseline adjustment, there were significant treatment by session effects for HR (Cohen d = 0.54, p = .002), systolic blood pressure (d = 0.44, p = .014), diastolic blood pressure (d = 0.74, p = .002), and root mean squared successive difference (d = 0.48, p = .006) reactivity from T1 to T2 only for orthostatic challenge: at T2, reactivity in the aerobic group was nonsignificantly reduced, compared with T1. In the wait-list group, reactivity significantly increased after T1.

CONCLUSIONS

This study raises further doubt about attenuation of cardiovascular reactivity or enhancement of recovery as a cardioprotective mechanism of aerobic exercise training.Clinical Trial Registration:ClinicalTrials.gov Unique identifier: NCT01335737.

What is the role of stress cardiovascular reactivity in health behaviour change? A systematic review, meta-analysis and research agenda

OBJECTIVE

The stress reactivity hypothesis posits that the extremes of exaggerated and low or blunted cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) to stress may lead to adverse health outcomes via psychophysiological pathways. A potential indirect pathway between CVR and disease outcomes is through health-related behaviour and behaviour change. However, this is a less well understood pathway. Design: A registered systematic review was undertaken to determine the association between cardiovascular reactivity (CVR) and health behaviour change, as well as identify mediators and moderators. Eight papers that met the inclusion criteria, focused on smoking cessation and weight loss, were identified. Results: Pooling data from studies exploring the prospective relationship between CVR (as systolic blood pressure) and smoking cessation found that exaggerated CVR was associated with smoking relapse (Hedges' g = 0.39, SE = 0.00, 95% CI 0.38 - 0.40, p < .001; I2 = 0%; N = 257) but did not find evidence that CVR responses were associated with changes in weight. In order to advance our understanding of reactivity as a modifiable determinant of health behaviour change, our review recommends exploring the association between CVR and other health behaviours, to determine the influence of blunted reactivity versus low motivational effort identify mediators and moderators and determine the focus of interventions.

Cardiorespiratory fitness, sleep, and physiological responses to stress in women

Epidemiological studies suggest that cardiorespiratory fitness (CRfitness) is associated with reduced risk of depression and anxiety in women, however, the mechanisms by which CRfitness may be protective against the development of these disorders are less clear. Because sleep problems are associated with both a higher risk for mental illness and altered physiological responses to stress, this study investigated whether sleep quality might influence the relationship between CRfitness and physiological stress responses in women. Thirty healthy women (18-45 y) who were medication-free, with regular menstrual cycles completed: (1) enrolment visit [including the assessment of CRfitness via maximal oxygen consumption during exercise]; (2) one-week sleep monitoring period including subjective (daily sleep diaries) and objective (wrist actigraphy) sleep measures; and (3) psychosocial stressor protocol (the Trier Social Stress Test; TSST) for the collection of heart rate (HR), blood pressure (BP), and salivary cortisol stress responses. Higher CRfitness was associated with reduced wake after sleep onset (WASO) duration (r = -.38, p = 0.04), higher self-reported sleep quality (higher scores reflect poorer sleep quality; r = -.37, p = 0.05), and lower HR (r = -.43, p = 0.02) during the stressor. Higher sleep quality was associated with a lower HR during the stressor (r = .44, p = 0.01). Increased WASO duration and WASO number were associated with blunted cortisol output during the stressor (r = -.44, p = 0.02, and r = -.46, p = 0.02, respectively). Results suggest that, in women, CRfitness may be protective against the deleterious effects of stress via improved sleep quality.

Creative challenge: Regular exercising moderates the association between task-related heart rate variability changes and individual differences in originality

Coping with mental challenges is vital to everyday functioning. In accordance with prominent theories, the adaptive and flexible adjustment of the organism to daily demands is well expressed in task-related changes of cardiac vagal control. While many mental challenges are associated with increased effort and associated decreased task-related heart rate variability (HRV), some cognitive challenges go along with HRV increases. Especially creativity represents a cognitive process, which not only results from mental effort but also from spontaneous modes of thinking. Critically, creativity and HRV are associated with regular exercising and fitness. Furthermore, the cross-stressor adaptation theory suggests that changes in cardiac reactions to physical challenges may generalize to mental challenges. In line with this idea the amount of regular exercising was hypothesized to moderate the association between HRV changes and creativity. A sample of 97 participants was investigated. They reported the amount of regular exercise and their ECG was measured at baseline and during a creativity task. An association between task-related HRV changes and originality as a function of participants' amount of regular exercise was found. Participants reporting more regular exercising produced more original ideas when they had higher HRV increases during the task, while more sedentary participants showed the opposite association. Results suggest that individuals with a higher amount of regular exercise achieve higher originality probably via the engagement in more spontaneous modes of thinking, while more sedentary people may primarily benefit from increased mental effort. This supports the conclusion that higher creativity can be achieved by different strategies.

Influence of Acute Physical Activity on Stress Reactivity in Obese and Normal Weight Children: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

Physical activity (PA) may influence acute stress reactivity in children differently depending on their weight. This randomized controlled trial investigated the impact of acute PA and of BMI status (overweight/obese (OB/OW) and normal weight (NW) on stress reactivity.

METHOD

50 prepubertal children (24 OW/OB and 26 NW) were randomly assigned to the PA or sedentary arm (SED) for 30 min followed by a stress task. Salivary cortisol, blood pressure (BP), and heart rate (HR) were measured.

RESULTS

An interaction effect between the randomization arms and weight status on salivary cortisol was found after the stress task (p = 0.04). Cortisol increased in the SED, but not in the PA arm (p = 0.004 for differences in time course) of NW children. Time course did not differ between both arms in OW/OB children (p = 0.7). OW/OB SED children had a flat cortisol course, and levels were reduced compared to the NW SED or the OW/OB PA children (p ≤ 0.03). Systolic BP increased only in the SED arm (p = 0.01). HR was higher in the PA than in the SED arm during stress (p < 0.001) and showed different time courses (p = 0.006).

CONCLUSION

PA impacted on acute stress reactivity and influenced stress reactivity differently in NW and OW/OB children.

Effects of Exercise on the Resting Heart Rate: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Interventional Studies

Resting heart rate (RHR) is positively related with mortality. Regular exercise causes a reduction in RHR. The aim of the systematic review was to assess whether regular exercise or sports have an impact on the RHR in healthy subjects by taking different types of sports into account. A systematic literature research was conducted in six databases for the identification of controlled trials dealing with the effects of exercise or sports on the RHR in healthy subjects was performed. The studies were summarized by meta-analyses. The literature search analyzed 191 studies presenting 215 samples fitting the eligibility criteria. 121 trials examined the effects of endurance training, 43 strength training, 15 combined endurance and strength training, 5 additional school sport programs. 21 yoga, 5 tai chi, 3 qigong, and 2 unspecified types of sports. All types of sports decreased the RHR. However, only endurance training and yoga significantly decreased the RHR in both sexes. The exercise-induced decreases of RHR were positively related with the pre-interventional RHR and negatively with the average age of the participants. From this, we can conclude that exercise-especially endurance training and yoga-decreases RHR. This effect may contribute to a reduction in all-cause mortality due to regular exercise or sports.

A systematic review on small-sided games in football players: Acute and chronic adaptations

Small-sided games (SSG) are played on a small pitch, often using modified rules and involving a smaller number of players. This article aimed to critically analyse the literature to determine how small-sided games affect the performance of football players in the short- and long term. Electronic databases were searched for literature dating from January 2000 to July 2018. The methodological quality of the studies was evaluated using the modified Downs and Black Quality Index (cross-sectional studies) and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale (intervention studies). Fifty-three studies, 44 cross-sectional and 9 intervention studies, met the inclusionary criteria for review. Most of the cross-sectional studies focused on describing the differences between SSG protocols, whereas 4 studies focused on making a comparison between "interval" and "continuous" SSG training regimes. On the other hand, intervention studies focused on making a comparison between SSG-based protocols and high-intensity intermittent training (HIIT)-based running protocols, in addition to determine the effect of a SSG-based training programme alone. SSG-based football plans (2 to 4 SSG sessions per week) show athletic performance improvements in football players by improving sprint, repeated sprint ability (RSA) and change of direction (COD) along with muscular and physiological adaptation.

Endurance- and Resistance-Trained Men Exhibit Lower Cardiovascular Responses to Psychosocial Stress Than Untrained Men

Evidence shows that regular physical exercise reduces physiological reactivity to psychosocial stress. However, previous research mainly focused on the effect of endurance exercise, with only a few studies looking at the effect of resistance exercise. The current study tested whether individuals who regularly participate in either endurance or resistance training differ from untrained individuals in adrenal and cardiovascular reactivity to psychosocial stress. Twelve endurance-trained men, 10 resistance-trained men, and 12 healthy but untrained men were exposed to a standardized psychosocial stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test. Measurements of heart rate, free salivary cortisol levels, and mood were obtained throughout the test and compared among the three groups. Overall, both endurance- and resistance-trained men had lower heart rate levels than untrained men, indicating higher cardiac performance of the trained groups. Trained men also exhibited lower heart rate responses to psychosocial stress compared with untrained men. There were no significant group differences in either cortisol responses or mood responses to the stressor. The heart rate results are consistent with previous studies indicating reduced cardiovascular reactivity to psychosocial stress in trained individuals. These findings suggest that long-term endurance and resistance trainings may be related to the same cardiovascular benefits, without exhibiting strong effects on the cortisol reactivity to stress.

Fitter Women Did Not Have Attenuated Hemodynamic Responses to Psychological Stress Compared with Age-Matched Women with Lower Levels of Fitness

According to the 'cross stressor adaptation hypothesis', regular exercise acts as a buffer against the detrimental effects of stress. Nevertheless, evidence that higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness moderate hemodynamic responses to acute psychological stress is inconclusive, especially in women. Women aged 30-50 years (in the mid-follicular phase of the menstrual cycle) with higher (n = 17) and lower (n = 17) levels of fitness were subjected to a Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Continuous, non-invasive measurements were made of beat-to-beat, systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (CO), left ventricular ejection time (LVET), maximum slope, pulse interval (PI) and total peripheral resistance (TPR). Maximal oxygen consumption was significantly (p<0.001) higher in the 'higher fit' women. Lower fit women had higher fasting glucose, resting heart rate, waist to hip ratios and elevated serum triglyceride and cholesterol/ HDL ratios compared with higher fit women (p<0.05 for all). While all measured parameters (for both groups)displayed significant (p<0.001) responses to the TSST, only HR, PI and LVET differed significantly between higher and lower fit women (p<0.001 for all) with the higher fit women having the larger response in each case. It was also found that higher fit women had significantly shorter time to recovery for maximum slope compared with the lower fit women. These findings provide little support for the notion that higher levels of cardiorespiratory fitness result in lower cardiovascular responsivity to psychological stress in women but may indicate that lower fit women have blunted responses to stress.

Depression among Indian university students and its association with perceived university academic environment, living arrangements and personal issues

The aim of the study is to ascertain the level of depression among university students across gender, academic stream, semesters, perception of family environment and relationship with parents, academic performance, and family income. In addition, the study examines the association between students' perceived university academic environment, living arrangements, personal issues, and depression. Seven hypotheses were formulated for verification. A total of 717 students were recruited following the multistage cluster sampling method, and data were collected by a specially designed structured questionnaire, academic achievement record and a standardized University Students Depression Inventory. Findings disclosed that 37.7%, 13.1%, and 2.4% of the students were suffering from moderate, severe, and extremely severe depression. A significant difference was found across semester, that is, semester II students reported a higher level of depression than semester III students. So far as academic stream is concerned, students from humanities and social science were found to be suffering from more depression compared to students from science and management streams. The study further disclosed that the students who reported positive views about the university academic environment and living arrangements had lower level of depression compared to their counterparts. Personal resilience's such as being able to sharing personal problems with others and doing regular exercise were found to be associated with positive mental health. The findings of the study emphasize the need for immediate mental health support services for about 15.6% of the students who were either suffering from severe or extremely severe depression at the University.

Dynamic Resistance Training as Stand-Alone Antihypertensive Lifestyle Therapy: A Meta-Analysis

Background

Aerobic exercise (AE) is recommended as first‐line antihypertensive lifestyle therapy based on strong evidence showing that it lowers blood pressure (BP) 5 to 7 mm Hg among adults with hypertension. Because of weaker evidence showing that dynamic resistance training (RT) reduces BP 2 to 3 mm Hg among adults with hypertension, it is recommended as adjuvant lifestyle therapy to AE training. Yet, existing evidence suggests that dynamic RT can lower BP as much or more than AE.

Methods and Results

We meta‐analyzed 64 controlled studies (71 interventions) to determine the efficacy of dynamic RT as stand‐alone antihypertensive therapy. Participants (N=2344) were white (57%), middle‐aged (47.2±19.0 years), and overweight (26.8±3.4 kg/m²) adults with prehypertension (126.7±10.3/76.8±8.7 mm Hg); 15% were on antihypertensive medication. Overall, moderate‐intensity dynamic RT was performed 2.8±0.6 days/week for 14.4±7.9 weeks and elicited small‐to‐moderate reductions in systolic BP (SBP; d₊=−0.31; 95% CIs, −0.43, −0.19; −3.0 mm Hg) and diastolic BP (DBP; d₊=−0.30; 95% CIs, −0.38, −0.18; −2.1 mm Hg) compared to controls (Ps<0.001). Greater BP reductions occurred among samples with higher resting SBP/DBP: ≈6/5 mm Hg for hypertension, ≈3/3 mm Hg for prehypertension, and ≈0/1 mm Hg for normal BP (Ps<0.023). Furthermore, nonwhite samples with hypertension experienced BP reductions that were approximately twice the magnitude of those previously reported following AE training (−14.3 mm Hg [95% CIs, −19.0, −9.4]/−10.3 mm Hg [95% CIs, −14.5, −6.2]).

Conclusions

Our results indicate that for nonwhite adult samples with hypertension, dynamic RT may elicit BP reductions that are comparable to or greater than those reportedly achieved with AE training. Dynamic RT should be further investigated as a viable stand‐alone therapeutic exercise option for adult populations with high BP.

Small-sided games in team sports training: a brief review

Small-sided games (SSGs) incorporating skills, sport-specific movements, at intensities sufficient to promote aerobic adaptations, are being increasingly implemented in professional team sport environments. Small-sided games are often employed by coaches based on the premise that the greatest training benefits occur when training simulates the specific movement patterns and physiological demands of the sport. At present, there is relatively little information regarding how SSG can best be used to improve physical capacities and technical and tactical skills in team sports. It is possible that with some modifications (e.g., number of players, pitch size, coach encouragement, and wrestling), such games may be physiologically beneficial for athletes with relatively high initial aerobic fitness levels. For instance, it has been shown that 3-a-side soccer SSG resulted in higher intensity (i.e., greater overall distance, less jogging and walking, higher heart rate, and more tackling, dribbling, goal attempts, and passes) than 5-a-side SSG. Likewise, when player numbers were kept constant, a larger playing area increased the intensity of the SSG with a smaller playing area having the opposite effect. It has also been demonstrated that energy expenditure was similar between badminton and volleyball courts, but lower than that obtained in a basketball court. Moreover, it has been demonstrated in rugby that wrestling can increase the physical demands of SSG. Consistent coach encouragement can also increase training intensity, although most rule changes have trivial or no effect on exercise intensity. Further research is required to examine the optimal periodization strategies of SSG training for the long-term development of physiological capacity, technical skill, and tactical proficiency, while also minimizing the associated risk of injuries.

Does a 20-week aerobic exercise training programme increase our capabilities to buffer real-life stressors? A randomized, controlled trial using ambulatory assessment

PURPOSE

The cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis suggests that regular exercise leads to adaptations in the stress response systems that induce decreased physiological responses to psychological stressors. Even though an exercise intervention to buffer the detrimental effects of psychological stressors on health might be of utmost importance, empirical evidence is mixed. This may be explained by the use of cross-sectional designs and non-personally relevant stressors. Using a randomized controlled trial, we hypothesized that a 20-week aerobic exercise training does reduce physiological stress responses to psychological real-life stressors in sedentary students.

METHODS

Sixty-one students were randomized to either a control group or an exercise training group. The academic examination period (end of the semester) served as a real-life stressor. We used ambulatory assessment methods to assess physiological stress reactivity of the autonomic nervous system (heart rate variability: LF/HF, RMSSD), physical activity and perceived stress during 2 days of everyday life and multilevel models for data analyses. Aerobic capacity (VO2max) was assessed pre- and post-intervention via cardiopulmonary exercise testing to analyze the effectiveness of the intervention.

RESULTS

During real-life stressors, the exercise training group showed significantly reduced LF/HF (β = -0.15, t = -2.59, p = .01) and increased RMSSD (β = 0.15, t = 2.34, p = .02) compared to the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Using a randomized controlled trial and a real-life stressor, we could show that exercise appears to be a useful preventive strategy to buffer the effects of stress on the autonomic nervous system, which might result into detrimental health outcomes.

Effects of a 12-week endurance training program on the physiological response to psychosocial stress in men: a randomized controlled trial

The present study experimentally tested the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis by examining whether endurance exercise training leads to reductions in the physiological stress response to a psychosocial stressor. We randomly assigned 149 healthy men to a 12-week exercise training, relaxation training, or a wait list control group. Before and after intervention we assessed the groups' physical fitness (lactate testing) and compared their physiological stress responses to the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups in terms of salivary free cortisol, heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV); the final sample consisted of 96 subjects. As hypothesized, the exercise training significantly improved fitness and reduced stress reactivity in all three parameters; however, it only improved stress recovery in terms of HR. The relaxation program reduced only cortisol, but not HR or HRV reactivity; no changes emerged for the control group. The findings suggest that the cross-stressor adaptation hypothesis is valid for cardiovascular as well as endocrine stress reactivity.

The Healthy Heart: Lessons from Nature's Elite Athletes

The incidence of cardiovascular disease in humans is more than three times that of many wild and domestic mammals despite nearly identical heart morphologies and responses to exercise. A survey of mammalian species from 0.002-kg shrews to 43,000-kg whales shows that the human heart is more dog-like than cat-like and that neither body size nor longevity accounts for the relative vulnerability to cardiovascular disease. Rather, a major difference is daily activity patterns, which may underlie the comparatively healthy hearts of wild mammals.

Physical activity and environmental influences on adrenal fatigue of Saudi adults: biochemical analysis and questionnaire survey

[Purpose] This research work was performed to examine whether different levels of physical activity and environmental and social factors are associated with changes in adrenal hormones as markers of adrenal fatigue in Saudi adult volunteers. [Subjects and Methods] A total of 160 Saudi adults aged 15-22 years were included in this study. The adrenal fatigue score, sociodemographic attributes, and the level of physical activity were evaluated via pre-validated internet-based questionnaire surveys. Adrenal hormones such as ACTH and cortisol were measured using immunoassay techniques. [Results] Significant increases in the levels of ACTH and cortisol biomarkers were found in the participants with moderate to severe fatigue scores, poor environmental factors, and low physical activity. However, in physically active participants, significant decreases in ACTH and cortisol levels were found with remarkable improvement in adrenal fatigue status. The decrement in adrenal hormonal levels positively correlated (r= 0.976) with the improvement in adrenal fatigue status in the physically active participants. [Conclusion] Our results suggest that the level of physical activity and environmental and social factors differentially influence the adrenal fatigue status via changes in the levels of adrenal hormones. Also, ACTH and cortisol biomarkers may be useful as markers measuring the severity of adrenal fatigue.

Disentangling longitudinal relations between physical activity, work-related fatigue, and task demands

Purpose

This longitudinal study examined ‘normal’, ‘reversed’, and ‘reciprocal’ relationships between (1) physical activity and work-related fatigue; and (2) physical activity and task demands. Furthermore, the effects of across-time change in meaningful physical activity groups on levels of employees’ work-related fatigue and task demands were studied. These groups were based on employees’ compliance with the international physical activity norm.

Methods

Two waves with a one-year time lag of a national representative survey on the quality of work, health, and well-being among Dutch employees were used (N = 2275). Longitudinal effects were tested using Structural Equation Modelling. Meaningful physical activity groups were compared using group-by-time analysis of covariance.

Results

Support was found for reciprocal relations between physical activity and work-related fatigue. It was found that an increase in physical activity is associated with a decrease in work-related fatigue over time and that an increase in work-related fatigue is associated with a decrease in physical activity over time. No significant longitudinal relations were found between physical activity and task demands. Employees whose compliance with the physical activity norm changed over time showed fairly stable levels of work-related fatigue and task demands.

Conclusions

The current findings provide evidence for the potential role of physical activity in the prevention and reduction in work-related fatigue. However, results also indicate that fatigued workers, who would benefit most from physical activity, are less physically active. Our results further indicate that relying on changes in compliance to the physical activity norm may not be the most suitable way to examine changes in work-related fatigue.

Effects of percutaneous coronary intervention on the ambulatory blood pressure of patients with hypertension and coronary heart disease

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the dynamic characteristics and changing trends of ambulatory blood pressure in patients with hypertension and coronary heart disease before and after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), and to determine the effects of PCI on the ambulatory blood pressure of patients with hypertension and coronary heart disease.

METHODS

A total of 126 patients with hypertension and unstable angina and who were hospitalized and received complete revascularization were enrolled in the study. The ambulatory blood pressure of the patients was monitored at three time points: 1-3 days before PCI (baseline), 3-6 days after PCI (1 week) and 1 month after PCI (1 month). The parameters between the time points were then compared using a t test.

RESULTS

Each ambulatory blood pressure index after PCI was not statistically different from those before PCI (P > 0.05). However, 1 month after the PCI, all ambulatory blood pressure indices significantly decreased and statistically differed from those before PCI (P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

PCI can significantly improve the autonomic nerve function and ambulatory blood pressure indices of patients with hypertension and coronary heart disease.

A scoping review of risk behaviour interventions in young men

Background

Young adult males commonly engage in risky behaviours placing them at risk of acute and chronic health conditions. The purpose of this scoping review was to provide an overview of existing literature, describing the interventions targeting risk behaviours in young adult males.

Methods

A search of seven electronic databases, grey literature and relevant journals reported in English language until May 2013 was conducted. All interventions that promoted healthy behaviours or reductions in risky behaviours to treat or prevent an associated health issue(s) in young adult males (17-35 years) in upper-middle and high-income countries were included. For inclusion the appropriate age range had to be reported and the sample had to be young adult male participants only or the outcomes reported with stratification by age and/or sex to include young adult males. Risk behaviours included: physical inactivity, poor diet, alcohol use, tobacco smoking, recreational drug use, unsafe sexual behaviours, tanning/sun exposure, violence, unsafe vehicle driving, gambling and self-harm.

Results

The search strategy identified 16,739 unique citations and the full-text of 1149 studies were retrieved and screened with 100 included studies focussed on: physical inactivity (27%), alcohol use (25%), unsafe sexual behaviour (21%), poor diet (5%), unsafe vehicle driving (5%), tobacco smoking (4%), recreational drug use (2%), and tanning/sun exposure (1%) with no relevant studies targeting violence, gambling or self-harm. Also 10% of the studies targeted multiple risk behaviours. The most common study design was randomized controlled trials (62%). Face-to-face was the most common form of intervention delivery (71%) and the majority were conducted in university/college settings (46%). There were 46 studies (46%) that included young adult male participants only, the remaining studies reported outcomes stratified by age and/or sex.

Conclusion

Risk behaviours in young men have been targeted to some extent, but the amount of research varies across risk behaviours. There is a need for more targeted and tailored interventions that seek to promote healthy behaviours or decrease risky behaviours in young men.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-957) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Regular exercise is associated with emotional resilience to acute stress in healthy adults

Physical activity has long been considered beneficial to health and regular exercise is purported to relieve stress. However empirical evidence demonstrating these effects is limited. In this study, we compared psychophysiological responses to an acute psychosocial stressor between individuals who did, or did not, report regular physical exercise. Healthy men and women (N = 111) participated in two experimental sessions, one with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and one with a non-stressful control task. We measured heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol, and self-reported mood before and at repeated times after the tasks. Individuals who reported physical exercise at least once per week exhibited lower heart rate at rest than non-exercisers, but the groups did not differ in their cardiovascular responses to the TSST. Level of habitual exercise did not influence self-reported mood before the tasks, but non-exercisers reported a greater decline in positive affect after the TSST in comparison to exercisers. These findings provide modest support for claims that regular exercise protects against the negative emotional consequences of stress, and suggest that exercise has beneficial effects in healthy individuals. These findings are limited by their correlational nature, and future prospective controlled studies on the effects of regular exercise on response to acute stress are needed.

Cardiorespiratory fitness does not alter plasma pentraxin 3 and cortisol reactivity to acute psychological stress and exercise

Pentraxin 3 (PTX3) has been recently identified as a biomarker of vascular inflammation in predicting cardiovascular events. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of cardiorespiratory fitness on plasma PTX3 and cortisol responses to stress, utilizing a dual-stress model. Fourteen male subjects were classified into high-fit (HF) and low-fit (LF) groups and completed 2 counterbalanced experimental conditions. The exercise-alone condition (EAC) consisted of cycling at 60% maximal oxygen uptake for 37 min, while the dual-stress condition (DSC) included 20 min of a mental stress while cycling for 37 min. Plasma PTX3 revealed significant increases over time with a significant elevation at 37 min in both HF and LF groups in response to EAC and DSC. No difference in plasma PTX3 levels was observed between EAC and DSC. In addition, plasma cortisol revealed a significant condition by time interaction with greater levels during DSC at 37 min, whereas cardiorespiratory fitness level did not reveal different plasma cortisol responses in either the EAC or DSC. Aerobic exercise induces plasma PTX3 release, while additional acute mental stress, in a dual-stress condition, does not exacerbate or further modulate the PTX3 response. Furthermore, cardiorespiratory fitness may not affect the stress reactivity of plasma PTX3 to physical and combined physical and psychological stressors. Finally, the exacerbated cortisol responses to combined stress may provide the potential link to biological pathways that explain changes in physiological homeostasis that may be associated with an increase in the risk of cardiovascular disease.

Physical activity, quality of life, and burnout among physician trainees: the effect of a team-based, incentivized exercise program

OBJECTIVE

To prospectively study the effects of an incentivized exercise program on physical activity (PA), quality of life (QOL), and burnout among residents and fellows (RFs) in a large academic medical center.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

In January 2011, all RFs at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota (N=1060), were invited to participate in an elective, team-based, 12-week, incentivized exercise program. Both participants and nonparticipants had access to the same institutional exercise facilities. Regardless of participation, all RFs were invited to complete baseline and follow-up (3-month) assessments of PA, QOL, and burnout.

RESULTS

Of the 628 RFs who completed the baseline survey (59%), only 194 (31%) met the US Department of Health and Human Services recommendations for PA. Median reported QOL was 70 on a scale of 1 to 100, and 182 (29%) reported at least weekly burnout symptoms. A total of 245 individuals (23%) enrolled in the exercise program. No significant differences were found between program participants and nonparticipants with regard to baseline demographic characteristics, medical training level, PA, QOL, or burnout. At study completion, program participants were more likely than nonparticipants to meet the Department of Health and Human Services recommendations for exercise (48% vs 23%; P<.001). Quality of life was higher in program participants than in nonparticipants (median, 75 vs 68; P<.001). Burnout was lower in participants than in nonparticipants, although the difference was not statistically significant (24% vs 29%; P=.17).

CONCLUSION

A team-based, incentivized exercise program engaged 23% of RFs at our institution. After the program, participants had higher PA and QOL than nonparticipants who had equal exercise facility access. Residents and fellows may be much more sedentary than previously reported.

Cardiovascular reactivity, stress, and physical activity

Psychological stress has been proposed as a major contributor to the progression of cardiovascular disease (CVD). Acute mental stress can activate the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) axis, eliciting the release of catecholamines (NE and EPI) resulting in the elevation of heart rate (HR) and blood pressure (BP). Combined stress (psychological and physical) can exacerbate these cardiovascular responses, which may partially contribute to the elevated risk of CVD and increased proportionate mortality risks experienced by some occupations (e.g., firefighting and law enforcement). Studies have supported the benefits of physical activity on physiological and psychological health, including the cardiovascular response to acute stress. Aerobically trained individuals exhibit lower sympathetic nervous system (e.g., HR) reactivity and enhanced cardiovascular efficiency (e.g., lower vascular reactivity and decreased recovery time) in response to physical and/or psychological stress. In addition, resistance training has been demonstrated to attenuate cardiovascular responses and improve mental health. This review will examine stress-induced cardiovascular reactivity and plausible explanations for how exercise training and physical fitness (aerobic and resistance exercise) can attenuate cardiovascular responses to stress. This enhanced functionality may facilitate a reduction in the incidence of stroke and myocardial infarction. Finally, this review will also address the interaction of obesity and physical activity on cardiovascular reactivity and CVD.

Effects of aerobic conditioning on cardiovascular sympathetic response to and recovery from challenge

Exercise has widely documented cardioprotective effects, but the mechanisms behind these effects are still poorly understood. Here, we test the hypothesis that aerobic training lowers cardiovascular sympathetic responses to and speeds recovery from challenge. We conducted a randomized, controlled trial contrasting aerobic versus strength training on indices of cardiac (pre-ejection period, PEP) and vascular (low-frequency blood pressure variability, LF-BPV) sympathetic responses to and recovery from psychological and orthostatic challenge in 149 young, healthy, sedentary adults. Aerobic and strength training did not alter PEP or LF-BPV reactivity to or recovery from challenge. These findings, from a large randomized, controlled trial using an intent-to-treat design, show that moderate aerobic exercise training has no effect on PEP and LF-BPV reactivity to or recovery from psychological or orthostatic challenge. In healthy young adults, the cardioprotective effects of exercise training are unlikely to be mediated by changes in sympathetic activity.

The effectiveness of a comprehensive mind body weight loss intervention for overweight and obese adults: a pilot study

OBJECTIVES

This pilot study evaluated the effectiveness of a comprehensive mind body intervention for weight loss in overweight and obesity and the maintenance of weight loss at 6-month follow-up.

DESIGN

Thirty-one overweight and obese employees (Body Mass Index (BMI) 28.6-47.9 kg/m²) from a large corporation participated in a 20-week comprehensive mind body intervention targeting weight loss.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Weight, BMI, waist and hip circumference, rate pressure product (RPP), blood pressure, fasting blood glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein (LDL), and psychological variables were collected at baseline, post-intervention, and 6-month follow-up.

RESULTS

Using linear mixed model analyses, the intervention resulted in significant mean weight loss (-4.3 kg, 95% CI -5.8 to -2.8), decreases in BMI (-1.51, 95% CI -2.1 to -1.0), hip circumference measurement (-4.3 cm, 95% CI -6.9 to -1.5), and triglyceride levels (95% CI -33.1 to -4.8). In 6-month follow-up after intervention, statistically significant improvements in weight, BMI and waist measurement were sustained. Participants also showed positive changes in self-reported psychological indices: food-related disinhibition, and hunger both decreased significantly (p<0.01); general self-efficacy increased (p<0.05); positive affect increased (p<0.001); physical function and self-esteem increased (p<0.01); and measures of health-promoting behaviors on 4 subscales (health responsibility, physical activity, nutrition, and stress management) also showed statistically significant improvements (p<0.001) at post-intervention and 6-month follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

This comprehensive mind body intervention showed modest effects on physical, laboratory, and psychological outcomes, both immediately following treatment and at 6-month follow-up, in overweight and obese individuals.

The impact of acute mental stress on vascular endothelial function: evidence, mechanisms and importance

Cardiovascular disease is a principle cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and it has a complex etiology that involves lifestyle factors such as psychosocial stress. Recent evidence suggests that temporary impairments in vascular endothelial cell function may contribute to the relationship between stress and cardiovascular disease. Indeed, impaired endothelial function has been observed to occur transiently (lasting up to 1.5h) following mental stress, and such periods of impairment could accumulate to become clinically relevant over the long term. The finding of acute stress induced endothelial dysfunction is not universal however, and both physiological (e.g. sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis reactivity), and methodological factors contribute to the conflicting results. A clear understanding of the interaction between stress response activation and endothelial function is critical to elucidating the complexities of the relationship between psychosocial stress and cardiovascular disease. Therefore, the purpose of this review is: 1) to briefly describe the importance of vascular endothelial function and how it is assessed, 2) to review the literature investigating the impact of acute mental stress on endothelial function in humans, identifying factors that may explain contradictory results, and 3) to summarize our current understanding of the mechanisms that may mediate an acute mental stress-endothelial function interaction.

A review on the effects of soccer small-sided games

Over the last years there has been a substantial growth in research related to specific training methods in soccer with a strong emphasis on the effects of small-sided games. The increase of research in this topic is coincident with the increase of popularity obtained by specific soccer conditioning, which involves training players to deal with soccer match situations. Given the limited time available for fitness training in soccer, the effectiveness of small-sided games as a conditioning stimulus needs to be optimized to allow players to compete at the highest level. Available studies indicate that physiological responses (e.g. heart rate, blood lactate concentration and rating of perceived exertion), tactical and technical skill requirements can be modified during small-sided games by altering factors such as the number of players, the size of the pitch, the rules of the game, and coach encouragement. However, because of the lack of consistency in small-sided games design, player fitness, age, ability, level of coach encouragement, and playing rules in each of these studies, it is difficult to make accurate conclusions on the influence of each of these factors separately.

Occupational Stress

Occupational stress can affect physiological and psychological homeostasis. In addition, the occupational challenges associated with firefighting and law enforcement have been linked to increased mortality ratios for ischemic heart disease when compared with other population cohorts. Laboratory studies have shown that the exacerbation of stress hormones (eg, catecholamines) following dual challenge (physical and psychological stress) may affect immune system responses, which may partially explain the link between cardiovascular disease and inflammation. Physical fitness has been shown to attenuate both cardiovascular and inflammatory cytokine responses following physical and/or psychological stress; however, criteria for safe and effective occupation-specific fitness levels have not been established. In addition, firefighters and police officers have high overweight and obesity rates, which also contribute significantly to the development of cardiovascular disease. Future investigation on the possible interaction (additive or synergistic) of obesity and psychological stress on the development of cardiovascular diseases in these professions is warranted, and a criterion for fitness level should be established for safe and effective participation in occupation-related activities.

Conical-PEP is safe, reduces lung hyperinflation and contributes to improved exercise endurance in patients with COPD: a randomised cross-over trial

QUESTION

Does a new positive expiratory pressure device (conical-PEP) decrease lung hyperinflation during exercise in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease compared to normal breathing? Does it increase the duration of exercise?

DESIGN

A randomised, cross-over trial with concealed allocation.

PARTICIPANTS

Thirteen patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (mean FEV1 61% predicted).

INTERVENTION

THE experimental intervention was conical-PEP breathing with a positive expiratory pressure of 4-20 cmH2O during 30% of 1 RM alternate knee extension exercise at 70% age-predicted HRmax to fatigue. The control intervention was normal breathing.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Total lung capacity (inspiratory capacity and slow vital capacity), breathlessness, and leg discomfort were measured pre and post exercise. Cardiorespiratory function was measured pre and during the last 30 s of exercise. Duration of exercise was recorded.

RESULTS

After the experimental intervention, inspiratory capacity increased 200 ml (95% CI 0 to 400) and slow vital capacity increased 200 ml (95% CI 0 to 400) more than the control intervention. Participants exercised for 107 s (95% CI -23 to 238) more during the experimental intervention than the control intervention. Conical-PEP breathing during exercise resulted in 6.1 fewer breaths/min (95% CI 1.4 to 10.8) than normal breathing; it did not have any adverse effects on CO2 retention or oxygen saturation.

CONCLUSION

The novel conical-PEP device decreases lung hyperinflation, is safe to use, and tends to increase the duration of exercise.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT00741832.

The level of physical activity affects adrenal and cardiovascular reactivity to psychosocial stress

Physical activity plays a key role in the control of neuroendocrine, autonomic, and behavioral responses to physical and psychosocial stress. However, little is known about how the level of physical activity modulates stress responsiveness. Here, we test whether different levels of physical activity are associated with different adrenal, cardiovascular, and psychological responses to psychosocial stress. In addition, competitiveness is assessed as a personality trait that possibly modulates the relationship between physical activity and stress reactivity. Eighteen elite sportsmen, 50 amateur sportsmen, and 24 untrained men were exposed to a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). Repeated measures of salivary free cortisol, heart rate, and psychological responses to psychosocial stress were compared among the 3 study groups. Elite sportsmen exhibited significantly lower cortisol, heart rate, and state anxiety responses compared with untrained subjects. Amateur sportsmen showed a dissociation between sympathetic and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responsiveness to stress, with significantly reduced heart rate responses but no difference in cortisol responses compared with untrained men. Different levels of competitiveness among groups did not mediate stress reactivity. Our results are in line with previous studies indicating reduced reactivity of the autonomic nervous system to psychosocial stress in trained individuals. More importantly, these findings imply a differential effect of the level of physical activity on different stress-related neurophysiological systems in response to psychosocial stress.

A Review of Men's Health and Masculinity

Men's health is a new and evolving area of specialty that goes beyond men's cancers and sexual activities. Men's health in the 21st century incorporates a broader conceptualization of health, health behaviors, and lifestyle choices. This new focus results from the fact that men continue to lag behind women in life expectancy and in health care use, a situation that is worse for minority men. Understanding how gender socialization and masculine ideology affects men's health is an important step toward providing effective care for men. In this article, the authors review these areas and then discuss each of the top actual causes of death for men: tobacco use, poor diet, alcohol use, and physical inactivity. They then discuss the important issue of steroid use among men. Throughout the review, the authors highlight racial and ethnic differences in health behaviors. Furthermore, they provide empirically supported clinical implications to assist clinicians who see men with health concerns in their practices. Finally, they offer suggestions for creating ways to include men in the health care system in hopes of improving their use.

Aerobic exercise intensity and time of stressor administration influence cardiovascular responses to psychological stress

This study examined cardiovascular responses as a function of time following exercise in which participants were exposed to a laboratory stressor. Ninety (42 women) young (18-35 years old) nonsmoking normotensive participants engaged in 30 min of high and low intensity (75-80% and 50-55% VO(2) max) aerobic exercise and a sedentary control condition. Participants were randomly assigned to a laboratory stressor 5, 30, or 60 min following the exercise bout. Results indicate that low and high intensity exercise significantly reduce heart rate (HR) and systolic and diastolic blood pressure reactivity and HR recovery values. An inverse relationship between intensity of exercise and subsequent cardiovascular reactivity was found. These findings suggest attenuated stress responses following acute exercise depend both on exercise intensity and the time of exposure to psychological stress following exercise.

Trained men show lower cortisol, heart rate and psychological responses to psychosocial stress compared with untrained men

Physical activity has proven benefits for physical and psychological well-being and is associated with reduced responsiveness to physical stress. However, it is not clear to what extent physical activity also modulates the responsiveness to psychosocial stress. The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the reduced responsiveness to physical stressors that has been observed in trained men can be generalized to the modulation of physiological and psychological responses to a psychosocial stressor. Twenty-two trained men (elite sportsmen) and 22 healthy untrained men were exposed to a standardized psychosocial laboratory stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). Adrenocortical (salivary free cortisol levels), autonomic (heart rate), and psychological responses (mood, calmness, anxiety) were repeatedly measured before and after stress exposure. In response to the stressor, cortisol levels and heart rate were significantly increased in both groups, without any baseline differences between groups. However, trained men exhibited significantly lower cortisol and heart rate responses to the stressor compared with untrained men. In addition, trained men showed significantly higher calmness and better mood, and a trend toward lower state anxiety during the stress protocol. On the whole, elite sportsmen showed reduced reactivity to the psychosocial stressor, characterized by lower adrenocortical, autonomic, and psychological stress responses. These results suggest that physical activity may provide a protective effect against stress-related disorders.

Microlevel determinants of blood pressure among women of two ethnic groups in a periurban area of Kolkata city, India

Blood pressure (BP) trends vary cross-culturally, and studies on the risk factors associated with hypertension are limited in periurban regions of India. This study was conducted to examine the effect of socioeconomic factors (income, expenditure, activity time) and anthropometric measurements (skinfolds of biceps, triceps, subscapular, supra iliac, and body mass index) on 102 Munda (tribe) and 135 Pod (caste) women of childbearing age in a periurban area of Kolkata city. Results indicate that Munda women had significantly higher diastolic BP in the 30+ age group. However, no difference in the systolic and diastolic BP was observed between the two groups, when the socioanthropometric factors were controlled as covariates. Also, according to the JNC (JNC, 2004, The JNC 7 Report NIH Publication No. 04-5230) classification of hypertension, no significant difference in hypertension was noted between the women of the two social groups. But the risk factors associated with hypertension varied between the two ethnic groups. Expenditure on alcohol and activity time was associated with hypertension among the Munda, while body mass index was significantly associated with hypertension among the Pod women. Alcohol consumption is a rare phenomenon among Indian women. Yet, Munda women in this transitional periurban environment, in spite of high poverty were more inclined to spent their earnings in alcohol consumption (due to their cultural preferences), increasing the risk of hypertension in their childbearing age.