1
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Keillor JW, Johnson GVW. Transglutaminase 2 as a therapeutic target for neurological conditions. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2021; 25:721-731. [PMID: 34607527 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2021.1989410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) has been implicated in numerous neurological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis, and CNS injury. Early studies on the role of TG2 in neurodegenerative conditions focused on its ability to 'crosslink' proteins into insoluble aggregates. However, more recent studies have suggested that this is unlikely to be the primary mechanism by which TG2 contributes to the pathogenic processes. Although the specific mechanisms by which TG2 is involved in neurological conditions have not been clearly defined, TG2 regulates numerous cellular processes through which it could contribute to a specific disease. Given the fact that TG2 is a stress-induced gene and elevated in disease or injury conditions, TG2 inhibitors may be useful neurotherapeutics. AREAS COVERED Overview of TG2 and different TG2 inhibitors. A brief review of TG2 in neurodegenerative diseases, multiple sclerosis and CNS injury and inhibitors that have been tested in different models. Database search: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov prior to 1 July 2021. EXPERT OPINION Currently, it appears unlikely that inhibiting TG2 in the context of neurodegenerative diseases would be therapeutically advantageous. However, for multiple sclerosis and CNS injuries, TG2 inhibitors may have the potential to be therapeutically useful and thus there is rationale for their further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Keillor
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Gail V W Johnson
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
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2
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Smith‐Dijak AI, Sepers MD, Raymond LA. Alterations in synaptic function and plasticity in Huntington disease. J Neurochem 2019; 150:346-365. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy I. Smith‐Dijak
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience the University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health the University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Marja D. Sepers
- Department of Psychiatry and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health the University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Lynn A. Raymond
- Department of Psychiatry and Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health the University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
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3
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Min B, Chung KC. New insight into transglutaminase 2 and link to neurodegenerative diseases. BMB Rep 2018; 51:5-13. [PMID: 29187283 PMCID: PMC5796628 DOI: 10.5483/bmbrep.2018.51.1.227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Formation of toxic protein aggregates is a common feature and mainly contributes to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), which include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and prion diseases. The transglutaminase 2 (TG2) gene encodes a multifunctional enzyme, displaying four types of activity, such as transamidation, GTPase, protein disulfide isomerase, and protein kinase activities. Many studies demonstrated that the calcium-dependent transamidation activity of TG2 affects the formation of insoluble and toxic amyloid aggregates that mainly consisted of NDD-related proteins. So far, many important and NDD-related substrates of TG2 have been identified, including amlyoid-β, tau, α-synuclein, mutant huntingtin, and ALS-linked trans-activation response (TAR) DNA-binding protein 43. Recently, the formation of toxic inclusions mediated by several TG2 substrates were efficiently inhibited by TG2 inhibitors. Therefore, the development of highly specific TG2 inhibitors would be an important tool in alleviating the progression of TG2-related brain disorders. In this review, the authors discuss recent advances in TG2 biochemistry, several mechanisms of molecular regulation and pleotropic signaling functions, and the presumed role of TG2 in the progression of many NDDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boram Min
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
| | - Kwang Chul Chung
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Korea
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4
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Gaetano Gatta N, Romano R, Fioretti E, Gentile V. Transglutaminase inhibition: possible therapeutic mechanisms to protect cells from death in neurological disorders. AIMS MOLECULAR SCIENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.3934/molsci.2017.4.399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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5
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Lai TS, Lin CJ, Greenberg CS. Role of tissue transglutaminase-2 (TG2)-mediated aminylation in biological processes. Amino Acids 2016; 49:501-515. [PMID: 27270573 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-016-2270-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Post-translational modification (PTM) is an important mechanism in modulating a protein's structure and can lead to substantial diversity in biological function. Compared to other forms of PTMs such as phosphorylation, acetylation and glycosylation, the physiological significance of aminylation is limited. Aminylation refers to the covalent incorporation of biogenic/polyamines into target protein by calcium-dependent transglutaminases (TGs). The development of novel and more sensitive techniques has led to more proteins identified as tissue transglutaminase (TG2) substrates and potential targets for aminylation. Many of these substrate proteins play a role in cell signaling, cytoskeleton organization, muscle contraction, and inflammation. TG2 is well studied and widely expressed in a variety of tissues and will be the primary focus of this review on recent advance in transglutaminase-mediated aminylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thung-S Lai
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Science, Mackay Medical College, No. 46, Sec. 3, Jhong-Jheng Rd., Sanzhi Dist, New Taipei City, 25200, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Cheng-Jui Lin
- Nephrology/Department of Internal Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
- Nursing and Management, Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Charles S Greenberg
- Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, 29425, USA
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6
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Tatsukawa H, Furutani Y, Hitomi K, Kojima S. Transglutaminase 2 has opposing roles in the regulation of cellular functions as well as cell growth and death. Cell Death Dis 2016; 7:e2244. [PMID: 27253408 PMCID: PMC5143380 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2016.150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is primarily known as the most ubiquitously expressed member of the transglutaminase family with Ca2+-dependent protein crosslinking activity; however, this enzyme exhibits multiple additional functions through GTPase, cell adhesion, protein disulfide isomerase, kinase, and scaffold activities and is associated with cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. TG2 is found in the extracellular matrix, plasma membrane, cytosol, mitochondria, recycling endosomes, and nucleus, and its subcellular localization is an important determinant of its function. Depending upon the cell type and stimuli, TG2 changes its subcellular localization and biological activities, playing both anti- and pro-apoptotic roles. Increasing evidence indicates that the GTP-bound form of the enzyme (in its closed form) protects cells from apoptosis but that the transamidation activity of TG2 (in its open form) participates in both facilitating and inhibiting apoptosis. A difficulty in the study and understanding of this enigmatic protein is that opposing effects have been reported regarding its roles in the same physiological and/or pathological systems. These include neuroprotective or neurodegenerative effects, hepatic cell growth-promoting or hepatic cell death-inducing effects, exacerbating or having no effect on liver fibrosis, and anti- and pro-apoptotic effects on cancer cells. The reasons for these discrepancies have been ascribed to TG2's multifunctional activities, genetic variants, conformational changes induced by the immediate environment, and differences in the genetic background of the mice used in each of the experiments. In this article, we first report that TG2 has opposing roles like the protagonist in the novel Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, followed by a summary of the controversies reported, and finally discuss the possible reasons for these discrepancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Tatsukawa
- Department of Basic Medicinal Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - Y Furutani
- Micro-Signaling Regulation Technology Unit, RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, 2-1 Hirosawa, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - K Hitomi
- Department of Basic Medicinal Sciences, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
| | - S Kojima
- Micro-Signaling Regulation Technology Unit, RIKEN Center for Life Science Technologies, 2-1 Hirosawa, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
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7
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Gaetano Gatta N, Cammarota G, Gentile V. Possible roles of transglutaminases in molecular mechanisms responsible for human neurodegenerative diseases. AIMS BIOPHYSICS 2016. [DOI: 10.3934/biophy.2016.4.529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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8
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Serretiello E, Iannaccone M, Titta F, G. Gatta N, Gentile V. Possible pathophysiological roles of transglutaminase-catalyzed reactions in the pathogenesis of human neurodegenerative diseases. AIMS BIOPHYSICS 2015. [DOI: 10.3934/biophy.2015.4.441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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9
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Inhibition of transglutaminase exacerbates polyglutamine-induced neurotoxicity by increasing the aggregation of mutant ataxin-3 in an SCA3 Drosophila model. Neurotox Res 2014; 27:259-67. [PMID: 25501875 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-014-9506-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminases (TGs) comprise a family of Ca(2+)-dependent enzymes that catalyze protein cross-linking, which include nine family members in humans but only a single homolog in Drosophila with three conserved domains. Drosophila Tg plays important roles in cuticle morphogenesis, hemolymph clotting, and innate immunity. Mammalian tissue TG (TG2) is involved in polyglutamine diseases (polyQ diseases), and TG6 has been identified as a causative gene of a novel spinocerebellar ataxia, SCA35. Using a well-established SCA3 fly model, we found that RNA interference-mediated suppression of Tg aggravated polyQ-induced neurodegenerative phenotypes. The administration of cystamine, a known effective Tg inhibitor, enhanced ommatidial degeneration in SCA3 flies. We also demonstrated that the aggregates of pathogenic ataxin-3 increased greatly, when the Tg activity was repressed. These findings indicate that Tg is crucial for polyQ-induced neurotoxicity because Tg ablation resulted in more severe neurodegeneration due to the elevated accumulation of insoluble ataxin-3 complexes in the SCA3 Drosophila model.
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10
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Aberrant calcium signaling by transglutaminase-mediated posttranslational modification of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:E3966-75. [PMID: 25201980 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1409730111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) in the endoplasmic reticulum mediates calcium signaling that impinges on intracellular processes. IP3Rs are allosteric proteins comprising four subunits that form an ion channel activated by binding of IP3 at a distance. Defective allostery in IP3R is considered crucial to cellular dysfunction, but the specific mechanism remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that a pleiotropic enzyme transglutaminase type 2 targets the allosteric coupling domain of IP3R type 1 (IP3R1) and negatively regulates IP3R1-mediated calcium signaling and autophagy by locking the subunit configurations. The control point of this regulation is the covalent posttranslational modification of the Gln2746 residue that transglutaminase type 2 tethers to the adjacent subunit. Modification of Gln2746 and IP3R1 function was observed in Huntington disease models, suggesting a pathological role of this modification in the neurodegenerative disease. Our study reveals that cellular signaling is regulated by a new mode of posttranslational modification that chronically and enzymatically blocks allosteric changes in the ligand-gated channels that relate to disease states.
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11
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Menalled LB, Kudwa AE, Oakeshott S, Farrar A, Paterson N, Filippov I, Miller S, Kwan M, Olsen M, Beltran J, Torello J, Fitzpatrick J, Mushlin R, Cox K, McConnell K, Mazzella M, He D, Osborne GF, Al-Nackkash R, Bates GP, Tuunanen P, Lehtimaki K, Brunner D, Ghavami A, Ramboz S, Park L, Macdonald D, Munoz-Sanjuan I, Howland D. Genetic deletion of transglutaminase 2 does not rescue the phenotypic deficits observed in R6/2 and zQ175 mouse models of Huntington's disease. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99520. [PMID: 24955833 PMCID: PMC4067284 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant, progressive neurodegenerative disorder caused by expansion of CAG repeats in the huntingtin gene. Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2), a multi-functional enzyme, was found to be increased both in HD patients and in mouse models of the disease. Furthermore, beneficial effects have been reported from the genetic ablation of TG2 in R6/2 and R6/1 mouse lines. To further evaluate the validity of this target for the treatment of HD, we examined the effects of TG2 deletion in two genetic mouse models of HD: R6/2 CAG 240 and zQ175 knock in (KI). Contrary to previous reports, under rigorous experimental conditions we found that TG2 ablation had no effect on either motor or cognitive deficits, or on the weight loss. In addition, under optimal husbandry conditions, TG2 ablation did not extend R6/2 lifespan. Moreover, TG2 deletion did not change the huntingtin aggregate load in cortex or striatum and did not decrease the brain atrophy observed in either mouse line. Finally, no amelioration of the dysregulation of striatal and cortical gene markers was detected. We conclude that TG2 is not a valid therapeutic target for the treatment of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea E. Kudwa
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Steve Oakeshott
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Andrew Farrar
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Neil Paterson
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Igor Filippov
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Sam Miller
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Mei Kwan
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Michael Olsen
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Jose Beltran
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Justin Torello
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Jon Fitzpatrick
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Richard Mushlin
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Kimberly Cox
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Kristi McConnell
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Matthew Mazzella
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Dansha He
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Georgina F. Osborne
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rand Al-Nackkash
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gill P. Bates
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pasi Tuunanen
- Charles River Discovery Research Services, Kuopio, Finland
| | | | - Dani Brunner
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Afshin Ghavami
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Sylvie Ramboz
- PsychoGenics Inc., Tarrytown, New York, United States of America
| | - Larry Park
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Douglas Macdonald
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
| | | | - David Howland
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, Princeton, New Jersey, United States of America
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12
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Abstract
Changes in the level and activity of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) have been described in a number of neurodegenerative disorders since early 1990s. However, only in Huntington disease (HD) gain- and loss-of-function experiments have mechanistically linked these abnormalities with the genetic defect.In this chapter we will describe how huntingtin protein, whose mutation causes HD, is involved in the physiological control of BDNF synthesis and transport in neurons and how both processes are simultaneously disrupted in HD. We will describe the underlying molecular mechanisms and discuss pre-clinical data concerning the impact of the experimental manipulation of BDNF levels on HD progression. These studies have revealed that a major loss of BDNF protein in the brain of HD patients may contribute to the clinical manifestations of the disease. The experimental strategies under investigation to increase brain BDNF levels in animal models of HD will also be described, with a view to ultimately improving the clinical treatment of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zuccato
- Department of Biosciences and Centre for Stem cell Research, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Viotti 3/5, 20133, Milan, Italy,
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13
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Wityak J, Prime ME, Brookfield FA, Courtney SM, Erfan S, Johnsen S, Johnson PD, Li M, Marston RW, Reed L, Vaidya D, Schaertl S, Pedret-Dunn A, Beconi M, Macdonald D, Muñoz-Sanjuan I, Dominguez C. SAR Development of Lysine-Based Irreversible Inhibitors of Transglutaminase 2 for Huntington's Disease. ACS Med Chem Lett 2012; 3:1024-8. [PMID: 24900424 DOI: 10.1021/ml300241m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2012] [Accepted: 10/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a series of irreversible transglutaminase 2 inhibitors starting from a known lysine dipeptide bearing an acrylamide warhead. We established new SARs resulting in compounds demonstrating improved potency and better physical and calculated properties. Transglutaminase selectivity profiling and in vitro ADME properties of selected compounds are also reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Wityak
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive, Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Michael E. Prime
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Sayeh Erfan
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Siw Johnsen
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Peter D. Johnson
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Marie Li
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | | | - Laura Reed
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Darshan Vaidya
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Sabine Schaertl
- Evotec AG, Manfred Eigen Campus, Essener Bogen 7, 22419 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anna Pedret-Dunn
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon, OX14 4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Beconi
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive, Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Douglas Macdonald
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive, Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Ignacio Muñoz-Sanjuan
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive, Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Celia Dominguez
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive, Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
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14
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Caputo I, Secondo A, Lepretti M, Paolella G, Auricchio S, Barone MV, Esposito C. Gliadin peptides induce tissue transglutaminase activation and ER-stress through Ca2+ mobilization in Caco-2 cells. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45209. [PMID: 23049776 PMCID: PMC3458012 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 08/16/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Celiac disease (CD) is an intestinal inflammatory condition that develops in genetically susceptible individuals after exposure to dietary wheat gliadin. The role of post-translational modifications of gliadin catalyzed by tissue transglutaminase (tTG) seems to play a crucial role in CD. However, it remains to be established how and where tTG is activated in vivo. We have investigated whether gliadin peptides modulate intracellular Ca(2+) homeostasis and tTG activity. METHODS/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We studied Ca(2+) homeostasis in Caco-2 cells by single cell microfluorimetry. Under our conditions, A-gliadin peptides 31-43 and 57-68 rapidly mobilized Ca(2+) from intracellular stores. Specifically, peptide 31-43 mobilized Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria, whereas peptide 57-68 mobilized Ca(2+) only from mitochondria. We also found that gliadin peptide-induced Ca(2+) mobilization activates the enzymatic function of intracellular tTG as revealed by in situ tTG activity using the tTG substrate pentylamine-biotin. Moreover, we demonstrate that peptide 31-43, but not peptide 57-68, induces an increase of tTG expression. Finally, we monitored the expression of glucose-regulated protein-78 and of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-homologous protein, which are two biochemical markers of ER-stress, by real-time RT-PCR and western blot. We found that chronic administration of peptide 31-43, but not of peptide 57-68, induces the expression of both genes. CONCLUSIONS By inducing Ca(2+) mobilization from the ER, peptide 31-43 could promote an ER-stress pathway that may be relevant in CD pathogenesis. Furthermore, peptides 31-43 and 57-68, by activating intracellular tTG, could alter inflammatory key regulators, and induce deamidation of immunogenic peptides and gliadin-tTG crosslinking in enterocytes and specialized antigen-presenting cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Caputo
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Salerno, Italy.
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15
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Prime ME, Brookfield FA, Courtney SM, Gaines S, Marston RW, Ichihara O, Li M, Vaidya D, Williams H, Pedret-Dunn A, Reed L, Schaertl S, Toledo-Sherman L, Beconi M, Macdonald D, Muñoz-Sanjuan I, Dominguez C, Wityak J. Irreversible 4-Aminopiperidine Transglutaminase 2 Inhibitors for Huntington's Disease. ACS Med Chem Lett 2012; 3:731-5. [PMID: 24900540 DOI: 10.1021/ml3001352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
A new series of potent TG2 inhibitors are reported that employ a 4-aminopiperidine core bearing an acrylamide warhead. We establish the structure-activity relationship of this new series and report on the transglutaminase selectivity and in vitro ADME properties of selected compounds. We demonstrate that the compounds do not conjugate glutathione in an in vitro setting and have superior plasma stability over our previous series.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E. Prime
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Simon Gaines
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | | | - Osamu Ichihara
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Marie Li
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Darshan Vaidya
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Helen Williams
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Pedret-Dunn
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Reed
- Evotec (U.K.) Ltd., 114 Milton Park, Abingdon OX14
4SA, United Kingdom
| | - Sabine Schaertl
- Evotec AG, Manfred Eigen Campus, Essener Bogen 7, 22419
Hamburg, Germany
| | - Leticia Toledo-Sherman
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive,
Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Maria Beconi
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive,
Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Douglas Macdonald
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive,
Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Ignacio Muñoz-Sanjuan
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive,
Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - Celia Dominguez
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive,
Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
| | - John Wityak
- CHDI Management/CHDI Foundation, 6080 Center Drive,
Suite 100, Los Angeles, California 90045, United States
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16
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Kumar A, Kneynsberg A, Tucholski J, Perry G, van Groen T, Detloff PJ, Lesort M. Tissue transglutaminase overexpression does not modify the disease phenotype of the R6/2 mouse model of Huntington's disease. Exp Neurol 2012; 237:78-89. [PMID: 22698685 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 05/14/2012] [Accepted: 05/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a devastating autosomal-dominant neurodegenerative disorder initiated by an abnormally expanded polyglutamine in the huntingtin protein. Determining the contribution of specific factors to the pathogenesis of HD should provide rational targets for therapeutic intervention. One suggested contributor is the type 2 transglutaminase (TG2), a multifunctional calcium dependent enzyme. A role for TG2 in HD has been suggested because a polypeptide-bound glutamine is a rate-limiting factor for a TG2-catalyzed reaction, and TG2 can cross-link mutant huntingtin in vitro. Further, TG2 is up regulated in brain areas affected in HD. The objective of this study was to further examine the contribution of TG2 as a potential modifier of HD pathogenesis and its validity as a therapeutic target in HD. In particular our goal was to determine whether an increase in TG2 level, as documented in human HD brains, modulates the well-characterized phenotype of the R6/2 HD mouse model. To accomplish this objective a genetic cross was performed between R6/2 mice and an established transgenic mouse line that constitutively expresses human TG2 (hTG2) under control of the prion promoter. Constitutive expression of hTG2 did not affect the onset and progression of the behavioral and neuropathological HD phenotype of R6/2 mice. We found no alterations in body weight changes, rotarod performances, grip strength, overall activity, and no significant effect on the neuropathological features of R6/2 mice. Overall the results of this study suggest that an increase in hTG2 expression does not significantly modify the pathology of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Kumar
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0017, USA
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Gil-Mohapel JM. Screening of therapeutic strategies for Huntington's disease in YAC128 transgenic mice. CNS Neurosci Ther 2012; 18:77-86. [PMID: 21501423 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2011.00246.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington’s disease (HD) is a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder caused by an unstable expansion of cytosine-adenine-guanine (CAG) repeats in the HD gene. The symptoms include cognitive dysfunction and severe motor impairment with loss of voluntary movement coordination that is later replaced by bradykinesia and rigidity. The neuropathology is characterized by neuronal loss mainly in the striatum and cortex, and the appearance of neuronal intranuclear inclusions of mutant huntingtin. The mechanisms responsible for neurodegeneration are still not fully understood although excitotoxicity and a consequent increase in intracellular calcium concentration as well as the activation of caspases and calapins are known to play a key role. There is currently no satisfactory treatment or cure for this disease. The YAC128 transgenic mice express the full-length human HD gene with 128 CAG repeats and constitute a unique model for the study of HD as they replicate the slow and biphasic progression of behavioral deficits characteristic of the human condition and show striatal neuronal loss. As such, these transgenic mice have been an invaluable model not only for the elucidation of the neurodegenerative pathways in HD, but also for the screening and development of new therapeutic approaches. Here, I will review the unique characteristics of this transgenic HD model and will provide a summary of the therapies that have been tested in these mice, namely: potentiation of the protective roles of wild-type huntingtin and mutant huntingtin aggregation, transglutaminase inhibition, inhibition of glutamate- and dopamine-induced toxicity, apoptosis inhibition, use of essential fatty acids, and the novel approach of intrabody gene therapy. The insights obtained from these and future studies will help identify potential candidates for clinical trials and will ultimately contribute to the discovery of a successful treatment for this devastating neurodegenerative disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana M Gil-Mohapel
- Division of Medical Sciences, Island Medical Program, University of Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
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Prime ME, Andersen OA, Barker JJ, Brooks MA, Cheng RKY, Toogood-Johnson I, Courtney SM, Brookfield FA, Yarnold CJ, Marston RW, Johnson PD, Johnsen SF, Palfrey JJ, Vaidya D, Erfan S, Ichihara O, Felicetti B, Palan S, Pedret-Dunn A, Schaertl S, Sternberger I, Ebneth A, Scheel A, Winkler D, Toledo-Sherman L, Beconi M, Macdonald D, Muñoz-Sanjuan I, Dominguez C, Wityak J. Discovery and structure-activity relationship of potent and selective covalent inhibitors of transglutaminase 2 for Huntington's disease. J Med Chem 2012; 55:1021-46. [PMID: 22224594 DOI: 10.1021/jm201310y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multifunctional protein primarily known for its calcium-dependent enzymatic protein cross-linking activity via isopeptide bond formation between glutamine and lysine residues. TG2 overexpression and activity have been found to be associated with Huntington's disease (HD); specifically, TG2 is up-regulated in the brains of HD patients and in animal models of the disease. Interestingly, genetic deletion of TG2 in two different HD mouse models, R6/1 and R6/2, results in improved phenotypes including a reduction in neuronal death and prolonged survival. Starting with phenylacrylamide screening hit 7d, we describe the SAR of this series leading to potent and selective TG2 inhibitors. The suitability of the compounds as in vitro tools to elucidate the biology of TG2 was demonstrated through mode of inhibition studies, characterization of druglike properties, and inhibition profiles in a cell lysate assay.
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Transglutaminase 2: biology, relevance to neurodegenerative diseases and therapeutic implications. Pharmacol Ther 2011; 133:392-410. [PMID: 22212614 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Accepted: 12/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by progressive neuronal loss and the aggregation of disease-specific pathogenic proteins in hallmark neuropathologic lesions. Many of these proteins, including amyloid Αβ, tau, α-synuclein and huntingtin, are cross-linked by the enzymatic activity of transglutaminase 2 (TG2). Additionally, the expression and activity of TG2 is increased in affected brain regions in these disorders. These observations along with experimental evidence in cellular and mouse models suggest that TG2 can contribute to the abnormal aggregation of disease causing proteins and consequently to neuronal damage. This accumulating evidence has provided the impetus to develop inhibitors of TG2 as possible neuroprotective agents. However, TG2 has other enzymatic activities in addition to its cross-linking function and can modulate multiple cellular processes including apoptosis, autophagy, energy production, synaptic function, signal transduction and transcription regulation. These diverse properties must be taken into consideration in designing TG2 inhibitors. In this review, we discuss the biochemistry of TG2, its various physiologic functions and our current understanding about its role in degenerative diseases of the brain. We also describe the different approaches to designing TG2 inhibitors that could be developed as potential disease-modifying therapies.
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Kuo TF, Tatsukawa H, Kojima S. New insights into the functions and localization of nuclear transglutaminase 2. FEBS J 2011; 278:4756-67. [PMID: 22051117 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2011.08409.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2; EC 2.3.2.13) is the most abundantly expressed member of the transglutaminase family and exerts opposing effects on cell growth, differentiation and apoptosis via multiple activities, including transamidase, GTPase, cell adhesion, protein disulfide isomerase, kinase and scaffold activities. It is distributed in and around various parts of a cell, including the extracellular matrix, plasma membrane, cytosol, mitochondria and nucleus. Generally, nuclear TG2 represents only 5-7% of the total TG2 in a cell, and various stimuli will increase nuclear TG2 via cellular stress and/or an increased intracellular Ca(2+) concentration. There is increasing evidence indicating the importance of nuclear TG2 in regulating gene expression via post-translational modification of (or interaction with) transcriptional factors and related proteins. These include E2F1, hypoxia inducible factor 1, Sp1 and histones. Through this mechanism, TG2 controls cell growth or survival, differentiation and apoptosis, and is involved in the pathogenesis and/or treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, liver diseases and cancers. The balance between import from the cytoplasm to the nucleus, and export from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, determines the level of TG2 in the nucleus. Selective regulation of the expression, activity or localization of nuclear TG2 will be important for basic research, as well as clinical applications, suggesting a new era for this long-studied enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Fang Kuo
- Chemical Biology Department, RIKEN Advanced Science Institute, Wako, Saitama, Japan
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Gentile V. Physiopathological roles of human transglutaminase 2. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 78:47-95. [PMID: 22220472 DOI: 10.1002/9781118105771.ch2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Vittorio Gentile
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Medical School, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
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Hoffner G, Vanhoutteghem A, André W, Djian P. Transglutaminase in epidermis and neurological disease or what makes a good cross-linking substrate. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 78:97-160. [PMID: 22220473 DOI: 10.1002/9781118105771.ch3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guylaine Hoffner
- Unité Propre de Recherche 2228 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Régulation de la Transcription et Maladies Génétiques, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France
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Nemes Z. Effects and Analysis of Transglutamination on Protein Aggregation and Clearance in Neurodegenerative Diseases. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY - AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 78:347-83. [DOI: 10.1002/9781118105771.ch8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Transglutaminase 2: a molecular Swiss army knife. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2011; 1823:406-19. [PMID: 22015769 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2011.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 09/06/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is the most widely distributed member of the transglutaminase family with almost all cell types in the body expressing TG2 to varying extents. In addition to being widely expressed, TG2 is an extremely versatile protein exhibiting transamidating, protein disulphide isomerase and guanine and adenine nucleotide binding and hydrolyzing activities. TG2 can also act as a protein scaffold or linker. This unique protein also undergoes extreme conformational changes and exhibits localization diversity. Being mainly a cytosolic protein; it is also found in the nucleus, associated with the cell membrane (inner and outer side) and with the mitochondria, and also in the extracellular matrix. These different activities, conformations and localization need to be carefully considered while assessing the role of TG2 in physiological and pathological processes. For example, it is becoming evident that the role of TG2 in cell death processes is dependent upon the cell type, stimuli, subcellular localization and conformational state of the protein. In this review we discuss in depth the conformational and functional diversity of TG2 in the context of its role in numerous cellular processes. In particular, we have highlighted how differential localization, conformation and activities of TG2 may distinctly mediate cell death processes.
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Transglutaminase 6: a protein associated with central nervous system development and motor function. Amino Acids 2011; 44:161-77. [PMID: 21984379 PMCID: PMC3535377 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1091-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 09/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminases (TG) form a family of enzymes that catalyse various post-translational modifications of glutamine residues in proteins and peptides including intra- and intermolecular isopeptide bond formation, esterification and deamidation. We have characterized a novel member of the mammalian TG family, TG6, which is expressed in a human carcinoma cell line with neuronal characteristics and in mouse brain. Besides full-length protein, alternative splicing results in a short variant lacking the second β-barrel domain in man and a variant with truncated β-sandwich domain in mouse. Biochemical data show that TG6 is allosterically regulated by Ca2+ and guanine nucleotides. Molecular modelling indicates that TG6 could have Ca2+ and GDP-binding sites related to those of TG3 and TG2, respectively. Localization of mRNA and protein in the mouse identified abundant expression of TG6 in the central nervous system. Analysis of its temporal and spatial pattern of induction in mouse development indicates an association with neurogenesis. Neuronal expression of TG6 was confirmed by double-labelling of mouse forebrain cells with cell type-specific markers. Induction of differentiation in mouse Neuro 2a cells with NGF or dibutyryl cAMP is associated with an upregulation of TG6 expression. Familial ataxia has recently been linked to mutations in the TGM6 gene. Autoantibodies to TG6 were identified in immune-mediated ataxia in patients with gluten sensitivity. These findings suggest a critical role for TG6 in cortical and cerebellar neurons.
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Gibrat C, Cicchetti F. Potential of cystamine and cysteamine in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2011; 35:380-9. [PMID: 21111020 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2010.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 11/10/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders are a subset of disabling pathologies characterized, in part, by a progressive and specific loss of certain brain cell populations. Current therapeutic approaches for the treatment of these disorders are mainly designed towards symptom management and do not manifestly block their typified neuronal loss. However, research conducted over the past decade has reflected the increasing interest and need to find disease-modifying molecules. Among the several neuroprotective agents emerging from experimental animal work, cystamine, as well as its reduced form cysteamine, have been identified as potential candidate drugs. Given the significant benefits observed in a Huntington's disease (HD) model, cysteamine has recently leaped to clinical trial. Here, we review the beneficial properties of these compounds as reported in animal studies, their mechanistic underpinnings, and their potential implications for the future treatment of patients suffering from neurodegenerative diseases, and more specifically for HD and Parkinson's disease (PD).
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gibrat
- Centre de Recherche du CHUL (CHUQ), Axe Neurosciences, 2705 Boulevard Laurier, Québec, QC, Canada, G1V 4G2
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27
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Munsie L, Caron N, Atwal RS, Marsden I, Wild EJ, Bamburg JR, Tabrizi SJ, Truant R. Mutant huntingtin causes defective actin remodeling during stress: defining a new role for transglutaminase 2 in neurodegenerative disease. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20:1937-51. [PMID: 21355047 PMCID: PMC3080606 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddr075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by an expanded CAG tract in the Interesting transcript 15 (IT15) gene encoding the 350 kDa huntingtin protein. Cellular stresses can trigger the release of huntingtin from the endoplasmic reticulum, allowing huntingtin nuclear entry. Here, we show that endogenous, full-length huntingtin localizes to nuclear cofilin–actin rods during stress and is required for the proper stress response involving actin remodeling. Mutant huntingtin induces a dominant, persistent nuclear rod phenotype similar to that described in Alzheimer's disease for cytoplasmic cofilin–actin rods. Using live cell temporal studies, we show that this stress response is similarly impaired when mutant huntingtin is present, or when normal huntingtin levels are reduced. In clinical lymphocyte samples from HD patients, we have quantitatively detected cross-linked complexes of actin and cofilin with complex formation varying in correlation with disease progression. By live cell fluorescence lifetime imaging measurement–Förster resonant energy transfer studies and western blot assays, we quantitatively observed that stress-activated tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is responsible for the actin–cofilin covalent cross-linking observed in HD. These data support a direct role for huntingtin in nuclear actin re-organization, and describe a new pathogenic mechanism for aberrant TG2 enzymatic hyperactivity in neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lise Munsie
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada L8N3Z5
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Caccamo D, Currò M, Ientile R. Potential of transglutaminase 2 as a therapeutic target. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2010; 14:989-1003. [PMID: 20670177 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2010.510134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Increased expression and activity of transglutaminase 2 - a calcium-dependent enzyme which catalyzes protein cross-linking, polyamination or deamidation at selective glutamine residues - are involved in the etiopathogenesis of several pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative disorders, autoimmune diseases and inflammatory diseases. Inhibition of enzyme activity has potential for therapeutic management of these diseases. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW The major results achieved in the last twelve years of research in the field of inhibition of tranglutaminase activity using cell cultures as well as in vivo models of high-social-impact or widespread diseases, such as CNS neurodegenerative disorders, celiac sprue, cancer and fibrotic diseases. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN Beneficial effects of enzyme activity inhibition have been observed in neurodegeneration and fibrosis in vivo models by delivery of the competitive inhibitor cystamine and more recently designed inhibitors, such as thiomidaziolium or norleucine derivatives, which irreversibly bind the active site cysteine residue. Transglutaminase 2 targeting with specific antibodies has also been shown to be a promising tool for celiac disease treatment. TAKE HOME MESSAGE New insights from transglutaminase inhibition studies dealing with side effects of in vivo administration of pan-transglutaminase inhibitors will help in design of novel therapeutic approaches to various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Caccamo
- University of Messina, Policlinico Universitario, Department of Biochemical, Physiological and Nutritional Sciences, Italy
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29
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Dowie M, Howard M, Nicholson L, Faull R, Hannan A, Glass M. Behavioural and molecular consequences of chronic cannabinoid treatment in Huntington's disease transgenic mice. Neuroscience 2010; 170:324-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.06.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2010] [Revised: 06/22/2010] [Accepted: 06/23/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Cystamine and intrabody co-treatment confers additional benefits in a fly model of Huntington's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2010; 40:130-4. [PMID: 20399860 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2010.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2009] [Revised: 03/16/2010] [Accepted: 04/09/2010] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a lethal, neurodegenerative disorder caused by expansion of the polyglutamine repeat in the Huntingtin gene (HTT), leading to mutant protein misfolding, aggregation, and neuronal death. Feeding a Drosophila HD model cystamine, or expressing a transgene encoding the anti-htt intracellular antibody (intrabody) C4-scFv in the nervous system, demonstrated therapeutic potential, but suppression of pathology was incomplete. We hypothesized that a combinatorial approach entailing drug and intrabody administration could enhance rescue of HD pathology in flies and that timing of treatment would affect outcomes. Feeding cystamine to adult HD flies expressing the intrabody resulted in a significant, additional rescue of photoreceptor neurodegeneration, but no additional benefit in longevity. Feeding cystamine during both larval and adult stages produced the converse result: longevity was significantly improved, but increased photoreceptor survival was not. We conclude that cystamine-intrabody combination therapies can be effective, reducing neurodegeneration and prolonging survival, depending on administration protocols.
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Schaertl S, Prime M, Wityak J, Dominguez C, Munoz-Sanjuan I, Pacifici RE, Courtney S, Scheel A, Macdonald D. A profiling platform for the characterization of transglutaminase 2 (TG2) inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 15:478-87. [PMID: 20395409 DOI: 10.1177/1087057110366035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is associated with increased expression levels and activity of tissue transglutaminase (TG2), an enzyme primarily known for its cross-linking of proteins. To validate TG2 as a therapeutic target for HD in transgenic models and for eventual clinical development, a selective and brain-permeable inhibitor is required. Here, a comprehensive profiling platform of biochemical and cellular assays is presented which has been established to evaluate the potency, cellular efficacy, subtype selectivity and the mechanism-of-action of known and novel TG2 inhibitors. Several classes of inhibitors have been characterized including: the commonly used pseudo-substrate inhibitors, cystamine and putrescine (which are generally nonspecific for TG2 and therefore not practical for drug development), the various peptidic inhibitors that target the active site cysteine residue (which display excellent selectivity but in general have poor cellular activity), and the allosteric reversible small-molecule hydrazides (which show poor selectivity and a lack of cellular activity and could not be improved despite considerable medicinal chemistry efforts). In addition, a set of inhibitors identified from a collection of pharmacologically active compounds was found to be unselective for TG2. Moreover, inhibition at the guanosine triphosphate binding site has been examined, but apart from guanine nucleotides, no such inhibitors have been identified. In addition, the promising pharmacological profile of a TG2 inhibitor is presented which is currently in lead optimization to be developed as a tool compound.
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Lai TS, Davies C, Greenberg CS. Human tissue transglutaminase is inhibited by pharmacologic and chemical acetylation. Protein Sci 2010; 19:229-35. [PMID: 19998405 DOI: 10.1002/pro.301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Human tissue transglutaminase (TGM2) is implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative disorders including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases. TGM2 promotes formation of soluble and insoluble high molecular weight aggregates by catalyzing a covalent linkage between peptide-bound Q residues in polyQ proteins and a peptide-bound Lys residue. Therapeutic approaches to modulate the activity of TGM2 are needed to proceed with studies to test the efficacy of TGM2 inhibition in disease processes. We investigated whether acetylation of Lys-residues by sulfosuccinimidyl acetate (SNA) or aspirin (ASA) would alter the crosslinking activity of TGM2. Acetylation by either SNA and/or ASA resulted in a loss of >90% of crosslinking activity. The Lys residues that were critical for inhibition were identified by mass spectrometry as Lys(444), Lys(468), and Lys(663). Hence, acetylation of Lys-residues may modulate the enzymatic function of TGM2 in vivo and offer a novel approach to treatment of TGM2 mediated disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thung S Lai
- Department of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina 29425, USA.
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33
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Caccamo D, Currò M, Condello S, Ferlazzo N, Ientile R. Critical role of transglutaminase and other stress proteins during neurodegenerative processes. Amino Acids 2009; 38:653-8. [PMID: 19960212 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-009-0428-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Proteolytic stress, resulting from the intracellular accumulation of misfolded or aggregated proteins, which exceed the capacity of the ubiquitin-proteasome system to degrade them, plays a relevant role in neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's chorea. Most of toxic protein aggregates are characterised by the presence of isopeptide bonds (cross-links) catalysed by transglutaminase activity; further, several disease-specific proteins-tau, amyloid-beta, alpha-synuclein, huntingtin-are in vitro and/or in vivo substrates of transglutaminase 2. These findings suggest an important role for transglutaminase 2-mediated cross-linking reactions in neurodegeneration. Therefore, the use of transglutaminase activity inhibitors could ameliorate neuronal cell death. New therapeutic perspectives also arise from the possibility to prevent or reduce protein aggregation by enhancing the activation of heat shock proteins, which have been shown to be potent suppressors of neurodegeneration in cell cultures/animal models. Interestingly, some heat shock proteins have been shown to be in vitro or in vivo cross-linked by transglutaminase 2. These observations seem to suggest that transglutaminase activity could be involved in the stabilization of intracellular protein aggregates by interfering with proteasomal degradation of misfolded proteins. Further studies are needed to validate leading hypotheses and to open new prospects for developing therapeutic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Caccamo
- Department of Biochemical, Physiological and Nutritional Sciences, Policlinico Universitario, University of Messina, Via Consolare Valeria, 98125 Messina, Italy
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35
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Iismaa SE, Mearns BM, Lorand L, Graham RM. Transglutaminases and disease: lessons from genetically engineered mouse models and inherited disorders. Physiol Rev 2009; 89:991-1023. [PMID: 19584319 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00044.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The human transglutaminase (TG) family consists of a structural protein, protein 4.2, that lacks catalytic activity, and eight zymogens/enzymes, designated factor XIII-A (FXIII-A) and TG1-7, that catalyze three types of posttranslational modification reactions: transamidation, esterification, and hydrolysis. These reactions are essential for biological processes such as blood coagulation, skin barrier formation, and extracellular matrix assembly but can also contribute to the pathophysiology of various inflammatory, autoimmune, and degenerative conditions. Some members of the TG family, for example, TG2, can participate in biological processes through actions unrelated to transamidase catalytic activity. We present here a comprehensive review of recent insights into the physiology and pathophysiology of TG family members that have come from studies of genetically engineered mouse models and/or inherited disorders. The review focuses on FXIII-A, TG1, TG2, TG5, and protein 4.2, as mice deficient in TG3, TG4, TG6, or TG7 have not yet been reported, nor have mutations in these proteins been linked to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siiri E Iismaa
- Molecular Cardiology and Biophysics Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute and Universityof New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2010, Australia
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36
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Hoffner G, Souès S, Djian P. Aggregation of expanded huntingtin in the brains of patients with Huntington disease. Prion 2009; 1:26-31. [PMID: 19172113 DOI: 10.4161/pri.1.1.4056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Huntingtin containing an expanded polyglutamine causes neuronal death and Huntington disease. Although expanded huntingtin is found in virtually every cell type, its toxicity is limited to neurons of certain areas of the brain, such as cortex and caudate/putamen. In affected areas of the brain, expanded huntingtin is not found in its intact monomeric form. It is found instead in the form of N-terminal fragments, oligomers and polymers, all of which accumulate in the cortex. Whereas the oligomer is mostly soluble, the polymers and the fragments associate with each other and with other proteins to form the insoluble inclusions characteristic of the disease. It is likely that the aggregates containing expanded huntingtin are toxic to neurons, but it remains to be determined whether the oligomer or the inclusion is the toxic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guylaine Hoffner
- Unité Propre de Recherche 2228 du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut Interdisciplinaire des Sciences du Vivant des Saints-Pères, Université René Descartes, Paris, France
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Roze E, Betuing S, Deyts C, Vidailhet M, Caboche J. Physiopathologie de la maladie de Huntington : état des connaissances. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2008; 164:977-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurol.2008.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2007] [Revised: 01/28/2008] [Accepted: 03/26/2008] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Filiano AJ, Bailey CDC, Tucholski J, Gundemir S, Johnson GVW. Transglutaminase 2 protects against ischemic insult, interacts with HIF1beta, and attenuates HIF1 signaling. FASEB J 2008; 22:2662-75. [PMID: 18375543 DOI: 10.1096/fj.07-097709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multifunctional enzyme that has been implicated in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, ischemia, and stroke. The mechanism by which TG2 modulates disease progression have not been elucidated. In this study we investigate the role of TG2 in the cellular response to ischemia and hypoxia. TG2 is up-regulated in neurons exposed to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD), and increased TG2 expression protects neurons against OGD-induced cell death independent of its transamidating activity. We identified hypoxia inducible factor 1beta (HIF1beta) as a TG2 binding partner. HIF1beta and HIF1alpha together form the heterodimeric transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF1). TG2 and the transaminase-inactive mutant C277S-TG2 inhibited a HIF-dependent transcription reporter assay under hypoxic conditions without affecting nuclear protein levels for HIF1alpha or HIF1beta, their ability to form the HIF1 heterodimeric transcription factor, or HIF1 binding to its DNA response element. Interestingly, TG2 attenuates the up-regulation of the HIF-dependent proapoptotic gene Bnip3 in response to OGD but had no effect on the expression of VEGF, which has been linked to prosurvival processes. This study demonstrates for the first time that TG2 protects against OGD, interacts with HIF1beta, and attenuates the HIF1 hypoxic response pathway. These results indicate that TG2 may play an important role in protecting against the delayed neuronal cell death in ischemia and stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony J Filiano
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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39
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Wilhelmus MMM, van Dam AM, Drukarch B. Tissue transglutaminase: a novel pharmacological target in preventing toxic protein aggregation in neurodegenerative diseases. Eur J Pharmacol 2008; 585:464-72. [PMID: 18417122 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2008.01.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2007] [Revised: 01/10/2008] [Accepted: 01/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease are neurodegenerative diseases, characterized by the accumulation and deposition of neurotoxic protein aggregates. The capacity of specific proteins to self-interact and form neurotoxic aggregates seems to be a common underlying mechanism leading to pathology in these neurodegenerative diseases. This process might be initiated and/or accelerated by proteins that interact with these aggregating proteins. The transglutaminase (TG) family of proteins are calcium-dependent enzymes that catalyze the formation of covalent epsilon-(gamma-glutamyl)lysine isopeptide bonds, which can result in both intra- and intermolecular cross-links. Intramolecular cross-links might modify self-interacting proteins, and make them more prone to aggregate. In addition, intermolecular cross-links could link self-aggregating proteins and thereby initiate and/or stimulate the aggregation process. So far, increased levels and activity of tissue transglutaminase (tTG), the best characterized member of the TG family, have been observed in many neurodegenerative diseases, and the self-interacting proteins, characteristic of Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease, are known substrates of tTG. Here, we focus on the role of tTG in the initiation of the aggregation process of self-interacting proteins in these diseases, and promote the notion that tTG might be an attractive novel target for treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micha M M Wilhelmus
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences VU University Medical Center, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Neurosciences (ICEN), Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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40
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Siegel M, Khosla C. Transglutaminase 2 inhibitors and their therapeutic role in disease states. Pharmacol Ther 2007; 115:232-45. [PMID: 17582505 PMCID: PMC1975782 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2007.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2007] [Accepted: 05/03/2007] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a multi-domain, multi-functional enzyme that post-translationally modifies proteins by catalyzing the formation of intermolecular isopeptide bonds between glutamine and lysine side-chains. It plays a role in diverse biological functions, including extracellular matrix formation, integrin-mediated signaling, and signal transduction involving 7-transmembrane receptors. While some of the roles of TG2 under normal physiological conditions remain obscure, the protein is believed to participate in the pathogenesis of several unrelated diseases, including celiac sprue, neurodegenerative diseases, and certain types of cancer. A variety of small molecule and peptidomimetic inhibitors of the TG2 active site have been identified. Here, we summarize the biochemistry, biology, pharmacology and medicinal chemistry of human TG2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Siegel
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Chaitan Khosla
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
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41
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Abstract
Transglutaminase catalyzes a covalent bond between peptide-bound glutamine residues and either lysine-bound peptide residues or mono- or polyamines. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that transglutaminase is involved in neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer disease, progressive supranuclear palsy, Huntington disease (HD), and Parkinson disease. In all of the neurodegenerative diseases examined to date, transglutaminase enzyme activity is upregulated in selectively vulnerable brain regions, transglutaminase proteins are associated with inclusion bodies characteristic of the diseases, and prominent proteins in the inclusion bodies are modified by transglutaminase enzymes. These prominent proteins in the inclusion bodies, including tau, alpha-synuclein, and huntingtin protein, are modified by transglutaminase in vitro and alpha-synuclein and huntingtin protein are modified in cells in culture. Similar changes in transglutaminase and transglutaminase-modified proteins are replicated in transgenic mouse models of the neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington disease and progressive supranuclear palsy. Lastly, inhibition of transglutaminase either via drug treatments or molecular approaches is beneficial for the treatment of HD transgenic mice but has yet to be explored for the other neurodegenerative diseases. Further research is needed to determine the specific role(s) that transglutaminase plays in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases with possible implications for transglutaminase as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy A Muma
- Department of Pharmacology, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, Illinois, USA.
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42
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Strnad P, Harada M, Siegel M, Terkeltaub RA, Graham RM, Khosla C, Omary MB. Transglutaminase 2 regulates mallory body inclusion formation and injury-associated liver enlargement. Gastroenterology 2007; 132:1515-26. [PMID: 17408647 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2007.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2006] [Accepted: 12/14/2006] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Mallory body (MB) inclusions are a characteristic feature of several liver disorders and share similarities with cytoplasmic inclusions observed in neural diseases and myopathies. MBs consist primarily of keratins 8 and 18 (K8/K18), require a K8-greater-than-K18 ratio for their formation, and contain glutamine-lysine cross-links generated by transglutaminase (TG). We hypothesized that protein transamidation is essential for MB formation. METHODS Because TG2 is the most abundant hepatocyte TG, we tested our hypothesis using TG2(-/-) and their wild-type counterpart mice fed 3,5-diethoxycarbonyl-1,4-dihydrocollidine (DDC), an established MB inducer. Keratin cross-linking was further examined using recombinant proteins or transgenic mice that overexpress K8 or K18. RESULTS TG2(-/-) livers have markedly reduced TG2 activity as compared with TG2(+/+) livers. The DDC-fed TG2(-/-) mice have dramatic decreases in MB formation and liver hypertrophy response as contrasted with DDC-fed TG2(+/+) mice. Despite similar hepatocellular damage, TG2(-/-) mice had more gallstones, jaundice, and ductal proliferation than wild-type mice. Inhibition of MB formation in TG2(-/-) mice was associated with marked attenuation of ubiquitination and K8-containing protein cross-linking. MB formation and resolution paralleled the generation then disappearance of cross-linked K8, respectively. K8 is a preferential TG2 substrate when compared to K18, as examined in vitro or in DDC-fed transgenic mice that overexpress K8 or K18. CONCLUSIONS We demonstrate an essential role for TG2 in determining injury-mediated liver enlargement and the necessity of K8 and TG2 for generating cross-linked keratins and MBs. The role of TG in inclusion formation might extend to nonkeratin intermediate filament protein-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavel Strnad
- Department of Medicine, Palo Alto VA Medical Center, Palo Alto, California, USA
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43
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Ruan Q, Quintanilla RA, Johnson GVW. Type 2 transglutaminase differentially modulates striatal cell death in the presence of wild type or mutant huntingtin. J Neurochem 2007; 102:25-36. [PMID: 17403029 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.04491.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD), which is caused by an expanded polyglutamine tract in huntingtin (htt), is characterized by extensive loss of striatal neurons. The dysregulation of type 2 transglutaminase (TG2) has been proposed to contribute to the pathogenesis in HD as TG2 is up-regulated in HD brain and knocking out TG2 in mouse models of HD ameliorates the disease process. To understand the role of TG2 in the pathogenesis of HD, immortalized striatal cells established from mice in which mutant htt with a polyglutamine stretch of 111 Gln had been knocked-in and wild type (WT) littermates, were stably transfected with human TG2 in a tetracycline inducible vector. Overexpression of TG2 in the WT striatal cells resulted in significantly greater cell death under basal conditions as well as in response to thapsigargin treatment, which causes increased intracellular calcium concentrations. Furthermore, in WT striatal cells TG2 overexpression potentiated mitochondrial membrane depolarization, intracellular reactive oxygen species production, and apoptotic cell death in response to thapsigargin. In contrast, in mutant striatal cells, TG2 overexpression did not increase cell death, nor did it potentiate thapsigargin-induced mitochondrial membrane depolarization or intracellular reactive oxygen species production. Instead, TG2 overexpression in mutant striatal cells attenuated the thapsigargin-activated apoptosis. When in situ transglutaminase activity was quantitatively analyzed in these cell lines, we found that in response to thapsigargin treatment TG2 was activated in WT, but not mutant striatal cells. These data suggest that mutant htt alters the activation of TG2 in response to certain stimuli and therefore differentially modulates how TG2 contributes to cell death processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingmin Ruan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294-0017, USA
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44
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Battaglia G, Farrace MG, Mastroberardino PG, Viti I, Fimia GM, Van Beeumen J, Devreese B, Melino G, Molinaro G, Busceti CL, Biagioni F, Nicoletti F, Piacentini M. Transglutaminase 2 ablation leads to defective function of mitochondrial respiratory complex I affecting neuronal vulnerability in experimental models of extrapyramidal disorders. J Neurochem 2006; 100:36-49. [PMID: 17064362 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04140.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) represents the most ubiquitous isoform belonging to the TG family, and has been implicated in the pathophysiology of basal ganglia disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease. We show that ablation of TG2 in knockout mice causes a reduced activity of mitochondrial complex I associated with an increased activity of complex II in the whole forebrain and striatum. Interestingly, TG2-/- mice were protected against nigrostriatal damage induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, which is converted in vivo into the mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-pyridinium ion. In contrast, TG2-/- mice were more vulnerable to nigrostriatal damage induced by methamphetamine or by the complex II inhibitor, 3-nitropropionic acid. Proteomic analysis showed that proteins involved in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, such as prohibitin and the beta-chain of ATP synthase, are substrates for TG2. These data suggest that TG2 is involved in the regulation of the respiratory chain both in physiology and pathology, contributing to set the threshold for neuronal damage in extrapyramidal disorders.
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MESH Headings
- 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine/metabolism
- 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine/pharmacology
- Adenosine Triphosphate/metabolism
- Animals
- Basal Ganglia Diseases/genetics
- Basal Ganglia Diseases/physiopathology
- Biogenic Monoamines/metabolism
- Blotting, Western/methods
- Body Weight/drug effects
- Corpus Striatum/drug effects
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dopamine Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Electron Transport Complex I/metabolism
- Electron Transport Complex II/metabolism
- GTP-Binding Proteins/deficiency
- Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein/metabolism
- Immunohistochemistry/methods
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Mitochondria/drug effects
- Mitochondria/metabolism
- Mitochondrial Diseases/etiology
- Mitochondrial Diseases/pathology
- Neurons/pathology
- Piperazines/pharmacokinetics
- Protein Glutamine gamma Glutamyltransferase 2
- Time Factors
- Transglutaminases/deficiency
- Tyrosine 3-Monooxygenase/metabolism
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45
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Bailey CDC, Johnson GVW. The protective effects of cystamine in the R6/2 Huntington's disease mouse involve mechanisms other than the inhibition of tissue transglutaminase. Neurobiol Aging 2006; 27:871-9. [PMID: 15896882 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2005] [Revised: 04/05/2005] [Accepted: 04/13/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (tTG) is a multifunctional enzyme that contributes to disease progression in mouse models of Huntington's disease (HD), an inherited neurodegenerative disease that shows an age-related onset. Moreover, administration of the transglutaminase inhibitor cystamine delays the onset of pathology in the R6/2 HD mouse model. However, the contribution of tTG inhibition towards the therapeutic effects of cystamine has not been determined, as this compound likely has multiple mechanisms of action in the R6/2 mouse. In this study, we found that administration of cystamine in drinking water delayed the age of onset for motor dysfunction and extended lifespan to a similar extent in R6/2 mice that had a normal genetic complement of tTG compared with R6/2 mice that did not express tTG. Since the magnitude of cystamine's therapeutic effects was not affected by the genetic deletion of tTG, these results suggest that the mechanism of action for cystamine in this HD mouse model involves targets other than tTG inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig D C Bailey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1720 7th Avenue South, Sparks Center Room 1061, Birmingham, AL 35294-0017, USA
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46
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Mao Z, Choo YS, Lesort M. Cystamine and cysteamine prevent 3-NP-induced mitochondrial depolarization of Huntington's disease knock-in striatal cells. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 23:1701-10. [PMID: 16623826 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04686.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Abstract Cystamine significantly improved motor deficits and extended survival in mouse models of Huntington's disease (HD); however, the precise mechanism(s) by which cystamine and the related compound cysteamine are beneficial remain to be elucidated. Using clonal striatal cell lines from wild-type (STHdhQ7/HdhQ7) and mutant huntingtin knock-in (STHdhQ111/HdhQ111) mice, we have tested the hypothesis that cystamine and cysteamine could be beneficial by preventing the depolarization of mitochondria in cell cultures. Treatment with 3-nitroproprionic acid (3-NP), a mitochondrial complex II inhibitor, induces mitochondrial depolarization and cell death of mutant HD striatal cells but not of wild-type cells. The 3-NP-mediated decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential was attenuated by 50 microm cystamine and completely inhibited by 250 microm cystamine. Similar results were obtained using cysteamine (50-500 microm). In addition, both cystamine and cysteamine significantly attenuated the 3-NP-induced cell death. Treatment of mutant HD striatal cells with 3-NP resulted in a robust decrease in the cellular and mitochondrial levels of glutathione (GSH) compared with cells exposed to the vehicle alone. Pre-treatment of the cells with cystamine and cysteamine completely prevented the 3-NP-mediated decrease in cellular and mitochondrial GSH levels. Incubation with L-buthionine (S,R) sulfoximine (BSO) 250 microm in combination with cystamine (250 microm) or cysteamine (250 microm) prior to being treated with 3-NP completely prevented the beneficial effects of cystamine and cysteamine on the 3-NP-mediated mitochondrial depolarization. These results demonstrate that cystamine and cysteamine prevent the 3-NP-induced mitochondrial depolarization of HD striatal cell cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhengkuan Mao
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294-0017, USA
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47
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Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive and fatal neurological disorder caused by an expanded CAG repeat in the gene coding for the protein, huntingtin. There is no clinically proven treatment for HD. Although the exact cause of neuronal death in HD remains unknown, it has been postulated that the abnormal aggregation of the mutant huntingtin protein may cause toxic effects in neurons, leading to a cascade of pathogenic mechanisms associated with transcriptional dysfunction, oxidative stress, mitochondrial alterations, apoptosis, bioenergetic defects and subsequent excitotoxicity. Understanding how these processes interrelate has become important in identifying a pharmacotherapy in HD and in the design of clinical trials. A number of drug compounds that separately target these mechanisms have significantly improved the clinical and neuropathological phenotype of HD transgenic mice and, as such, are immediate candidates for human clinical trials in HD patients. These compounds are discussed herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoon Ryu
- Boston University School of Medicine, Edith Nourse Rogers Veterans Administration Medical Center, Bedford, Massachusetts 01730, USA
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48
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Borrell-Pagès M, Canals JM, Cordelières FP, Parker JA, Pineda JR, Grange G, Bryson EA, Guillermier M, Hirsch E, Hantraye P, Cheetham ME, Néri C, Alberch J, Brouillet E, Saudou F, Humbert S. Cystamine and cysteamine increase brain levels of BDNF in Huntington disease via HSJ1b and transglutaminase. J Clin Invest 2006; 116:1410-24. [PMID: 16604191 PMCID: PMC1430359 DOI: 10.1172/jci27607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2005] [Accepted: 02/14/2006] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no treatment for the neurodegenerative disorder Huntington disease (HD). Cystamine is a candidate drug; however, the mechanisms by which it operates remain unclear. We show here that cystamine increases levels of the heat shock DnaJ-containing protein 1b (HSJ1b) that are low in HD patients. HSJ1b inhibits polyQ-huntingtin-induced death of striatal neurons and neuronal dysfunction in Caenorhabditis elegans. This neuroprotective effect involves stimulation of the secretory pathway through formation of clathrin-coated vesicles containing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Cystamine increases BDNF secretion from the Golgi region that is blocked by reducing HSJ1b levels or by overexpressing transglutaminase. We demonstrate that cysteamine, the FDA-approved reduced form of cystamine, is neuroprotective in HD mice by increasing BDNF levels in brain. Finally, cysteamine increases serum levels of BDNF in mouse and primate models of HD. Therefore, cysteamine is a potential treatment for HD, and serum BDNF levels can be used as a biomarker for drug efficacy.
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49
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Tucholski J, Roth KA, Johnson GVW. Tissue transglutaminase overexpression in the brain potentiates calcium-induced hippocampal damage. J Neurochem 2006; 97:582-94. [PMID: 16539654 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.03780.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (tTG) post-translationally modifies proteins in a calcium-dependent manner by incorporation of polyamines, deamination or crosslinking. Moreover, tTG can also bind and hydrolyze GTP. tTG is the major transglutaminase in the mammalian nervous system, localizing predominantly in neurons. Although tTG has been clearly demonstrated to be elevated in neurodegenerative diseases and in response to acute CNS injury, its role in these pathogenic processes remains unclear. Transgenic mice that overexpress human tTG (htTG) primarily in CNS neurons were generated to explore the role of tTG in the nervous system and its contribution to neuropathological processes. tTG transgenic mice were phenotypically normal and were born with the expected Mendelian frequency. However, when challenged systemically with kainic acid, tTG transgenic mice, in comparison to wild-type (WT) mice, developed more extensive hippocampal neuronal damage. This was evidenced by a decreased number of healthy neurons, and increased terminal deoxynucleotidyl dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) labeling as an indicator of neuronal cell death in the kainic acid-treated transgenic mice. Moreover, the duration and severity of seizures developed by htTG transgenics in response to kainic acid administration were significantly more pronounced than those observed in WT mice. These data indicate for the first time that tTG may play an active role in excitatory amino acid-induced neuronal cell death, which has been postulated to be an important component of acute CNS injury and chronic CNS neurodegenerative conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janusz Tucholski
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 35294, USA
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50
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Caccamo D, Campisi A, Currò M, Aguennouz M, Li Volti G, Avola R, Ientile R. Nuclear factor-kappab activation is associated with glutamate-evoked tissue transglutaminase up-regulation in primary astrocyte cultures. J Neurosci Res 2005; 82:858-65. [PMID: 16273541 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.20683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated that alterations of cell redox state, evoked by glutamate, are associated with tissue transglutaminase increases in primary astrocyte cultures. Furthermore, glutamate exposure activated the nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB pathway, and its effects were significantly reduced by antioxidants. Here, we investigated the possible involvement of activated NF-kappaB pathway in glutamate-evoked tissue transglutaminase up-regulation in primary astrocytes. The presence of DNA binding activity by NF-kappaB in nuclear extracts of astrocytes, treated for 24 hr with glutamate (500 microM) or untreated, was assessed by EMSA, using an oligonucleotide probe containing the NF-kappaB consensus sequence present in the tissue transglutaminase promoter. Supershifting with monoclonal antibodies revealed that activated NF-kappaB dimer complexes were composed of p50 and p65 subunits. Interestingly, the specific NF-kappaB inhibitor SN50 (but not its inactive analogue SN50M), when added to cell cultures 30 min prior to glutamate treatment, was able gradually to reduce glutamate-induced NF-kappaB activation. Western blot analysis confirmed the reduction of the p50 amount in nuclear extracts. Notably, the preincubation with SN50 also diminished glutamate-increased tissue transglutaminase expression, as showed by both RT-PCR and Western blotting. Competition experiments, carried out with an excess of a probe containing the NF-kappaB consensus sequence present in the kappa-light-chain promoter, demonstrated a preferential binding of the tissue transglutaminase specific NF-kappaB probe in the nuclear extracts of glutamate-treated astrocytes compared with untreated astrocytes. These preliminary data suggest that NF-kappaB activation, which has been demonstrated to be involved in astrocyte response to glutamate, could also be associated with the molecular pathway leading to glutamate-evoked tissue transglutaminase up-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Caccamo
- Department of Biochemical, Physiological and Nutritional Sciences, University of Messina, Policlinico Universitario, Italy
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