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Nunes ACL, Carmo M, Behrenswerth A, Canas PM, Agostinho P, Cunha RA. Adenosine A 2A Receptor Blockade Provides More Effective Benefits at the Onset Rather than after Overt Neurodegeneration in a Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4903. [PMID: 38732120 PMCID: PMC11084368 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25094903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) antagonists are the leading nondopaminergic therapy to manage Parkinson's disease (PD) since they afford both motor benefits and neuroprotection. PD begins with a synaptic dysfunction and damage in the striatum evolving to an overt neuronal damage of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. We tested if A2AR antagonists are equally effective in controlling these two degenerative processes. We used a slow intracerebroventricular infusion of the toxin MPP+ in male rats for 15 days, which caused an initial loss of synaptic markers in the striatum within 10 days, followed by a neuronal loss in the substantia nigra within 30 days. Interestingly, the initial loss of striatal nerve terminals involved a loss of both dopaminergic and glutamatergic synaptic markers, while GABAergic markers were preserved. The daily administration of the A2AR antagonist SCH58261 (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) in the first 10 days after MPP+ infusion markedly attenuated both the initial loss of striatal synaptic markers and the subsequent loss of nigra dopaminergic neurons. Strikingly, the administration of SCH58261 (0.1 mg/kg, i.p. for 10 days) starting 20 days after MPP+ infusion was less efficacious to attenuate the loss of nigra dopaminergic neurons. This prominent A2AR-mediated control of synaptotoxicity was directly confirmed by showing that the MPTP-induced dysfunction (MTT assay) and damage (lactate dehydrogenase release assay) of striatal synaptosomes were prevented by 50 nM SCH58261. This suggests that A2AR antagonists may be more effective to counteract the onset rather than the evolution of PD pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Carla L. Nunes
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.C.L.N.); (M.C.); (A.B.); (P.M.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Marta Carmo
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.C.L.N.); (M.C.); (A.B.); (P.M.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Andrea Behrenswerth
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.C.L.N.); (M.C.); (A.B.); (P.M.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Paula M. Canas
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.C.L.N.); (M.C.); (A.B.); (P.M.C.); (P.A.)
| | - Paula Agostinho
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.C.L.N.); (M.C.); (A.B.); (P.M.C.); (P.A.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Rodrigo A. Cunha
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal; (A.C.L.N.); (M.C.); (A.B.); (P.M.C.); (P.A.)
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
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The Pharmacological Potential of Adenosine A 2A Receptor Antagonists for Treating Parkinson's Disease. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27072366. [PMID: 35408767 PMCID: PMC9000505 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27072366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2022] [Revised: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The adenosine A2A receptor subtype is recognized as a non-dopaminergic pharmacological target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, notably Parkinson’s disease (PD). The selective A2A receptor antagonist istradefylline is approved in the US and Japan as an adjunctive treatment to levodopa/decarboxylase inhibitors in adults with PD experiencing OFF episodes or a wearing-off phenomenon; however, the full potential of this drug class remains to be explored. In this article, we review the pharmacology of adenosine A2A receptor antagonists from the perspective of the treatment of both motor and non-motor symptoms of PD and their potential for disease modification.
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Neuroinflammation and L-dopa-induced abnormal involuntary movements in 6-hydroxydopamine-lesioned rat model of Parkinson's disease are counteracted by combined administration of a 5-HT 1A/1B receptor agonist and A 2A receptor antagonist. Neuropharmacology 2021; 196:108693. [PMID: 34229013 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence have strongly implicated neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease (PD) progression and l-dopa-induced dyskinesia. The present study investigated whether early subchronic pretreatment with the serotonin 5-HT1A/1B receptor agonist eltoprazine plus the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist preladenant counteracted l-dopa-induced abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs, index of dyskinesia), and neuroinflammation, in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine(6-OHDA)-lesioned rat model of PD. The immunoreactivity of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and the colocalization of ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule-1 (IBA-1), with interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor-necrosis-factor-α (TNF-α) and IL-10 were evaluated in the denervated caudate-putamen (CPu) and substantia nigra pars-compacta (SNc). The combined subchronic pretreatment with l-dopa plus eltoprazine and preladenant reduced AIMs induced by acute l-dopa challenge in these rats and decreased GFAP and IBA-1 immunoreactivity induced by the drug in both CPu and SNc, with reduction in IL-1β in IBA-1-positive cells in both CPu and SNc, and in TNF-α in IBA-1-positive cells in SNc. Moreover, a significant increase in IL-10 in IBA-1-positive cells was observed in SNc. Evaluation of immediate early-gene zif-268 (index of neuronal activation) after l-dopa challenge, showed an increase in its expression in denervated CPu of rats pretreated with l-dopa or l-dopa plus preladenant compared with vehicle, whereas rats pretreated with eltoprazine, with or without preladenant, had lower zif-268 expression. Finally, tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter examined to evaluate neurodegeneration, showed a significant equal decrease in all experimental groups. The present findings suggest that combination of l-dopa with eltoprazine and preladenant may be promising therapeutic strategy for delaying the onset of dyskinesia, preserving l-dopa efficacy and reducing neuroinflammation markers in nigrostriatal system of 6-OHDA-lesioned rats.
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Karuppagounder SS, Uthaythas S, Govindarajulu M, Ramesh S, Parameshwaran K, Dhanasekaran M. Caffeine, a natural methylxanthine nutraceutical, exerts dopaminergic neuroprotection. Neurochem Int 2021; 148:105066. [PMID: 34004240 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2021.105066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects more than 10 million people worldwide. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction play a significant role in altering the homeostasis of energy production and free radical generation. Current PD therapies are focused on reducing the cardinal symptoms rather than preventing disease progression in the patients. Adenosine A2A receptor (A2A R) antagonist (Istradephylline) combined with levodopa shows a promising therapy for PD. In animal studies, caffeine administration showed to improve motor functions and neuroprotective effect in the neurons. Caffeine is probably the most extensively used psychoactive substance. In this current study, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of caffeine against 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced neurodegeneration. Here, we demonstrate that caffeine improves behavioral and neurotransmitter recovery against MPTP-induced toxicity. Caffeine restores endogenous antioxidant levels and suppresses neuroinflammation. Our finding suggests that the blockage of A2AR is a promising disease-modifying therapy for PD. Target engagement strategies could be more beneficial in preventing disease progression rather than symptomatic reliefs in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Senthilkumar S Karuppagounder
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
| | - Subramaniam Uthaythas
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Manoj Govindarajulu
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Sindhu Ramesh
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Koodeswaran Parameshwaran
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
| | - Muralikrishnan Dhanasekaran
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
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5
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Neuroprotective Effects of Coffee Bioactive Compounds: A Review. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 22:ijms22010107. [PMID: 33374338 PMCID: PMC7795778 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22010107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages worldwide. It is usually identified as a stimulant because of a high content of caffeine. However, caffeine is not the only coffee bioactive component. The coffee beverage is in fact a mixture of a number of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, especially chlorogenic acids (in green beans) and caffeic acid (in roasted coffee beans), alkaloids (caffeine and trigonelline), and the diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol). Extensive research shows that coffee consumption appears to have beneficial effects on human health. Regular coffee intake may protect from many chronic disorders, including cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, obesity, and some types of cancer. Importantly, coffee consumption seems to be also correlated with a decreased risk of developing some neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and dementia. Regular coffee intake may also reduce the risk of stroke. The mechanism underlying these effects is, however, still poorly understood. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the neuroprotective potential of the main bioactive coffee components, i.e., caffeine, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, trigonelline, kahweol, and cafestol. Data from both in vitro and in vivo preclinical experiments, including their potential therapeutic applications, are reviewed and discussed. Epidemiological studies and clinical reports on this matter are also described. Moreover, potential molecular mechanism(s) by which coffee bioactive components may provide neuroprotection are reviewed.
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6
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Fredholm BB, Svenningsson P. Why target brain adenosine receptors? A historical perspective. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2020; 80 Suppl 1:S3-S6. [PMID: 33349578 DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2020.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The quest for a non-dopaminergic approach to treating Parkinson's disease (PD) has been quietly progressing over the past several decades, and is now finding its momentum. Here, in what is more a memoir than a comprehensive review, we discuss work carried out over the past 50 years to show that adenosine acts as a critical signaling molecule via actions against a specific family of receptors. Importantly for PD, adenosine A2A receptors have a selective localization to the basal ganglia and specifically to the indirect output pathway, offering a targeted, non-dopaminergic opportunity to modulate basal ganglia output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bertil B Fredholm
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Per Svenningsson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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7
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Rinaldi F, Seguella L, Gigli S, Hanieh PN, Del Favero E, Cantù L, Pesce M, Sarnelli G, Marianecci C, Esposito G, Carafa M. inPentasomes: An innovative nose-to-brain pentamidine delivery blunts MPTP parkinsonism in mice. J Control Release 2018; 294:17-26. [PMID: 30529726 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical evidences have demonstrated that astroglial-derived S100B protein is a key element in neuroinflammation underlying the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD), so much as that S100B inhibitors have been proposed as promising candidates for PD targeted therapy. Pentamidine, an old-developed antiprotozoal drug, currently used for pneumocystis carinii is one of the most potent inhibitors of S100B activity, but despite this effect, is limited by its low capability to cross blood brain barrier (BBB). To overcome this problem, we developed a non-invasive intranasal delivery system, chitosan coated niosomes with entrapped pentamidine (inPentasomes), in the attempt to provide a novel pharmacological approach to ameliorate parkinsonism induced by subchronic MPTP administration in C57BL-6 J mice. inPentasomes, prepared by evaporation method was administered daily by intranasal route in subchronic MPTP-intoxicated rodents and resulted in a dose-dependent manner (0.001-0.004 mg/kg) capable for a significant Tyrosine Hydroxylase (TH) positive neuronal density rescue in both striatum and substantia nigra of parkinsonian mice. In parallel, inPentasomes significantly decreased the extent of glial-related neuroinflammation through the reduction of specific gliotic markers (Iba-1, GFAP, COX-2, iNOS) with consequent PGE2 and NO2- release reduction, in nigrostriatal system. inPentasomes-mediated S100B inhibition resulted in a RAGE/NF-κB pathway downstream inhibition in the nigrostriatal circuit, causing a marked amelioration of motor performances in intoxicated mice. On the basis of our results, chitosan coated niosomes loaded with pentamidine, the inPentasome system, self-candidates as a promising new intranasal approach to mitigate parkinsonism in humans and possibly paves the way for a possible clinical repositioning of pentamidine as anti-PD drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Rinaldi
- Center for Life Nano Science@Sapienza, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (ITT), Rome, Italy
| | - L Seguella
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "V. Erspamer", Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - S Gigli
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "V. Erspamer", Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - P N Hanieh
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - E Del Favero
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Italy
| | - L Cantù
- Department of Medical Biotechnologies and Translational Medicine, University of Milan, Italy
| | - M Pesce
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples 'Federico II', Naples, Italy
| | - G Sarnelli
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples 'Federico II', Naples, Italy
| | - C Marianecci
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy.
| | - G Esposito
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology "V. Erspamer", Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - M Carafa
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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8
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Borea PA, Gessi S, Merighi S, Vincenzi F, Varani K. Pathological overproduction: the bad side of adenosine. Br J Pharmacol 2017; 174:1945-1960. [PMID: 28252203 PMCID: PMC6398520 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine is an endogenous ubiquitous purine nucleoside, which is increased by hypoxia, ischaemia and tissue damage and mediates a number of physiopathological effects by interacting with four GPCRs, identified as A1 , A2A , A2B and A3 . Physiological and acutely increased adenosine is mostly associated with beneficial effects that include vasodilatation and a decrease in inflammation. In contrast, chronic overproduction of adenosine occurs in important pathological states, where long-lasting increases in the nucleoside levels are responsible for the bad side of adenosine associated with chronic inflammation, fibrosis and organ damage. In this review, we describe and critically discuss the pathological overproduction of adenosine and analyse when, where and how adenosine exerts its detrimental effects throughout the body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pier Andrea Borea
- Department of Medical SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara44121Italy
| | - Stefania Gessi
- Department of Medical SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara44121Italy
| | - Stefania Merighi
- Department of Medical SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara44121Italy
| | - Fabrizio Vincenzi
- Department of Medical SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara44121Italy
| | - Katia Varani
- Department of Medical SciencesUniversity of FerraraFerrara44121Italy
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9
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Falsini M, Squarcialupi L, Catarzi D, Varano F, Betti M, Dal Ben D, Marucci G, Buccioni M, Volpini R, De Vita T, Cavalli A, Colotta V. The 1,2,4-Triazolo[4,3-a]pyrazin-3-one as a Versatile Scaffold for the Design of Potent Adenosine Human Receptor Antagonists. Structural Investigations to Target the A2A Receptor Subtype. J Med Chem 2017; 60:5772-5790. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Falsini
- Dipartimento
di Neuroscienze, Psicologia, Area del Farmaco e Salute del Bambino,
Sezione di Farmaceutica e Nutraceutica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Lucia Squarcialupi
- Dipartimento
di Neuroscienze, Psicologia, Area del Farmaco e Salute del Bambino,
Sezione di Farmaceutica e Nutraceutica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Daniela Catarzi
- Dipartimento
di Neuroscienze, Psicologia, Area del Farmaco e Salute del Bambino,
Sezione di Farmaceutica e Nutraceutica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Flavia Varano
- Dipartimento
di Neuroscienze, Psicologia, Area del Farmaco e Salute del Bambino,
Sezione di Farmaceutica e Nutraceutica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Marco Betti
- Dipartimento
di Neuroscienze, Psicologia, Area del Farmaco e Salute del Bambino,
Sezione di Farmaceutica e Nutraceutica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
| | - Diego Dal Ben
- Scuola
di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti della Salute, Università degli Studi di Camerino, via S. Agostino 1, 62032 Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Gabriella Marucci
- Scuola
di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti della Salute, Università degli Studi di Camerino, via S. Agostino 1, 62032 Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Michela Buccioni
- Scuola
di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti della Salute, Università degli Studi di Camerino, via S. Agostino 1, 62032 Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Rosaria Volpini
- Scuola
di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti della Salute, Università degli Studi di Camerino, via S. Agostino 1, 62032 Camerino, Macerata, Italy
| | - Teresa De Vita
- CompuNet, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Andrea Cavalli
- CompuNet, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
- Dipartimento
di Farmacia e Biotecnologia, Università degli Studi di Bologna, Via Belmeloro 6, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Vittoria Colotta
- Dipartimento
di Neuroscienze, Psicologia, Area del Farmaco e Salute del Bambino,
Sezione di Farmaceutica e Nutraceutica, Università degli Studi di Firenze, Via Ugo Schiff 6, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
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10
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Botsakis K, Mourtzi T, Panagiotakopoulou V, Vreka M, Stathopoulos GT, Pediaditakis I, Charalampopoulos I, Gravanis A, Delis F, Antoniou K, Zisimopoulos D, Georgiou CD, Panagopoulos NT, Matsokis N, Angelatou F. BNN-20, a synthetic microneurotrophin, strongly protects dopaminergic neurons in the "weaver" mouse, a genetic model of dopamine-denervation, acting through the TrkB neurotrophin receptor. Neuropharmacology 2017; 121:140-157. [PMID: 28461162 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Neurotrophic factors are among the most promising treatments aiming at slowing or stopping and even reversing Parkinson's disease (PD). However, in most cases, they cannot readily cross the human blood-brain-barrier (BBB). Herein, we propose as a therapeutic for PD the small molecule 17-beta-spiro-[5-androsten-17,2'-oxiran]-3beta-ol (BNN-20), a synthetic analogue of DHEA, which crosses the BBB and is deprived of endocrine side-effects. Using the "weaver" mouse, a genetic model of PD, which exhibits progressive dopaminergic neurodegeneration in the Substantia Nigra (SN), we have shown that long-term administration (P1-P21) of BNN-20 almost fully protected the dopaminergic neurons and their terminals, via i) a strong anti-apoptotic effect, probably mediated through the Tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB) neurotrophin receptor's PI3K-Akt-NF-κB signaling pathway, ii) by exerting an efficient antioxidant effect, iii) by inducing significant anti-inflammatory activity and iv) by restoring Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) levels. By intercrossing "weaver" with NGL mice (dual GFP/luciferase-NF-κΒ reporter mice, NF-κΒ.GFP.Luc), we obtained Weaver/NGL mice that express the NF-κB reporter in all somatic cells. Acute BNN-20 administration to Weaver/NGL mice induced a strong NF-κB-dependent transcriptional response in the brain as detected by bioluminescence imaging, which was abolished by co-administration of the TrkB inhibitor ANA-12. This indicates that BNN-20 exerts its beneficial action (at least in part) through the TrkB-PI3K-Akt-NF-κB signaling pathway. These results could be of clinical relevance, as they suggest BNN-20 as an important neuroprotective agent acting through the TrkB neurotrophin receptor pathway, mimicking the action of the endogenous neurotrophin BDNF. Thus BNN-20 could be proposed for treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Botsakis
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece
| | - Theodora Mourtzi
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Panagiotakopoulou
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece
| | - Malamati Vreka
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece
| | | | - Iosif Pediaditakis
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion 71110, Greece
| | | | - Achilleas Gravanis
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, Heraklion 71110, Greece; Institute of Molecular Biology & Biotechnology Foundation for Research & Technology - Hellas, GR, 70013, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Foteini Delis
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, Ioannina 45110, Greece
| | - Katerina Antoniou
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Ioannina, Ioannina 45110, Greece
| | | | | | - Nikolaos T Panagopoulos
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Matsokis
- Laboratory of Human and Animal Physiology, Department of Biology, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece
| | - Fevronia Angelatou
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Patras, Patras, 26 500, Greece.
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11
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Gordon R, Neal ML, Luo J, Langley MR, Harischandra DS, Panicker N, Charli A, Jin H, Anantharam V, Woodruff TM, Zhou QY, Kanthasamy AG, Kanthasamy A. Prokineticin-2 upregulation during neuronal injury mediates a compensatory protective response against dopaminergic neuronal degeneration. Nat Commun 2016; 7:12932. [PMID: 27703142 PMCID: PMC5059486 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms12932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Prokineticin-2 (PK2), a recently discovered secreted protein, regulates important physiological functions including olfactory biogenesis and circadian rhythms in the CNS. Interestingly, although PK2 expression is low in the nigral system, its receptors are constitutively expressed on nigrostriatal neurons. Herein, we demonstrate that PK2 expression is highly induced in nigral dopaminergic neurons during early stages of degeneration in multiple models of Parkinson's disease (PD), including PK2 reporter mice and MitoPark mice. Functional studies demonstrate that PK2 promotes mitochondrial biogenesis and activates ERK and Akt survival signalling pathways, thereby driving neuroprotection. Importantly, PK2 overexpression is protective whereas PK2 receptor antagonism exacerbates dopaminergic degeneration in experimental PD. Furthermore, PK2 expression increased in surviving nigral dopaminergic neurons from PD brains, indicating that PK2 upregulation is clinically relevant to human PD. Collectively, our results identify a paradigm for compensatory neuroprotective PK2 signalling in nigral dopaminergic neurons that could have important therapeutic implications for PD. Prokineticin-2 (PK2) is a secreted protein involved in a number of physiological functions. Here, the authors find that PK2 expression increases in surviving DA neurons from Parkinson's disease patients, and show it protects against dopaminergic degeneration in PD mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Gordon
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA.,School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Matthew L Neal
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Jie Luo
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Monica R Langley
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Dilshan S Harischandra
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Nikhil Panicker
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Adhithiya Charli
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Huajun Jin
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Vellareddy Anantharam
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Trent M Woodruff
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Qun-Yong Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, 363D Med Surge 2, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA
| | - Anumantha G Kanthasamy
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
| | - Arthi Kanthasamy
- Parkinson Disorders Research Program, Iowa Center for Advanced Neurotoxicology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011, USA
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12
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Cunha RA. How does adenosine control neuronal dysfunction and neurodegeneration? J Neurochem 2016; 139:1019-1055. [PMID: 27365148 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The adenosine modulation system mostly operates through inhibitory A1 (A1 R) and facilitatory A2A receptors (A2A R) in the brain. The activity-dependent release of adenosine acts as a brake of excitatory transmission through A1 R, which are enriched in glutamatergic terminals. Adenosine sharpens salience of information encoding in neuronal circuits: high-frequency stimulation triggers ATP release in the 'activated' synapse, which is locally converted by ecto-nucleotidases into adenosine to selectively activate A2A R; A2A R switch off A1 R and CB1 receptors, bolster glutamate release and NMDA receptors to assist increasing synaptic plasticity in the 'activated' synapse; the parallel engagement of the astrocytic syncytium releases adenosine further inhibiting neighboring synapses, thus sharpening the encoded plastic change. Brain insults trigger a large outflow of adenosine and ATP, as a danger signal. A1 R are a hurdle for damage initiation, but they desensitize upon prolonged activation. However, if the insult is near-threshold and/or of short-duration, A1 R trigger preconditioning, which may limit the spread of damage. Brain insults also up-regulate A2A R, probably to bolster adaptive changes, but this heightens brain damage since A2A R blockade affords neuroprotection in models of epilepsy, depression, Alzheimer's, or Parkinson's disease. This initially involves a control of synaptotoxicity by neuronal A2A R, whereas astrocytic and microglia A2A R might control the spread of damage. The A2A R signaling mechanisms are largely unknown since A2A R are pleiotropic, coupling to different G proteins and non-canonical pathways to control the viability of glutamatergic synapses, neuroinflammation, mitochondria function, and cytoskeleton dynamics. Thus, simultaneously bolstering A1 R preconditioning and preventing excessive A2A R function might afford maximal neuroprotection. The main physiological role of the adenosine modulation system is to sharp the salience of information encoding through a combined action of adenosine A2A receptors (A2A R) in the synapse undergoing an alteration of synaptic efficiency with an increased inhibitory action of A1 R in all surrounding synapses. Brain insults trigger an up-regulation of A2A R in an attempt to bolster adaptive plasticity together with adenosine release and A1 R desensitization; this favors synaptotocity (increased A2A R) and decreases the hurdle to undergo degeneration (decreased A1 R). Maximal neuroprotection is expected to result from a combined A2A R blockade and increased A1 R activation. This article is part of a mini review series: "Synaptic Function and Dysfunction in Brain Diseases".
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo A Cunha
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,FMUC-Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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13
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Vala C, Morley TJ, Zhang X, Papin C, Tavares AAS, Lee HS, Constantinescu C, Barret O, Carroll VM, Baldwin RM, Tamagnan GD, Alagille D. Synthesis and in vivo Evaluation of Fluorine-18 and Iodine-123 Pyrazolo[4,3-e]-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-c]pyrimidine Derivatives as PET and SPECT Radiotracers for Mapping A2A Receptors. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:1936-43. [PMID: 27407017 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201600219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Imaging agents that target adenosine type 2A (A2A ) receptors play an important role in evaluating new pharmaceuticals targeting these receptors, such as those currently being developed for the treatment of movement disorders like Parkinson's disease. They are also useful for monitoring progression and treatment efficacy by providing a noninvasive tool to map changes in A2A receptor density and function in neurodegenerative diseases. We previously described the successful evaluation of two A2A -specific radiotracers in both nonhuman primates and in subsequent human clinical trials: [(123) I]MNI-420 and [(18) F]MNI-444. Herein we describe the development of both of these radiotracers by selection from a series of A2A ligands, based on the pyrazolo[4,3-e]-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-c]pyrimidine core of preladenant. Each of this series of 16 ligands was found to bind to recombinant human A2A receptor in the low nanomolar range, and of these 16, six were radiolabeled with either fluorine-18 or iodine-123 and evaluated in nonhuman primates. These initial in vivo results resulted in the identification of 7-(2-(4-(4-(2-[(18) F]fluoroethoxy)phenyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethyl)-2-(furan-2-yl)-7H-pyrazolo[4,3-e][1,2,4]triazolo[1,5-c]pyrimidin-5-amine ([(18) F]MNI-444) and 7-(2-(4-(2-fluoro-4-[(123) I]iodophenyl)piperazin-1-yl)ethyl)-2-(furan-2-yl)-7H-imidazo[1,2-c]pyrazolo[4,3-e]pyrimidin-5-amine ([(123) I]MNI-420) as PET and SPECT radiopharmaceuticals for mapping A2A receptors in brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Vala
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Thomas J Morley
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA.
| | - Xuechun Zhang
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Caroline Papin
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | | | - H Sharon Lee
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Cristian Constantinescu
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Olivier Barret
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Vincent M Carroll
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Ronald M Baldwin
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Gilles D Tamagnan
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - David Alagille
- Molecular NeuroImaging, a division of inviCRO, 60 Temple Street, Suite 8B, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
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14
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Hu Q, Ren X, Liu Y, Li Z, Zhang L, Chen X, He C, Chen JF. Aberrant adenosine A2A receptor signaling contributes to neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments in a mouse model of synucleinopathy. Exp Neurol 2016; 283:213-23. [PMID: 27342081 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.05.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Synucleinopathy is characterized by abnormal accumulation of misfolded α-synuclein (α-Syn)-positive cytoplasmic inclusions and by neurodegeneration and cognitive impairments, but the pathogenesis mechanism of synucleinopathy remains to be defined. Using a transmission model of synucleinopathy by intracerebral injection of preformed A53T α-Syn fibrils, we investigated whether aberrant adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR) signaling contributed to pathogenesis of synucleinopathy. We demonstrated that intra-hippocampal injection of preformed mutant α-Syn fibrils triggered a striking and selective induction of A2AR expression which was closely co-localized with pSer129 α-Syn-rich inclusions in neurons and glial cells of hippocampus. Importantly, by abolishing aberrant A2AR signaling triggered by mutant α-Syn, genetic deletion of A2ARs blunted a cascade of pathological events leading to synucleinopathy, including pSer129 α-Syn-rich and p62-positive aggregates, NF-κB activation and astrogliosis, apoptotic neuronal cell death and working memory deficits without affecting motor activity. These findings define α-Syn-triggered aberrant A2AR signaling as a critical pathogenesis mechanism of synucleinopathy with dual controls of cognition and neurodegeneration by modulating α-Syn aggregates. Thus, aberrant A2AR signaling represents a useful biomarker as well as a therapeutic target of synucleinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qidi Hu
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiangpeng Ren
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base and Key Laboratory of Vision Science, Ministry of Health, China and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Ya Liu
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zhihui Li
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base and Key Laboratory of Vision Science, Ministry of Health, China and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Liping Zhang
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base and Key Laboratory of Vision Science, Ministry of Health, China and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xingjun Chen
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Chaoxiang He
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jiang-Fan Chen
- Molecular Neuropharmacology Laboratory, School of Optometry and Ophthalmology and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base and Key Laboratory of Vision Science, Ministry of Health, China and Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China; Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States.
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15
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Beart PM. Synaptic signalling and its interface with neuropathologies: snapshots from the past, present and future. J Neurochem 2016; 139 Suppl 2:76-90. [PMID: 27144305 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This 'Past to Future' Review as part of the 60th anniversary year of the Journal of Neurochemistry focuses on synaptic transmission and associated signalling, and seeks to identify seminal progress in neurochemistry over the last 10 years which has advanced our understanding of neuronal communication in brain. The approach adopted analyses neurotransmitters on a case by case basis (i.e. amino acids, monoamines, acetylcholine, neuropeptides, ATP/purines and gasotransmitters) to highlight novel findings that have changed the way we view each type of transmitter, to explore commonalities and interactions, and to note how new insights have changed the way we view the biology of degenerative, psychiatric and behavioural conditions. Across all transmitter systems there was remarkable growth in the identification of targets likely to provide therapeutic benefit and which undoubtedly was driven by the elucidation of circuit function and new vistas of synaptic signalling. There has been an increasing trend to relate signalling to disease, notably for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease and related conditions, and which has occurred for each transmitter family. Forebrain circuitry and tonic excitatory control have been the centre of great attention yielding novel findings that will impact upon cognitive, emotional and addictive behaviours. Other impressive insights focus on gasotransmitters integrating activity as volume transmitters. Exciting developments in how serotonin, cholinergic, l-glutamate, galanin and adenosine receptors and their associated signalling can be beneficially targeted should underpin the development of new therapies. Clearly integrated, multifaceted neurochemistry has changed the way we view synaptic signalling and its relevance to pathobiology. Highlighted are important advances in synaptic signalling over the last decade in the Journal of Neurochemistry. Across all transmitter systems elucidation of circuit function, and notably molecular insights, have underpinned remarkable growth in the identification of targets likely to provide therapeutic benefit in neuropathologies. Another commonality was wide interest in forebrain circuitry and its tonic excitatory control. Increasingly observations relate to signalling in disease and behavioural conditions. This article is part of the 60th Anniversary special issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Beart
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.
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16
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Xu K, Di Luca DG, Orrú M, Xu Y, Chen JF, Schwarzschild MA. Neuroprotection by caffeine in the MPTP model of parkinson's disease and its dependence on adenosine A2A receptors. Neuroscience 2016; 322:129-37. [PMID: 26905951 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.02.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Considerable epidemiological and laboratory data have suggested that caffeine, a nonselective adenosine receptor antagonist, may protect against the underlying neurodegeneration of parkinson's disease (PD). Although both caffeine and more specific antagonists of the A2A subtype of adenosine receptor (A2AR) have been found to confer protection in animal models of PD, the dependence of caffeine's neuroprotective effects on the A2AR is not known. To definitively determine its A2AR dependence, the effect of caffeine on 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6 tetra-hydropyridine (MPTP) neurotoxicity was compared in wild-type (WT) and A2AR gene global knockout (A2A KO) mice, as well as in central nervous system (CNS) cell type-specific (conditional) A2AR knockout (cKO) mice that lack the receptor either in postnatal forebrain neurons or in astrocytes. In WT and in heterozygous A2AR KO mice caffeine pretreatment (25mg/kgip) significantly attenuated MPTP-induced depletion of striatal dopamine. By contrast in homozygous A2AR global KO mice caffeine had no effect on MPTP toxicity. In forebrain neuron A2AR cKO mice, caffeine lost its locomotor stimulant effect, whereas its neuroprotective effect was mostly preserved. In astrocytic A2AR cKO mice, both caffeine's locomotor stimulant and protective properties were undiminished. Taken together, these results indicate that neuroprotection by caffeine in the MPTP model of PD relies on the A2AR, although the specific cellular localization of these receptors remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Xu
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States.
| | - D G Di Luca
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States.
| | - M Orrú
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States.
| | - Y Xu
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States.
| | - J-F Chen
- Department of Neurology, 715 Albany Street, C314, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, United States.
| | - M A Schwarzschild
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129, United States.
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17
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Stasi MA, Minetti P, Lombardo K, Riccioni T, Caprioli A, Vertechy M, Di Serio S, Pace S, Borsini F. Animal models of Parkinson׳s disease: Effects of two adenosine A2A receptor antagonists ST4206 and ST3932, metabolites of 2-n-Butyl-9-methyl-8-[1,2,3]triazol-2-yl-9H-purin-6-ylamine (ST1535). Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 761:353-61. [PMID: 25936513 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/21/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Antagonism of the adenosine A2A receptor represents a promising strategy for non-dopaminergic treatment of Parkinson׳s disease (PD). Previously, the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist ST1535 was shown to possess potential beneficial effects in animal models of PD. Two metabolites of ST1535, namely ST3932 and ST4206, were tested in vitro to assess their affinity and activity on cloned human A2A adenosine receptors, and their metabolic profile. Additionally, ST3932 and ST4206 were investigated in vivo in animal models of PD following oral/intraperitoneal administration of 10, 20 and 40mg/kg using ST1535 as a reference compound. ST3932 and ST4206 displayed high affinity and antagonist behaviour for cloned human adenosine A2A receptors. The Ki values for ST1535, ST3932 and ST4206 were 8, 8 and 12nM, respectively, and their IC50 values on cyclic AMP were 427, 450 and 990nM, respectively. ST1535, ST3932 and ST4206 antagonized (orally) haloperidol-induced catalepsy in mice, potentiated (intraperitoneally) the number of contralateral rotations induced by l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) (3mg/kg) plus benserazide (6mg/kg) in 6-Hydroxydopamine hydrobromide (6-OHDA)-lesioned rats, and increased mouse motor activity by oral route. Thus, ST3932 and ST4206, two ST1535 metabolites, show a pharmacological activity similar to ST1535, both in vitro and in vivo, and may be regarded as an interesting pharmacological alternative to ST1535.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Silvia Pace
- Research & Development Area, Sigma-tau, Italy
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18
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Lecca D, Nevin DK, Mulas G, Casu MA, Diana A, Rossi D, Sacchetti G, Fayne D, Carta AR. Neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of a novel non-thiazolidinedione PPARγ agonist in vitro and in MPTP-treated mice. Neuroscience 2015; 302:23-35. [PMID: 25907448 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)γ is a potential pharmacological target for disease-modification in Parkinson's disease (PD), mainly acting by modulating the neuroinflammatory response. However, currently available agonists thiazolidinediones (TZDs) present limitations due to safety concerns. We evaluated a novel thiobarbituric-like compound MDG548, which acts as a functional PPARγ agonist displaying higher and selective binding affinity as compared to TZDs. Neuroprotection by MDG548 was tested in vitro and in a mouse MPTP model of PD, and neuroinflammation was investigated as a putative underlying mechanism. Viability assay on rat cortical neurons showed lack of cytotoxic effect in the dose-range of 100 nM-10 μM, which was therefore used for testing in vitro protection against H2O2 and MPP+ neurotoxicity. MDG548 dose-dependently increased cell viability of rat cortical neurons co-treated with H2O2 or pre-exposed to MDG548 prior to H2O2. Moreover, MDG548 induced neuroprotection in MPP+-treated PC12 cells. NF-kB activation was investigated to assess anti-inflammatory activity. MDG548 dose-dependently decreased NF-kB activation induced by LPS (100 ng/100ml) in HEK-Blue-hTLR4 cells. Given the supposed cancer risk of other PPARγ agonists, Ames test for genotoxicity was performed in Salmonella typhimurium TA100 and TA98 strains, showing that MDG548 was not genotoxic. In vivo, BL/6J mice were treated with MPTP (20mg/kg i.p. once/day for 4 days) in association with saline or MDG548 (2, 5, 10 mg/kg i.p.). Stereological counting showed that MDG548 prevented the MPTP-induced reduction in TH-positive cells in the substantia nigra compacta (SNc) at all doses tested. Moreover, MDG548 reduced reactive microglia and iNOS induction in the SNc. MDG548, being a non-TZD compound with high PPARγ affinity, void of genotoxicity, and with in vitro as well as in vivo neuroprotective properties, provides a promising alternative in the search for safer PPARγ agonists to be tested as potential disease-modifying drugs in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lecca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - D K Nevin
- School of Biochemistry & Immunology, Trinity College, Dublin, Ireland
| | - G Mulas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - M A Casu
- CNR-Institute of Translational Pharmacology, U.O.S. of Cagliari, Italy
| | - A Diana
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
| | - D Rossi
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | - G Sacchetti
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Italy
| | | | - A R Carta
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Italy
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Khairnar A, Frau L, Plumitallo A, Morelli M, Simola N. Antagonism of Adenosine A1 or A2A Receptors Amplifies the Effects of MDMA on Glial Activation in the Mouse Brain: Relevance to Caffeine–MDMA Interactions. JOURNAL OF CAFFEINE RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.1089/jcr.2014.0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amit Khairnar
- CEITEC—Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lucia Frau
- Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Antonio Plumitallo
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Micaela Morelli
- Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
- National Institute of Neuroscience (INN), University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
- National Research Council (CNR), Neuroscience Institute, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Nicola Simola
- Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
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20
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Gyoneva S, Davalos D, Biswas D, Swanger SA, Garnier-Amblard E, Loth F, Akassoglou K, Traynelis SF. Systemic inflammation regulates microglial responses to tissue damage in vivo. Glia 2014; 62:1345-60. [PMID: 24807189 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Microglia, the resident immune cells of the central nervous system, exist in either a "resting" state associated with physiological tissue surveillance or an "activated" state in neuroinflammation. We recently showed that ATP is the primary chemoattractor to tissue damage in vivo and elicits opposite effects on the motility of activated microglia in vitro through activation of adenosine A2A receptors. However, whether systemic inflammation affects microglial responses to tissue damage in vivo remains largely unknown. Using in vivo two-photon imaging of mice, we show that injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) at levels that can produce both clear neuroinflammation and some features of sepsis significantly reduced the rate of microglial response to laser-induced ablation injury in vivo. Under proinflammatory conditions, microglial processes initially retracted from the ablation site, but subsequently moved toward and engulfed the damaged area. Analyzing the process dynamics in 3D cultures of primary microglia indicated that only A2A , but not A1 or A3 receptors, mediate process retraction in LPS-activated microglia. The A2A receptor antagonists caffeine and preladenant reduced adenosine-mediated process retraction in activated microglia in vitro. Finally, administration of preladenant before induction of laser ablation in vivo accelerated the microglial response to injury following systemic inflammation. The regulation of rapid microglial responses to sites of injury by A2A receptors could have implications for their ability to respond to the neuronal death occurring under conditions of neuroinflammation in neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefka Gyoneva
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia
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21
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Gyoneva S, Shapiro L, Lazo C, Garnier-Amblard E, Smith Y, Miller GW, Traynelis SF. Adenosine A2A receptor antagonism reverses inflammation-induced impairment of microglial process extension in a model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 67:191-202. [PMID: 24632419 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Revised: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, the immune cells of the central nervous system, constantly survey the parenchyma in the healthy brain to maintain homeostasis. When a disturbance, such as cell death, results in ATP release in vivo, microglial processes respond by utilizing P2Y12 purinergic receptors to trigger extension toward the site of damage. Processes ultimately surround the injury site, preventing the spread of harmful cellular constituents and assisting with tissue repair. In contrast to the healthy brain, many neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease, are characterized by the presence of neuroinflammation. Yet, the ability of microglia to respond to tissue damage under pro-inflammatory conditions has not been well studied. To assess the ability of microglia to respond to tissue injury and localized cell death in the context of Parkinson's disease, we performed confocal imaging of acute brain slices from mice with microglia-specific green fluorescent protein expression. Microglia in coronal slices containing the substantia nigra extend processes toward a mechanical injury in a P2Y12 receptor-dependent manner. However, microglia in mice treated for 5days with 20mg/kg/day 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) show significantly reduced process displacement toward the injury compared to microglia in control animals. Pre-treatment of slices from MPTP-injected mice with the A2A receptor-selective antagonist preladenant restores the ability of activated microglia to respond to tissue damage. These data support the hypothesis that chronic inflammation impedes microglial motility in response to further injury, such as cell death, and suggest that some aspects of the neuroprotection observed with adenosine A2A receptor antagonists may involve direct or indirect actions at microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefka Gyoneva
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Molecular and Systems Pharmacology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Lauren Shapiro
- Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Molecular and Systems Pharmacology Program, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Carlos Lazo
- School of Public Health, Environmental Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | | | - Yoland Smith
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA; Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Gary W Miller
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; School of Public Health, Environmental Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Stephen F Traynelis
- Department of Pharmacology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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22
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Sonsalla PK, Coleman C, Wong LY, Harris SL, Richardson JR, Gadad BS, Li W, German DC. The angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor captopril protects nigrostriatal dopamine neurons in animal models of parkinsonism. Exp Neurol 2013; 250:376-83. [PMID: 24184050 PMCID: PMC3889207 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2013.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 10/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a prominent loss of nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) neurons with an accompanying neuroinflammation. The peptide angiotensin II (AngII) plays a role in oxidative-stress induced disorders and is thought to mediate its detrimental actions via activation of AngII AT1 receptors. The brain renin-angiotensin system is implicated in neurodegenerative disorders including PD. Blockade of the angiotensin converting enzyme or AT1 receptors provides protection in acute animal models of parkinsonism. We demonstrate here that treatment of mice with the angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor captopril protects the striatum from acutely administered 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyrine (MPTP), and that chronic captopril protects the nigral DA cell bodies from degeneration in a progressive rat model of parkinsonism created by the chronic intracerebral infusion of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+). The accompanying activation of microglia in the substantia nigra of MPP+-treated rats was reduced by the chronic captopril treatment. These findings indicate that captopril is neuroprotective for nigrostriatal DA neurons in both acute and chronic rodent PD models. Targeting the brain AngII pathway may be a feasible approach to slowing neurodegeneration in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia K Sonsalla
- Department of Neurology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ, USA.
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Taylor JM, Main BS, Crack PJ. Neuroinflammation and oxidative stress: Co-conspirators in the pathology of Parkinson’s disease. Neurochem Int 2013; 62:803-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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24
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Frau L, Simola N, Plumitallo A, Morelli M. Microglial and astroglial activation by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in mice depends on S(+) enantiomer and is associated with an increase in body temperature and motility. J Neurochem 2012; 124:69-78. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Frau
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; Section of Neuropsychopharmacology; University of Cagliari; Cagliari Italy
| | - Nicola Simola
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; Section of Neuropsychopharmacology; University of Cagliari; Cagliari Italy
| | - Antonio Plumitallo
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences; University of Cagliari; Cagliari Italy
| | - Micaela Morelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences; Section of Neuropsychopharmacology; University of Cagliari; Cagliari Italy
- Centre of Excellence for Neurobiology of Dependence; University of Cagliari; Cagliari Italy
- CNR; Institute of Neuroscience; Cagliari Italy
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25
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Alteration in the progression of dopamine neuron degeneration: May caffeine offer new perspective? Exp Neurol 2012; 237:218-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Revised: 05/22/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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26
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Kachroo A, Schwarzschild MA. Adenosine A2A receptor gene disruption protects in an α-synuclein model of Parkinson's disease. Ann Neurol 2012; 71:278-82. [PMID: 22367999 DOI: 10.1002/ana.22630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the putative interaction between chronic exposure to adenosine receptor antagonist caffeine and genetic influences on Parkinson's disease (PD), we determined whether deletion of the adenosine A(2A) receptor in knockout (KO) mice protects against dopaminergic neuron degeneration induced by a mutant human α-synuclein (hm(2)-αSYN) transgene containing both A53T and A30P. The A(2A) KO completely prevented loss of dopamine and dopaminergic neurons caused by the mutant α-synuclein transgene without altering levels of its expression. The adenosine A(2A) receptor appears required for neurotoxicity in a mutant α-synuclein model of PD. Together with prior studies the present findings indirectly support the neuroprotective potential of caffeine and more specific A(2A) antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Kachroo
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, USA.
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27
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Matos M, Augusto E, Santos-Rodrigues AD, Schwarzschild MA, Chen JF, Cunha RA, Agostinho P. Adenosine A2A receptors modulate glutamate uptake in cultured astrocytes and gliosomes. Glia 2012; 60:702-16. [PMID: 22298379 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, where its toxic build-up leads to synaptic dysfunction and excitotoxic cell death that underlies many neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, efforts have been made to understand the regulation of glutamate transporters, which are responsible for the clearance of extracellular glutamate. We now report that adenosine A(2A) receptors (A(2A) R) control the uptake of D-aspartate in primary cultured astrocytes as well as in an ex vivo preparation enriched in glial plasmalemmal vesicles (gliosomes) from adult rats, whereas A(1) R and A(3) R were devoid of effects. Thus, the acute exposure to the A(2A) R agonist, CGS 21680, inhibited glutamate uptake, an effect prevented by the A(2A) R antagonist, SCH 58261, and abbrogated in cultured astrocytes from A(2A) R knockout mice. Furthermore, the prolonged activation of A(2A) R lead to a cAMP/protein kinase A-dependent reduction of GLT-I and GLAST mRNA and protein levels, which leads to a sustained decrease of glutamate uptake. This dual mechanism of inhibition of glutamate transporters by astrocytic A(2A) R provides a novel candidate mechanism to understand the ability of A(2) (A) R to control synaptic plasticity and neurodegeneration, two conditions tightly associated with the control of extracellular glutamate levels by glutamate transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Matos
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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28
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Sonsalla PK, Wong LY, Harris SL, Richardson JR, Khobahy I, Li W, Gadad BS, German DC. Delayed caffeine treatment prevents nigral dopamine neuron loss in a progressive rat model of Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2012; 234:482-7. [PMID: 22309831 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2012.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Revised: 01/09/2012] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by a prominent degeneration of nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) neurons with an accompanying neuroinflammation. Despite clinical and preclinical studies of neuroprotective strategies for PD, there is no effective treatment for preventing or slowing the progression of neurodegeneration. The inverse correlation between caffeine consumption and risk of PD suggests that caffeine may exert neuroprotection. Whether caffeine is neuroprotective in a chronic progressive model of PD has not been evaluated nor is it known if delayed caffeine treatment can stop DA neuronal loss. We show that a chronic unilateral intra-cerebroventricular infusion of 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium in the rat brain for 28 days produces a progressive loss of DA and tyrosine hydroxylase in the ipsilateral striatum and a loss of DA cell bodies and microglial activation in the ipsilateral substantia nigra. Chronic caffeine consumption prevented the degeneration of DA cell bodies in the substantia nigra. Importantly, neuroprotection was still apparent when caffeine was introduced after the onset of the neurodegenerative process. These results add to the clinical relevance for adenosine receptors as a disease-modifying drug target for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia K Sonsalla
- Department of Neurology, UMDNJ Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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29
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Rosiglitazone decreases peroxisome proliferator receptor-gamma levels in microglia and inhibits TNF-alpha production: new evidences on neuroprotection in a progressive Parkinson's disease model. Neuroscience 2011; 194:250-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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30
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Armentero MT, Pinna A, Ferré S, Lanciego JL, Müller CE, Franco R. Past, present and future of A(2A) adenosine receptor antagonists in the therapy of Parkinson's disease. Pharmacol Ther 2011; 132:280-99. [PMID: 21810444 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2011.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Several selective antagonists for adenosine A(2A) receptors (A(2A)R) are currently under evaluation in clinical trials (phases I to III) to treat Parkinson's disease, and they will probably soon reach the market. The usefulness of these antagonists has been deduced from studies demonstrating functional interactions between dopamine D₂ and adenosine A(2A) receptors in the basal ganglia. At present it is believed that A(2A)R antagonists can be used in combination with the dopamine precursor L-DOPA to minimize the motor symptoms of Parkinson's patients. However, a considerable body of data indicates that in addition to ameliorating motor symptoms, adenosine A(2A)R antagonists may also prevent neurodegeneration. Despite these promising indications, one further issue must be considered in order to develop fully optimized antiparkinsonian drug therapy, namely the existence of (hetero)dimers/oligomers of G protein-coupled receptors, a topic that is currently the focus of intense debate within the scientific community. Dopamine D₂ receptors (D₂Rs) expressed in the striatum are known to form heteromers with A(2A) adenosine receptors. Thus, the development of heteromer-specific A(2A) receptor antagonists represents a promising strategy for the identification of more selective and safer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Therese Armentero
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Interdepartmental Research Centre for Parkinson's Disease, IRCCS National Institute of Neurology "C. Mondino", Pavia, Italy
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31
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Armentero MT, Levandis G, Bazzini E, Cerri S, Ghezzi C, Blandini F. Adhesion molecules as potential targets for neuroprotection in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2011; 43:663-8. [PMID: 21684338 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2010] [Revised: 04/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell adhesion molecules might play an important role in the inflammatory mechanisms associated with neurodegeneration. We have previously observed, in rats, that subcutaneous injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), a pro-inflammatory agent that induces a peripheral inflammatory stimulus, reduces the nigrostriatal degeneration and microglial activation caused by stereotaxic injection of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA). Here we further investigated the effects of CFA in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats by evaluating the expression of selected adhesion molecules, both at central and peripheral levels. Male, Sprague-Dawley rats received a subcutaneous injection of CFA followed, 10 days later, by intrastriatal injection of 6-OHDA. Animals were sacrificed at various time points and changes affecting intercellular (ICAM-1), vascular (VCAM-1), platelet endothelial (PECAM-1) and neural (NCAM-1) cell adhesion molecules were analyzed in striatum, ventral midbrain (containing the substantia nigra) and sera. Our results confirmed the protective effect of systemic CFA on 6-OHDA-induced nigrostriatal degeneration. Injection of 6-OHDA increased striatal ICAM-1 and PECAM-1 expression, while opposite changes (decreased expression) were detected in the ventral midbrain, particularly for VCAM-1 and NCAM-1. Pretreatment with CFA counteracted these changes. Nigrostriatal degeneration also affected peripheral immune function, with lesioned animals showing increased sPECAM levels with respect to intact animals. Also in this case, CFA pretreatment blocked the 6-OHDA induced increase of sPECAM. Our findings confirm that a pre-existing, peripheral pro-inflammatory condition reduces the neuroinflammatory response and associated neurodegeneration provoked by centrally-administered 6-OHDA, with a mechanism that seems to involve selected adhesion molecules. The link between peripheral and central immune responses may, therefore, represent a target for new therapeutic strategies aimed at reducing the neuroinflammatory component associated with neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Therese Armentero
- Laboratory of Functional Neurochemistry, Interdepartmental Research Center for Parkinson's Disease, CRIMP, IRCCS National Institute of Neurology C Mondino, Pavia, Italy.
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32
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Albizu L, Moreno JL, González-Maeso J, Sealfon SC. Heteromerization of G protein-coupled receptors: relevance to neurological disorders and neurotherapeutics. CNS & NEUROLOGICAL DISORDERS-DRUG TARGETS 2011; 9:636-50. [PMID: 20632964 DOI: 10.2174/187152710793361586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Because G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are numerous, widely expressed and involved in major physiological responses, they represent a relevant therapeutic target for drug discovery, particularly regarding pharmacological treatments of neurological disorders. Among the biological phenomena regulating receptor function, GPCR heteromerization is an important emerging area of interest and investigation. There is increasing evidence showing that heteromerization contributes to the pharmacological heterogeneity of GPCRs by modulating receptor ontogeny, activation and recycling. Although in many cases the physiological relevance of receptor heteromerization has not been fully established, the unique pharmacological and functional properties of heteromers are likely to lead to new strategies in clinical medicine. This review describes the main GPCR heteromers and their implications for major neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and addiction. A better understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying drug interactions related to the targeting of receptor heteromers could provide more specific and efficient therapeutic agents for the treatment of brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Albizu
- Department of Neurology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY 10029, USA
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33
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Szabó N, Kincses ZT, Vécsei L. Novel therapy in Parkinson's disease: adenosine A2Areceptor antagonists. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2011; 7:441-55. [DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2011.557066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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34
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Frau L, Borsini F, Wardas J, Khairnar AS, Schintu N, Morelli M. Neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist ST1535 in a MPTP mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Synapse 2010; 65:181-8. [DOI: 10.1002/syn.20833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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35
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Wei CJ, Li W, Chen JF. Normal and abnormal functions of adenosine receptors in the central nervous system revealed by genetic knockout studies. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2010; 1808:1358-79. [PMID: 21185258 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2010.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2010] [Revised: 12/14/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous adenosine is a widely distributed upstream regulator of a broad spectrum of neurotransmitters, receptors, and signaling pathways that converge to contribute to the expression of an array of important brain functions. Over the past decade, the generation and characterization of genetic knockout models for all four G-protein coupled adenosine receptors, the A1 and A2A receptors in particular, has confirmed and extended the neuromodulatory and integrated role of adenosine receptors in the control of a broad spectrum of normal and abnormal brain functions. After a brief introduction of the available adenosine receptor knockout models, this review focuses on findings from the genetic knockout approach, placing particular emphasis on the most recent findings. This review is organized into two sections to separately address (i) the role of adenosine receptors in normal brain processes including neuroplasticity, sleep-wake cycle, motor function, cognition, and emotion-related behaviors; and (ii) their role in the response to various pathologic insults to brain such as ischemic stroke, neurodegeneration, or brain dysfunction/disorders. We largely limit our overview to the prominent adenosine receptor subtypes in brain-the A1 and A2A receptors-for which numerous genetic knockout studies on brain function are available. A1 and A2A receptor knockouts have provided significant new insights into adenosine's control of complex physiologic (e.g., cognition) and pathologic (e.g., neuroinflammation) phenomena. These findings extend and strengthen the support for A1 and A2A receptors in brain as therapeutic targets in several neurologic and psychiatric diseases. However, they also emphasize the importance of considering the disease context-dependent effect when developing adenosine receptor-based therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine J Wei
- Department of Neurology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
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36
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Gomes CV, Kaster MP, Tomé AR, Agostinho PM, Cunha RA. Adenosine receptors and brain diseases: neuroprotection and neurodegeneration. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2010; 1808:1380-99. [PMID: 21145878 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2010.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 303] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 11/30/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Adenosine acts in parallel as a neuromodulator and as a homeostatic modulator in the central nervous system. Its neuromodulatory role relies on a balanced activation of inhibitory A(1) receptors (A1R) and facilitatory A(2A) receptors (A2AR), mostly controlling excitatory glutamatergic synapses: A1R impose a tonic brake on excitatory transmission, whereas A2AR are selectively engaged to promote synaptic plasticity phenomena. This neuromodulatory role of adenosine is strikingly similar to the role of adenosine in the control of brain disorders; thus, A1R mostly act as a hurdle that needs to be overcame to begin neurodegeneration and, accordingly, A1R only effectively control neurodegeneration if activated in the temporal vicinity of brain insults; in contrast, the blockade of A2AR alleviates the long-term burden of brain disorders in different neurodegenerative conditions such as ischemia, epilepsy, Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease and also seem to afford benefits in some psychiatric conditions. In spite of this qualitative agreement between neuromodulation and neuroprotection by A1R and A2AR, it is still unclear if the role of A1R and A2AR in the control of neuroprotection is mostly due to the control of glutamatergic transmission, or if it is instead due to the different homeostatic roles of these receptors related with the control of metabolism, of neuron-glia communication, of neuroinflammation, of neurogenesis or of the control of action of growth factors. In spite of this current mechanistic uncertainty, it seems evident that targeting adenosine receptors might indeed constitute a novel strategy to control the demise of different neurological and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina V Gomes
- Center for Neurosciences of Coimbra, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
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37
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Deletion of adenosine A₁ or A(₂A) receptors reduces L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine-induced dyskinesia in a model of Parkinson's disease. Brain Res 2010; 1367:310-8. [PMID: 20828543 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.08.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2010] [Revised: 08/29/2010] [Accepted: 08/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine A(₂A) receptor antagonism provides a promising approach to developing nondopaminergic therapy for Parkinson's disease (PD). Clinical trials of A(₂A) antagonists have targeted PD patients with L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA)-induced dyskinesia (LID) in an effort to improve parkinsonian symptoms. The role of adenosine in the development of LID is little known, especially regarding its actions via A₁ receptors. We aimed to examine the effects of genetic deletion and pharmacological blockade of A₁ and/or A(₂A) receptors on the development of LID, on the induction of molecular markers of LID including striatal preprodynorphin and preproenkephalin (PPE), and on the integrity of dopaminergic nigrostriatal neurons in hemiparkinsonian mice. Following a unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesion A₁, A(₂A) and double A₁-A(₂A) knockout (KO) and wild-type littermate mice, and mice pretreated with caffeine (an antagonist of both A₁ and A(₂A) receptors) or saline were treated daily for 18-21 days with a low dose of L-DOPA. Total abnormal involuntary movements (AIMs, a measure of LID) were significantly attenuated (p<0.05) in A₁ and A(₂A) KOs, but not in A₁-A(₂A) KOs and caffeine-pretreated mice. An elevation of PPE mRNA ipsilateral to the lesion in WT mice was reduced in all KO mice. In addition, neuronal integrity assessed by striatal dopamine content was similar in all KOs and caffeine-pretreated mice following 6-hydroxydopamine lesioning. Our findings raise the possibility that A₁ or A(₂A) receptors blockade might also confer a disease-modifying benefit of reduced risk of disabling LID, whereas the effect of their combined inactivation is less clear.
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38
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Can dietary substances protect against Parkinson's disease? The case of caffeine. Exp Neurol 2010; 225:246-9. [PMID: 20659450 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2010] [Revised: 07/16/2010] [Accepted: 07/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Millan MJ. From the cell to the clinic: a comparative review of the partial D₂/D₃receptor agonist and α2-adrenoceptor antagonist, piribedil, in the treatment of Parkinson's disease. Pharmacol Ther 2010; 128:229-73. [PMID: 20600305 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Though L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA) is universally employed for alleviation of motor dysfunction in Parkinson's disease (PD), it is poorly-effective against co-morbid symptoms like cognitive impairment and depression. Further, it elicits dyskinesia, its pharmacokinetics are highly variable, and efficacy wanes upon long-term administration. Accordingly, "dopaminergic agonists" are increasingly employed both as adjuncts to L-DOPA and as monotherapy. While all recognize dopamine D(2) receptors, they display contrasting patterns of interaction with other classes of monoaminergic receptor. For example, pramipexole and ropinirole are high efficacy agonists at D(2) and D(3) receptors, while pergolide recognizes D(1), D(2) and D(3) receptors and a broad suite of serotonergic receptors. Interestingly, several antiparkinson drugs display modest efficacy at D(2) receptors. Of these, piribedil displays the unique cellular signature of: 1), signal-specific partial agonist actions at dopamine D(2)and D(3) receptors; 2), antagonist properties at α(2)-adrenoceptors and 3), minimal interaction with serotonergic receptors. Dopamine-deprived striatal D(2) receptors are supersensitive in PD, so partial agonism is sufficient for relief of motor dysfunction while limiting undesirable effects due to "over-dosage" of "normosensitive" D(2) receptors elsewhere. Further, α(2)-adrenoceptor antagonism reinforces adrenergic, dopaminergic and cholinergic transmission to favourably influence motor function, cognition, mood and the integrity of dopaminergic neurones. In reviewing the above issues, the present paper focuses on the distinctive cellular, preclinical and therapeutic profile of piribedil, comparisons to pramipexole, ropinirole and pergolide, and the core triad of symptoms that characterises PD-motor dysfunction, depressed mood and cognitive impairment. The article concludes by highlighting perspectives for clarifying the mechanisms of action of piribedil and other antiparkinson agents, and for optimizing their clinical exploitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Millan
- Dept of Psychopharmacology, Institut de Recherches Servier, 125 Chemin de Ronde, 78290 Croissy/Seine (Paris), France.
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40
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Brothers HM, Marchalant Y, Wenk GL. Caffeine attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation. Neurosci Lett 2010; 480:97-100. [PMID: 20541589 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2010] [Revised: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 06/03/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Caffeine is an antagonist at A1 and A2A adenosine receptors and epidemiological evidence suggests that caffeine consumption reduces the risk of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Neuroinflammation plays a role in the etiology of these diseases and caffeine may provide protection through the modulation of inflammation. Adenosine has a known role in the propagation of inflammation and caffeine may reduce microglia activation directly by blocking adenosine receptors on microglia. Chronic neuroinflammation is associated with an increase in extracellular levels of glutamate and drugs that limit the effects of glutamate at neuronal receptors have been shown to indirectly reduce the neuroinflammatory response of microglia cells. A1 and A2A receptors have been shown to regulate the pre-synaptic release of glutamate, therefore, caffeine may also reduce neuroinflammation via its ability to regulate glutamate release. Caffeine was administered at various doses to young rats with experimentally induced neuroinflammation by chronic infusion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) over two or four weeks into the 4th ventricle and to aged rats with naturally elevated levels of microglia activation. Caffeine attenuated the number of activated microglia within the hippocampus of animals with LPS-induced and age-related inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly M Brothers
- Department of Psychology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, United States
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41
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Kachroo A, Irizarry MC, Schwarzschild MA. Caffeine protects against combined paraquat and maneb-induced dopaminergic neuron degeneration. Exp Neurol 2010; 223:657-61. [PMID: 20188092 PMCID: PMC2864327 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2009] [Revised: 02/05/2010] [Accepted: 02/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Environmental exposures suspected of contributing to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) include potentially neurotoxic pesticides, which have been linked to an increased risk of PD. Conversely, possible protective factors such as the adenosine antagonist caffeine have been linked to a reduced risk of the disease. Here we assessed whether caffeine alters dopaminergic neuron loss induced by exposure to environmentally relevant pesticides (paraquat and maneb) over 8weeks. The number of nigral neurons positive for tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity (TH+) was assessed using stereological methods and found to be significantly reduced (to 60% of control) by combined pesticide treatment. Caffeine at 20mg/kg significantly reduced TH+ neuron loss (to 85% of the respective control). The results demonstrate the neuroprotective potential of caffeine in a chronic pesticide exposure model of model of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Kachroo
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129
| | - Michael C. Irizarry
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129
| | - Michael A. Schwarzschild
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129
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Kachroo A, Irizarry MC, Schwarzschild MA. Caffeine protects against combined paraquat and maneb-induced dopaminergic neuron degeneration. Exp Neurol 2010. [PMID: 20188092 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.02.007.caffeine] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Environmental exposures suspected of contributing to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) include potentially neurotoxic pesticides, which have been linked to an increased risk of PD. Conversely, possible protective factors such as the adenosine antagonist caffeine have been linked to a reduced risk of the disease. Here we assessed whether caffeine alters dopaminergic neuron loss induced by exposure to environmentally relevant pesticides (paraquat and maneb) over 8weeks. The number of nigral neurons positive for tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity (TH+) was assessed using stereological methods and found to be significantly reduced (to 60% of control) by combined pesticide treatment. Caffeine at 20mg/kg significantly reduced TH+ neuron loss (to 85% of the respective control). The results demonstrate the neuroprotective potential of caffeine in a chronic pesticide exposure model of model of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil Kachroo
- MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02129, USA
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Xu K, Xu YH, Chen JF, Schwarzschild MA. Neuroprotection by caffeine: time course and role of its metabolites in the MPTP model of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2010; 167:475-81. [PMID: 20167258 PMCID: PMC2849921 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Revised: 01/31/2010] [Accepted: 02/10/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have raised the possibility of caffeine serving as a neuroprotective agent in Parkinson's disease (PD). This possibility has gained support from findings that dopaminergic neuron toxicity induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) or other neurotoxins is attenuated by co-administration of caffeine in mice. Here we examined the time window of caffeine's neuroprotection as well as the effects of caffeine's metabolites (theophylline and paraxanthine) in the MPTP mouse model of PD. In the first experiment, caffeine pre-treatment (30 mg/kg ip) significantly attenuated MPTP-induced striatal dopamine depletion when it was given 10 min, 30 min, 1 h, or 2 h but not 6 h before MPTP (40 mg/kg ip) treatment. Meanwhile, caffeine post-treatment also significantly attenuated striatal dopamine loss when it was given 10 min, 30 min, 1 h or 2 h but not 4 h, 8 h or 24 h after MPTP injection. In the second experiment, both theophylline (10 or 20 mg/kg) and paraxanthine (10 or 30 mg/kg) administration (10 min before MPTP) significantly attenuated MPTP-induced dopamine depletion in mice, as did caffeine (10 mg/kg) treatment. Thus the metabolites of caffeine also provide neuroprotective effects in this mouse model of PD. The data suggest that if caffeine protects against putative toxin-induced dopaminergic neuron injury in humans, then precise temporal pairing between caffeine and toxin exposures may not be critical because the duration of neuroprotection by caffeine may be extended by protective effects of its major metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kui Xu
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129
| | - Yue-Hang Xu
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129
| | - Jiang-Fan Chen
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129
- Department of Neurology, 715 Albany Street, C314, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118
| | - Michael A. Schwarzschild
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, MassGeneral Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA 02129
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Adenosine-dopamine interactions in the pathophysiology and treatment of CNS disorders. CNS Neurosci Ther 2010; 16:e18-42. [PMID: 20345970 DOI: 10.1111/j.1755-5949.2009.00126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine-dopamine interactions in the central nervous system (CNS) have been studied for many years in view of their relevance for disorders of the CNS and their treatments. The discovery of adenosine and dopamine receptor containing receptor mosaics (RM, higher-order receptor heteromers) in the striatum opened up a new understanding of these interactions. Initial findings indicated the existence of A(2A)R-D(2)R heterodimers and A(1)R-D(1)R heterodimers in the striatum that were followed by indications for the existence of striatal A(2A)R-D(3)R and A(2A)R-D(4)R heterodimers. Of particular interest was the demonstration that antagonistic allosteric A(2A)-D(2) and A(1)-D(1) receptor-receptor interactions take place in striatal A(2A)R-D(2)R and A(1)R-D(1)R heteromers. As a consequence, additional characterization of these heterodimers led to new aspects on the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD), schizophrenia, drug addiction, and l-DOPA-induced dyskinesias relevant for their treatments. In fact, A(2A)R antagonists were introduced in the symptomatic treatment of PD in view of the discovery of the antagonistic A(2A)R-D(2)R interaction in the dorsal striatum that leads to reduced D(2)R recognition and G(i/o) coupling in striato-pallidal GABAergic neurons. In recent years, indications have been obtained that A(2A)R-D(2)R and A(1)R-D(1)R heteromers do not exist as heterodimers, rather as RM. In fact, A(2A)-CB(1)-D(2) RM and A(2A)-D(2)-mGlu(5) RM have been discovered using a sequential BRET-FRET technique and by using the BRET technique in combination with bimolecular fluorescence complementation. Thus, other pathogenic mechanisms beside the well-known alterations in the release and/or decoding of dopamine in the basal ganglia and limbic system are involved in PD, schizophrenia and drug addiction. In fact, alterations in the stoichiometry and/or topology of A(2A)-CB(1)-D(2) and A(2A)-D(2)-mGlu5 RM may play a role. Thus, the integrative receptor-receptor interactions in these RM give novel aspects on the pathophysiology and treatment strategies, based on combined treatments, for PD, schizophrenia, and drug addiction.
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Morelli M, Carta AR, Kachroo A, Schwarzschild MA. Pathophysiological roles for purines: adenosine, caffeine and urate. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2010; 183:183-208. [PMID: 20696321 PMCID: PMC3102301 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(10)83010-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD) are primarily due to the degeneration of the dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway. However, several other brain areas and neurotransmitters other than dopamine such as noradrenaline, 5-hydroxytryptamine and acetylcholine are affected in the disease. Moreover, adenosine because of the extensive interaction of its receptors with the dopaminergic system has been implicated in the pathophysiology of the disease. Based on the involvement of these non-dopaminergic neurotransmitters in PD and the sometimes severe adverse effects that limit the mainstay use of dopamine-based anti-parkinsonian treatments, recent assessments have called for a broadening of therapeutic options beyond the traditional dopaminergic drug arsenal. In this review we describe the interactions between dopamine and adenosine receptors that underpin the pre-clinical and clinical rationale for pursuing adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists as symptomatic and potentially neuroprotective treatment of PD. The review will pay particular attention to recent results regarding specific A(2A) receptor-receptor interactions and recent findings identifying urate, the end product of purine metabolism, as a novel prognostic biomarker and candidate neuroprotectant in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Morelli
- Department of Toxicology, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy.
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Pinna A, Tronci E, Schintu N, Simola N, Volpini R, Pontis S, Cristalli G, Morelli M. A new ethyladenine antagonist of adenosine A(2A) receptors: behavioral and biochemical characterization as an antiparkinsonian drug. Neuropharmacology 2009; 58:613-23. [PMID: 19951715 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2009.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 11/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists have emerged as an attractive non-dopaminergic target in clinical trials aimed at evaluating improvement in motor deficits in Parkinson's disease (PD). Moreover, preclinical studies suggest that A(2A) receptor antagonists may slow the course of the underlying neurodegeneration of dopaminergic neurons. In this study, we evaluated the efficacy of the new adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonist 8-ethoxy-9-ethyladenine (ANR 94) in parkinsonian models of akinesia and tremor. In addition, induction of the immediate early gene zif-268, and neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of ANR 94 were evaluated. ANR 94 was effective in reversing parkinsonian tremor induced by the administration of tacrine. ANR 94 also counteracted akinesia (stepping test) and sensorimotor deficits (vibrissae-elicited forelimb-placing test), as well as potentiating l-dopa-induced contralateral turning behavior in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion model of PD. Potentiation of motor behavior in 6-OHDA-lesioned rats was not associated with increased induction of the immediate early gene zif-268 in the striatum, suggesting that ANR 94 does not induce long-term plastic changes in this structure. Finally, in a subchronic 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of PD, ANR 94 protected nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons from degeneration and counteracted neuroinflammatory processes by contrasting astroglial (glial fibrillary acidic protein, GFAP) and microglial (CD11b) activation. A(2A) receptor antagonism represents a uniquely realistic opportunity for improving PD treatment, since A(2A) receptor antagonists offer substantial symptomatic benefits and possibly disease-modifying activity. The characterization of ANR 94 may represent a further therapeutic opportunity for the treatment of PD with this new class of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Pinna
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience - Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy.
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