Diabetes mellitus is associated with hepatic encephalopathy in patients with HCV cirrhosis

Burden of Portal Hypertension Complications Is Greater in Liver Transplant Wait-Listed Registrants with End-Stage Liver Disease and Type 2 Diabetes

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Impact of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in patients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) awaiting liver transplantation (LT) remains poorly defined. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the relationship between T2DM and clinical outcomes among patients with LT waitlist registrants. We hypothesize that the presence of T2DM will be associated with worse clinical outcomes.

METHODS

593 patients adult (age 18 years or older) who were registered for LT between 1/2010 and 1/2017 were included in this retrospective analysis. The impact of T2DM on liver-associated clinical events (LACE), survival, hospitalizations, need for renal replacement therapy, and likelihood of receiving LT were evaluated over a 12-month period. LACE was defined as variceal hemorrhage, hepatic encephalopathy, and ascites. Kaplan-Meier and Cox regression analysis were used to determine the association between T2DM and clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

The baseline prevalence of T2DM was 32% (n = 191) and patients with T2DM were more likely to have esophageal varices (61% vs. 47%, p = 0.002) and history of variceal hemorrhage (23% vs. 16%, p = 0.03). The presence of T2DM was associated with increased risk of incident ascites (HR 1.91, 95% CI 1.11, 3.28, p = 0.019). Patients with T2DM were more likely to require hospitalizations (56% vs. 49%, p = 0.06), hospitalized with portal hypertension-related complications (22% vs. 14%; p = 0.026), and require renal replacement therapy during their hospitalization. Patients with T2DM were less likely to receive a LT (37% vs. 45%; p = 0.03). Regarding MELD labs, patients with T2DM had significantly lower bilirubin at each follow-up; however, no differences in INR and creatinine were noted.

CONCLUSION

Patients with T2DM are at increased risk of clinical outcomes. This risk is not captured in MELD score, which may potentially negatively affect their likelihood of receiving LT.

Diabetes mellitus - risk factor and potential future target for hepatic encephalopathy in patients with liver cirrhosis?

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is one of the major complications of cirrhosis, and its presence is associated with poor survival. Several risk factors for HE are well established, including age, history of HE, portosystemic shunts, or poorer liver function. In recent years, diabetes mellitus (DM) has emerged as another potential risk factor for the development of HE. This may be important for many patients, as the incidence of type 2 DM (T2DM) is increasing worldwide and, consequently, the incidence of NAFLD-related cirrhosis is rising simultaneously. In addition, DM is a critical factor in the progression of other liver diseases, such as alcohol-related liver disease. Thus, the number of patients with cirrhosis and comorbid T2DM will also increase. To date, the prevalence of DM already ranges between 22 - 40% in patients with cirrhosis. DM-associated factors that may influence the risk of HE include systemic inflammation, insulin resistance with increased muscle protein breakdown as well as autonomic dysfunction with prolonged intestinal transit time and small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Currently, the evidence for an association between DM and both minimal and overt HE is weak and it seems likely that only poor glycemic control has an impact on HE risk. In addition, there are some early signs indicating that DM may impair the response of patients with HE to pharmacological therapies such as rifaximin. Thus, improvements in the management of glycemic control may be a candidate future target to reduce the risk of HE. In this concise review, we summarize the current evidence on the association between DM and HE and its potential future implications.

Hepatogenous diabetes: Knowledge, evidence, and skepticism

The diabetogenic potential of liver cirrhosis (LC) has been known for a long time, and the name "hepatogenous diabetes" (HD) was coined in 1906 to define the condition. Diabetes mellitus (DM) that develops as a consequence of LC is referred to as HD. In patients with LC, the prevalence rates of HD have been reported to vary from 21% to 57%. The pathophysiological basis of HD seems to involve insulin resistance (IR) and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction. The neurohormonal changes, endotoxemia, and chronic inflammation of LC initially create IR; however, the toxic effects eventually lead to β-cell dysfunction, which marks the transition from impaired glucose tolerance to HD. In addition, a number of factors, including sarcopenia, sarcopenic obesity, gut dysbiosis, and hyperammonemia, have recently been linked to impaired glucose metabolism in LC. DM is associated with complications and poor outcomes in patients with LC, although the individual impact of each type 2 DM and HD is unknown due to a lack of categorization of diabetes in most published research. In fact, there is much skepticism within scientific organizations over the recognition of HD as a separate disease and a consequence of LC. Currently, T2DM and HD are being treated in a similar manner although no standardized guidelines are available. The different pathophysiological basis of HD may have an impact on treatment options. This review article discusses the existence of HD as a distinct entity with high prevalence rates, a strong pathophysiological basis, clinical and therapeutic implications, as well as widespread skepticism and knowledge gaps.

Clinical implications of diabetes in chronic liver disease: Diagnosis, outcomes and management, current and future perspectives

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is common in liver cirrhosis (LC). The pathophysiological association is bidirectional. DM is a risk factor of LC and LC is a diabetogenic condition. In the recent years, research on different aspects of the association DM and LC has been intensified. Nevertheless, it has been insufficient and still exist many gaps. The aims of this review are: (1) To discuss the latest understandings of the association of DM and LC in order to identify the strategies of early diagnosis; (2) To evaluate the impact of DM on outcomes of LC patients; and (3) To select the most adequate management benefiting the two conditions. Literature searches were conducted using PubMed, Ovid and Scopus engines for DM and LC, diagnosis, outcomes and management. The authors also provided insight from their own published experience. Based on the published studies, two types of DM associated with LC have emerged: Type 2 DM (T2DM) and hepatogenous diabetes (HD). High-quality evidences have determined that T2DM or HD significantly increase complications and death pre and post-liver transplantation. HD has been poorly studied and has not been recognized as a complication of LC. The management of DM in LC patients continues to be difficult and should be based on drug pharmacokinetics and the degree of liver failure. In conclusion, the clinical impact of DM in outcomes of LC patients has been the most studied item recently. Nevertheless many gaps still exist particularly in the management. These most important gaps were highlighted in order to propose future lines for research.

High Albumin Level Is Associated With Regression of Glucose Metabolism Disorders Upon Resolution of Acute Liver Inflammation in Hepatitis B-Related Cirrhosis

Background and Aim

To investigate the short-term dynamic changes and the factors associated with regression of glucose metabolism disorders in patients with hepatitis flare of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection.

Methods

In this study, 118 patients with severe hepatitis flare of chronic HBV infection were prospectively studied. Oral glucose tolerance test was performed on admission and during follow-up to evaluate dynamic changes in glucose metabolism disorders. The factors associated with regression of glucose metabolism disorders were identified using univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses.

Results

The prevalence of diabetes was significantly higher in 70 (47.1%) patients with liver cirrhosis than that in 48 (16.8%) patients without liver cirrhosis. The prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance in patients with liver cirrhosis (35.7%) was significantly lower than that in patients without liver cirrhosis (47.8%). After a follow-up of 20.0 ± 18.7 days, 28 of 31 (90.3%) patients without liver cirrhosis experienced regression of glucose metabolism disorders. Additionally, 30 (54.5%) patients with liver cirrhosis experienced regression of glucose metabolism disorders after 42.0 ± 36.2 days. In patients with liver cirrhosis, those with regression of glucose metabolism disorders had significantly higher levels of homeostasis model assessment-β-cell function, albumin (ALB), and a significantly lower level of fibrosis-4 score. ALB was identified as an independent factor associated with the regression of glucose metabolism disorders in patients with liver cirrhosis.

Conclusion

Severe acute liver inflammation aggravates glucose metabolism disorders in patients with hepatitis B-related liver cirrhosis and high ALB level is associated with regression of glucose metabolism disorders upon resolution of acute liver inflammation.

Association of Type 2 Diabetes and Hepatic Encephalopathy in Chronic Liver Disease Patients

Background

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is an important complication of hepatic cirrhosis and is an independent predictor of mortality in patients with cirrhosis. The prevalence of type 2 diabetes continues to increase at an alarming rate around the world, with even more people being affected by prediabetes. Diabetes leads to increased gastric transit and orocecal time, increased glutamase activity, and intestinal bacterial overgrowth, which may increase intestinal ammonia production. Thus, we speculated that diabetes mellitus (DM) might predispose cirrhotic patients to development and/or exacerbation of HE. The main purpose of this study is to determine the association of DM with severe HE in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD).

Methods

This case-control study (122 cases and 122 controls) was conducted for 6 months on patients who fulfilled the inclusion criteria and were selected from the Medical department, Abbasi Shaheed Hospital, Karachi, after taking informed consent. Demographic data were presented as simple descriptive statistics giving mean and standard deviation and qualitative variables were presented as frequency and percentages. Chi-square was applied and the odds ratio (OR) was calculated taking a p-value of ≤ 0.05 as statistically significant.

Results

Out of a total of 244 patients, 122 patients had CLD with DM (case group) and 122 participants had CLD without DM (control group). The mean and standard deviation of age in the case and control groups in our study was 43.29±3.79 and 45.49±5.40. The mean and standard deviation of the duration of disease in the case and control groups in our study was 3.18±1.22 and 3.72±1.36. Males were 53 (43.44%) and 56 (45.10%) in the case and control groups, whereas females were 69 (56.56%) and 66 (54.10%) in the case and control groups, respectively. Out of 122 patients in the case group, 73 (59.84%) and 49 (40.16%) patients developed and did not develop severe HE, respectively. Out of 122 patients in the control group, 50 (40.98%) and 72 (59.02%) patients developed and did not develop severe HE, respectively. Binary logistic regression analysis showed an association of severe HE with DM (p-value: 0.93, OR: 1.033, 95% CI: 0.586-1.599).

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that HE is a common occurrence in CLD patients. There was not a direct relationship of DM with the severity of HE was observed. However, further research with larger sample size and involving a multicenter setting is warranted.

Diabetes is associated with poor short-term prognosis in patients with hepatitis B virus-related acute-on-chronic liver failure

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Associations between the disturbances in glucose homeostasis and prognosis in patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) remain unclear. This study was conducted to investigate the clinical characteristics of disturbances in glucose homeostasis and their associations with 90-day mortality in patients with HBV-related ACLF.

METHODS

Ninety-six patients with HBV-related ACLF without pre-existing diabetes were prospectively included. Glucose abnormalities were diagnosed based on fasting plasma glucose and oral glucose tolerance test results on admission and during follow-up. Homeostasis model assessment was used to establish insulin resistance (HOMA2-IR), insulin sensitivity (HOMA2-IS) and HOMA2-β-cell function (HOMA2-β). Multivariate Cox proportional hazards analysis was used to identify independent risk factors for death within 90 days after admission.

RESULTS

Among 96 patients with ACLF, 51 (53.1%) had diabetes, 29 (30.2%) had impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), and 17 (17.7%) had hypoglycemia. Patients with diabetes had significantly lower levels of HOMA2-β than did patients with normal glucose tolerance. Of 22 patients with diabetes or IGT and without anti-hyperglycemic treatment, 8 (36.4%) exhibited regression of their glucose metabolism disorders after a follow-up of 32.8 ± 28.8 days, and higher platelet levels were associated with regression. Twenty-five patients (25.0%) with ACLF died of liver failure within 90 days. Diabetes [odds ratio (OR) 3.601, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.342-9.661] and age (OR 1.045, 95% CI 1.010-1.082) were the independent risk factors associated with mortality.

CONCLUSION

Impaired pancreatic β-cell function is related to diabetes development, and diabetes is associated with high mortality in patients with chronic HBV-related ACLF.

Insulin Resistance across the Spectrum of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Insulin resistance (IR) is defined as a lower-than-expected response to insulin action from target tissues, leading to the development of type 2 diabetes through the impairment of both glucose and lipid metabolism. IR is a common condition in subjects with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and is considered one of the main factors involved in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and in the progression of liver disease. The liver, the adipose tissue and the skeletal muscle are major contributors for the development and worsening of IR. In this review, we discuss the sites and mechanisms of insulin action and the IR-related impairment along the spectrum of NAFLD, from simple steatosis to progressive NASH and cirrhosis.

The Pattern of Dyslipidemia in Chronic Liver Disease Patients

Introduction Patients with chronic liver disease are expected to report derangements in serum lipid profiles. Lipid profile monitoring is not a part of the routine management of these patients in our hospital. Few recent studies show how lipid profile varies with the severity of disease and should be considered in the management planning of such patients. The objective of this study was to determine the pattern of dyslipidemia in chronic liver disease patients. Materials and methods A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 171 patients of all genders aged between 18 years and 60 years presenting with chronic liver disease with disease severity graded on Child-Pugh class as A, B, and C. Lipid profile was acquired in all these patients and was compared across various subgroups. Individual serum lipid parameters were graded as normal, high, or very high. Each patient was required to provide written informed consent. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0 (IBM Corp. Armonk, NY) was used to analyze data statistically, taking a p-value of ≤0.05 as significant. Results The mean age of patients was 51.2±7.3 years. The male to female ratio came out to be 1.5:1, with 103 (60.2%) male and 68 (39.8%) female patients included in the study. The disease was classified as Child-Pugh A in 20 (11.7%) patients, Child-Pugh B in 67 (39.2%) patients, and Child-Pugh C in 84 (49.1%) patients. Forty-four (25.7%) patients were hypertensive while 62 (36.3%) were diabetic. The mean body mass index (BMI) of these patients was 25.9±2.4 kg/m2. Mean serum values among Child-Pugh A, Child-Pugh B, and Child-Pugh C of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) (113.15±14.08 vs. 95.58±14.25 vs. 53.46±5.90 mg/dl; p-value 0.001), high-density lipoproteins (HDL) (50.60±3.19 vs. 40.70±2.95 vs. 35.40±3.88 mg/dl; p-value 0.001), total cholesterol (174.20±17.33 vs. 164.00±17.82 vs. 128.64±24.73 mg/dl; p-value 0.001), and triglycerides (127.15±8.98 vs. 100.84±27.12 vs. 93.36±25.56 mg/dl; p-value 0.001) decreased significantly with increasing severity of disease. Nineteen (11.1%) patients had hyperlipidemia (serum values of two or more parameters above normal) while 152 (88.9%) patients had normal lipid profile. When stratified, no statistically significant difference was found in the frequency of hyperlipidemia across various subgroups based on the patient's gender, age, duration, and severity of the disease, BMI, or diabetic and hypertensive status. Conclusions A substantial proportion of patients with chronic liver disease had hyperlipidemia which varied with the severity of disease on Child-Pugh classification. Routine monitoring of the lipid profile of such patients is necessary for timely identification and management of dyslipidemia to improve the outcome of such patients. It also suggests an important role of lipid profile in the risk stratification and treatment of chronic liver disease patients and warrants further studies in this regard.

Association between Liver Cirrhosis and Diabetes Mellitus: A Review on Hepatic Outcomes

BACKGROUND

Liver cirrhosis (LC) is largely associated with diabetes mellitus (DM). More than 80% of patients with LC manifest glucose intolerance and about 30% have type 2 DM. A particular and yet unrecognized entity is hepatogenous diabetes (HD), defined as impaired glucose regulation caused by altered liver function following LC. Numerous studies have shown that DM could negatively influence liver-related outcomes.

AIM

We aimed to investigate whether patients with LC and DM are at higher risk for hepatic encephalopathy (HE), variceal hemorrhage (VH), infections and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The impact of DM on liver transplant (LT) outcomes was also addressed.

METHODS

Literature search was performed in PubMed, Ovid, and Elsevier databases. Population-based observational studies reporting liver outcomes in patients with LC were included.

RESULTS

Diabetics are at higher risk for HE, including post-transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt HE. DM also increases the risk of VH and contributes to elevated portal pressure and variceal re-bleeding, while uncontrolled DM is associated with increased risk of bacterial infections. DM also increases the risk of HCC and contributes to adverse LT outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with DM and LC may benefit from close follow-up in order to reduce readmissions and mortality. Due to the heterogeneity of available research, prospective multicenter clinical trials are needed to further validate these findings.

Association between diabetes mellitus and hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND

Diabetes mellitus may lead to increased serum ammonia and systemic inflammation thereby promoting hepatic encephalopathy (HE).

AIM

To investigate the potential association between diabetes mellitus/glycaemic control and the presence of covert HE as well as the development of overt HE in a prospective setting.

METHODS

A total of 240 patients with liver cirrhosis were included into this prospective cohort study and followed for a median of 17 months. Covert HE was diagnosed by pathological results in the Portosystemic Hepatic Encephalopathy Score. Predictors for the presence of covert HE or the development of overt HE were analysed using logistic regression or Cox-regression models.

RESULTS

At study inclusion, 65 patients (27.1%) presented with diabetes mellitus and covert HE was detected in 33.3%. Patients with diabetes mellitus had a more preserved liver function as compared to patients without diabetes mellitus (MELD 9 vs 10; P = 0.043). In regression analyses after adjustment for confounders, diabetes mellitus was independently associated with the presence of covert HE at study inclusion and the development of overt HE during follow-up. These associations were confirmed in separate propensity-score-weighted regression models. In subgroup analyses, patients with worse glycaemic control (HbA1c >= 6.5%) had a pronounced risk for covert HE (OR 2.264, 95% CI 1.002-5.118) and overt HE (HR 4.116, 95% CI 1.791-9.459).

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetes mellitus may associate with higher risk for the presence of covert HE and the development of overt HE in patients with liver cirrhosis. Adequate glycaemic control may be a potential target to attenuate this important complication.

Epidemiology of Hepatic Encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a complex condition with multiple causes each with varying degrees of severity. HE negatively impacts patients' quality of life, and it is associated with significant burdens to patients and their caregivers. The prevalence of cirrhosis, the most common risk factor for HE, has steadily increased during recent years. In turn, an upsurge in the clinical and health care burdens related to HE is expected in the upcoming years. This article provides a comprehensive review of the epidemiology of HE.

Diabetes mellitus increases the risk of hepatic encephalopathy after a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt in cirrhotic patients

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of diabetes mellitus (DM) on the rate of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) in patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis after the creation of a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This study retrospectively reviewed 436 consecutive patients with cirrhosis receiving TIPS in our department from 2008 to 2016. By comparing two groups of patients, with or without DM, the incidence of developing overt HE after TIPS, as well as the correlation between diabetes and HE, was analyzed. Data were analyzed using the χ-tests, unpaired t-tests, logistic regression, and Kaplan-Meier curves. After the initial data processing, we used a regression model to analyze whether or not DM is associated with the development of HE after TIPS.

RESULTS

Of the 436 patients who underwent TIPS, 85 (19.5%) had diabetes at admission and 126 (28.9%) had HE after TIPS. Patients with DM more frequently had HE compared with those without DM (44.7 vs. 25.1%; P = 0.000). The logistic regression analysis showed that DM (P = 0.015) and age (P = 0.002) were independent risk factors for HE after TIPS. Finally, using the Kaplan-Meier curves, we found that diabetes significantly increases the incidence of overt HE (log-rank P = 0.026).

CONCLUSION

Similar to old age, DM may increase the risk of HE in cirrhotic patients after the creation of TIPS.

Prevalence of diabetes in liver cirrhosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

An association between diabetes mellitus (DM) and liver cirrhosis is well-known, but estimates of the prevalence of DM in patients with liver cirrhosis vary widely. A systematic review was undertaken to determine the prevalence of DM in adult patients with liver cirrhosis. The Medline, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases were searched for peer-reviewed studies published in English (1979-2017) that investigated the prevalence of diabetes in adult patients with cirrhosis. Pooled estimates of prevalence of DM were determined for all eligible patients and according to aetiology and severity of liver disease. Fifty-eight studies satisfied criteria for inclusion, with 9705 patients included in the pooled prevalence analysis. The overall prevalence of DM was 31%. The prevalence of DM was highest in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (56%), cryptogenic (51%), hepatitis C (32%), or alcoholic (27%) cirrhosis. For assessing prevalence of DM as a function of severity of liver disease, evaluable data were available only for hepatitis C and hepatitis B cirrhosis. DM may be more prevalent in cirrhosis than previously thought. This has implications for prognosis and treatment in these patients.

Management of Diabetes Mellitus in Patients with Chronic Liver Diseases

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a common chronic disease affecting humans globally. During the last few years, the incidence of diabetes has increased and has received more attention. In addition to growing DM populations, DM complications are involving injuries to more organs, such as the heart and cerebral vessel damage. DM complications can reduce quality of life and shorten life spans and eventually also impede social and economic development. Therefore, effective measures to curb the occurrence and development of diabetes assist in improving patients' quality of life, delay the progression of DM in the population, and ease a social burden. The liver is regarded as an important link in the management and control of DM, including the alleviation of glucose metabolism and lipid metabolism and others via glucose storage and endogenous glucose generation from glycogen stored in the liver. Liver cirrhosis is a very common chronic disease, which often lowers the quality of life and decreases life expectancy. According to a growing body of research, diabetes shows a close correlation with hepatitis, liver cirrhosis, and liver cancer. Moreover, coexistence of liver complications would accelerate the deterioration of patients with diabetes. Liver cirrhosis and diabetes influence each other. Thus, in addition to pharmacological treatments and lifestyle interventions, effective control of cirrhosis might assist in a better management of diabetes. When it comes to different etiologies of liver cirrhosis, different therapeutic methods, such as antiviral treatment, may be more effective. Effective control of cirrhosis might be a strategy for better management of diabetes.

Metformin modifies glutamine metabolism in an in vitro and in vivo model of hepatic encephalopathy

AIM

to analyze the effect of metformin on ammonia production derived from glutamine metabolism in vitro and in vivo.

METHODS

twenty male Wistar rats were studied for 28 days after a porto-caval anastomosis (n = 16) or a sham operation (n = 4). Porto-caval shunted animals were randomized into two groups (n = 8) and either received 30 mg/kg/day of metformin for two weeks or were control animals. Plasma ammonia concentration, Gls gene expression and K-type glutaminase activity were measured in the small intestine, muscle and kidney. Furthermore, Caco2 were grown in different culture media containing glucose/glutamine as the main carbon source and exposed to different concentrations of the drug. The expression of genes implicated in glutamine metabolism were analyzed.

RESULTS

metformin was associated with a significant inhibition of glutaminase activity levels in the small intestine of porto-caval shunted rats (0.277 ± 0.07 IU/mg vs 0.142 ± 0.04 IU/mg) and a significant decrease in plasma ammonia (204.3 ± 24.4 µg/dl vs 129.6 ± 16.1 µg/dl). Glucose withdrawal induced the expression of the glutamine transporter SLC1A5 (2.54 ± 0.33 fold change; p < 0.05). Metformin use reduced MYC levels in Caco2 and consequently, SLC1A5 and GLS expression, with a greater effect in cells dependent on glutaminolytic metabolism.

CONCLUSION

metformin regulates ammonia homeostasis by modulating glutamine metabolism in the enterocyte, exerting an indirect control of both the uptake and degradation of glutamine. This entails a reduction in the production of metabolites and energy through this pathway and indirectly causes a decrease in ammonia production that could be related to a decreased risk of HE development.

Association Between Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, HbA1c and the Risk for Spontaneous Bacterial Peritonitis in Patients with Decompensated Liver Cirrhosis and Ascites

Introduction

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is a frequent comorbidity among patients with liver cirrhosis. However, data regarding the impact of DM on spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) are quite limited. Our aim was to analyze the impact of DM and HbA1c values on the incidence of SBP and mortality in patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites.

Methods

A number of 475 consecutive patients with liver cirrhosis and ascites were analyzed. Presence of DM as well as HbA1c was assessed at the time of the first paracentesis. Patients were followed up for a mean of 266 days. Primary endpoints were SBP development and mortality.

Results

Overall, 118 (25%) patients were diagnosed with DM. DM patients had an increased risk for developing a SBP during follow-up (HR: 1.51; p = 0.03). SBP incidence was particularly high in DM patients with HbA1c values ≥6.4%, significantly higher than in DM patients with HbA1c values <6.4% (HR: 4.21; p = 0.0002). Of note, DM patients with HbA1c <6.4% at baseline had a similar risk for SBP as those without DM (HR: 0.93; p = 0.78, respectively). After excluding all patients who were eligible for secondary antibiotic prophylaxis, HbA1c ≥6.4% but neither bilirubin nor ascites protein level were associated with primary SBP development in the multivariate analysis (p = 0.003).

Conclusions

Individuals with liver cirrhosis and concomitant DM have a higher risk for developing a SBP. HbA1c values may be useful to further stratify the risk for SBP among DM patients, which may help to identify those who benefit from antibiotic prophylaxis.

Hepatogenous Diabetes: An Underestimated Problem of Liver Cirrhosis

The prevalence of diabetes mellitus in cirrhotic patients is much higher than that in the general population. Two types of diabetes are usually seen in patients with cirrhosis: type 2 diabetes mellitus and hepatogenous diabetes (HD). The HD is an acquired condition which is believed to be caused by impaired insulin clearance and pancreatic β-cell dysfunction in cirrhotic patients. Increased levels of advanced glycation end products and hypoxia-inducible factors have been implicated in the pathogenesis of HD. Patients with HD typically present with normal fasting glucose, but abnormal response to an oral glucose tolerance test, which is required for the diagnosis. Because the level of glycated hemoglobin is often falsely low in patients with cirrhosis, it does not help in the early diagnosis of HD. HD is associated with an increased rate of complications of cirrhosis, decreased 5-year survival rate, and increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. The major complications of cirrhosis associated with HD include hepatic encephalopathy (HE), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, sepsis, variceal hemorrhage, and renal dysfunction. Treatment of HD may be difficult as many antihyperglycemic therapies are associated with increased risk of complications in cirrhosis, particularly hypoglycemia. Biguanides, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, and new medications such as dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors and sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors appear to be safe in patients with cirrhosis. Though insulin therapy is currently advocated, requirement of insulin is variable and is difficult to predict. The liver transplantation usually results in reversal of HD. This review article provides an overview of magnitude, patients' characteristics, clinical implications, pathophysiological mechanisms, diagnosis, and management of HD.

A New Look at Precipitants of Overt Hepatic Encephalopathy in Cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Overt hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a major cause of significant morbidity and mortality in patients with liver cirrhosis. We examined the frequency and profile of the precipitating factors resulting in hospitalizations for overt HE.

METHODS

We conducted both retrospective and prospective studies to identify clinical precipitants of overt HE in patients with cirrhosis. The retrospective study patients were hospitalized at a large urban safety-net hospital, and the prospective study included the patients admitted at a liver transplant center.

RESULTS

There were a total of 149 patients with cirrhosis and overt HE (91 males, mean age 55.3 ± 8.6 years) in the retrospective group and 45 patients (27 males, mean age 58.3 ± 8.2 years) in the prospective group of the study. The average MELD score was 16 ± 6.8 in the retrospective group and 22.7 ± 7.2 in the prospective group. Dehydration (46-76%), acute kidney injury (32-76%), lactulose nonadherence (about 50%), constipation (about 40%), and infections (20-42%) were the most frequently identified precipitants for hospitalization in retrospective and prospective groups. Multiple precipitants were identified in 60 (40.3%) patients in the retrospective group and 34 (76%) patients in the prospective group.

CONCLUSIONS

Multiple concurrent precipitating factors were identified in the majority of patients with overt HE requiring hospitalization. Dehydration due to various causes was the most common precipitant of overt HE, followed by acute kidney injury (AKI), constipation, and infections. Prevention of dehydration, AKI, and constipation by close outpatient monitoring may be an effective measure to prevent hospitalization for overt HE in patients with cirrhosis.

Hepatogenous diabetes: Is it time to separate it from type 2 diabetes?

By definition, hepatogenous diabetes is directly caused by loss of liver function, implying that it develops after cirrhosis onset. Therefore, it should be distinguished from type 2 diabetes developing before cirrhosis onset, in which specific causes of liver disease play a major role, in addition to traditional risk factors. Currently, although hepatogenous diabetes shows distinct pathophysiological and clinical features, it is not considered as an autonomous entity. Recent evidence suggests that the failing liver exerts an independent "toxic" effect on pancreatic islets resulting in β-cell dysfunction. Moreover, patients with hepatogenous diabetes usually present with normal fasting glucose and haemoglobin A_1c levels and abnormal response to an oral glucose tolerance test, which is therefore required for diagnosis. This article discusses the need to separate hepatogenous diabetes from type 2 diabetes occurring in subjects with chronic liver disease and to identify individuals suffering from this condition for prognostic and therapeutic purposes.

Plasma Glucose Level Is Predictive of Serum Ammonia Level After Retrograde Occlusion of Portosystemic Shunts

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate predictors of reduction in ammonia levels by occlusion of portosystemic shunts (PSS) in patients with cirrhosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty-eight patients with cirrhosis (21 women, 27 men; mean age, 67.8 years) with PSS underwent balloon-occluded retrograde transvenous obliteration (BRTO) at one institution between February 2008 and June 2014. The causes of cirrhosis were hepatitis B in one case, hepatitis C in 20 cases, alcohol in 15 cases, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in eight cases, and other conditions in four cases. The Child-Pugh classes were A in 24 cases, B in 23 cases, and C in one case. The indication for BRTO was gastric varices in 40 cases and hepatic encephalopathy in eight cases. Testing was conducted before and 1 month after the procedure. Statistical analyses were performed to identify predictors of a clinically significant decline in ammonia levels after BRTO.

RESULTS

Occlusion of PSS resulted in a clinically significant decrease in ammonia levels accompanied by increased portal venous flow and improved Child-Pugh score. Univariate analyses showed that a reduction in ammonia levels due to BRTO was significantly related to lower plasma glucose levels, higher RBC counts, and higher hemoglobin concentration before the treatment. Furthermore, multivariate logistic regression identified preoperative plasma glucose level as the strongest independent predictor of a significant ammonia reduction in response to BRTO. In addition, although BRTO resulted in significantly declined ammonia levels in patients with normal glucose tolerance before the procedure, ammonia levels were not significantly decreased after shunt occlusion in patients with diabetes mellitus or impaired glucose tolerance before BRTO, according to 75-g oral glucose tolerance test results.

CONCLUSION

Preoperative plasma glucose level is a useful predictor of clinically significant ammonia reduction resulting from occlusion of PSS in patients with cirrhosis. Even if PSS are present, control of blood ammonia levels by BRTO alone may be difficult in patients with glucose intolerance.

Diabetes mellitus in patients with cirrhosis: clinical implications and management

Disorders of glucose metabolism, namely glucose intolerance and diabetes, are frequent in patients with chronic liver diseases. In patients with cirrhosis, diabetes can be either a classical type 2 diabetes mellitus or the so-called hepatogenous diabetes, i.e. a consequence of liver insufficiency and portal hypertension. This review article provides an overview of the possible pathophysiological mechanisms explaining diabetes in patients with cirrhosis. Cirrhosis is associated with portosystemic shunts as well as reduced hepatic mass, which can both impair insulin clearance by the liver, contributing to peripheral insulin resistance through insulin receptors down-regulation. Moreover, cirrhosis is associated with increased levels of advanced-glycation-end products and hypoxia-inducible-factors, which may play a role in the development of diabetes. This review also focuses on the clinical implications of diabetes in patients with cirrhosis. First, diabetes is an independent factor for poor prognosis in patients with cirrhosis. Specifically, diabetes is associated with the occurrence of major complications of cirrhosis, including ascites and renal dysfunction, hepatic encephalopathy and bacterial infections. Diabetes is also associated with an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with chronic liver diseases. Last, the management of patients with concurrent diabetes and liver disease is also addressed. Recent findings suggest a beneficial impact of metformin in patients with chronic liver diseases. Insulin is often required in patients with advanced cirrhosis. However, the favourable impact of controlling diabetes in patients with cirrhosis has not been demonstrated yet.

Hepatogenous diabetes: Is it a neglected condition in chronic liver disease?

Diabetes mellitus (DM) that occurs because of chronic liver disease (CLD) is known as hepatogenous diabetes (HD). Although the association of diabetes and liver cirrhosis was described forty years ago, it was scarcely studied for long time. Patients suffering from this condition have low frequency of risk factors of type 2 DM. Its incidence is higher in CLD of viral, alcoholic and cryptogenic etiology. Its pathophysiology relates to liver damage, pancreatic dysfunction, interactions between hepatitis C virus (HCV) and glucose metabolism mechanisms and genetic susceptibility. It associates with increased rate of liver complications and hepatocellular carcinoma, and decreased 5-year survival rate. It reduces sustained virological response in HCV infected patients. In spite of these evidences, the American Diabetes Association does not recognize HD. In addition, the impact of glucose control on clinical outcomes of patients has not been evaluated. Treatment of diabetes may be difficult due to liver insufficiency and hepatotoxicity of antidiabetic drugs. Notwithstanding, no therapeutic guidelines have been implemented up to date. In this editorial, authors discuss the reasons why they think that HD may be a neglected pathological condition and call attention to the necessity for more clinical research on different fields of this disease.

The Burden of Rehospitalization for Patients With Liver Cirrhosis

Advanced liver disease is becoming more prevalent in the United States. This increase has been attributed largely to the growing epidemic of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and an aging population infected with hepatitis C. Complications of cirrhosis are a major cause of hospital admissions and readmissions. It is important to target efforts for preventing rehospitalization toward patients with cirrhosis who are at the highest risk for readmission, such as those who have high Model for End-Stage Liver Disease scores, are at risk for fluid/electrolyte abnormalities or overt hepatic encephalopathy recurrence, and those who have comorbid conditions (e.g. diabetes). The heart failure management paradigm may provide valuable insights for managing patients with cirrhosis, given the extensive research on preventing hospital readmission and improving health care utilization in this subpopulation. As quality measures related to hospital readmissions for cirrhosis and its complications are adopted by the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services and private payers in the future, understanding drivers of hospital readmissions and health care utilization in this vulnerable population are key to improving quality measure performance.

Diabetes as a risk factor for hepatic encephalopathy in cirrhosis patients

BACKGROUND & AIMS

It remains unclear whether diabetes increases the risk for hepatic encephalopathy (HE) in cirrhotic patients. We examined this question using data from three randomized trials of satavaptan, a vasopressin receptor antagonist that does not affect HE risk, in cirrhotic patients with ascites.

METHODS

The trials included 1198 patients, and we excluded those with HE before or at randomization and followed the remaining patients for the one year duration of the trials. They were examined for HE regularly, and we compared rates of first-time overt HE between diabetics and non-diabetic patients using Cox regression, adjusting for gender, age, ascites severity, cirrhosis etiology, Child-Pugh class, creatinine, bilirubin, INR, sodium, potassium, albumin, platelets, lactulose use, benzodiazepine/barbiturate use, spironolactone dose, furosemide dose, potassium-sparing diuretic dose, and CirCom comorbidity score.

RESULTS

We included 862 patients of whom 193 (22%) had diabetes. In total, they experienced 115 first-time episodes of overt HE during the follow-up. Fewer diabetics than non-diabetic patients were in Child-Pugh class C at baseline (13% vs. 23%), yet they had higher cumulative risk of first-time overt HE (26.0% vs. 15.8% after 1 year), and their episodes of first-time overt HE were more likely to progress beyond grade 2 (64% vs. 42% of episodes progressed to grade 3 or 4, p=0.01 for independence between diabetes and highest HE grade). After the confounder adjustment, the hazard ratio of first-time overt HE for diabetics vs. non-diabetic patients was 1.86 (95% CI 1.20-2.87).

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetes increased the risk of first-time overt HE among cirrhotic patients with ascites.

Influence of gastrointestinal factors on glucose metabolism in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND AIM

The impaired glucose tolerance in cirrhosis is poorly understood. We evaluated the influence of gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal and incretin effect in patients with cirrhosis.

METHODS

Non-diabetic patients with Child-Pugh A or B cirrhosis (n = 10) and matched healthy controls (n = 10) underwent a 50-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) and an isoglycemic intravenous glucose infusion. We presented data as median ± interquartile range and compared groups using non-parametric analysis of variance.

RESULTS

Patients with cirrhosis were glucose intolerant compared with healthy controls (4-h OGTTAUC : 609 ± 458 vs 180 ± 155 min × mmol/L; P = 0.005), insulin resistant (homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance: 3.7 ± 4.9 vs 2.6 ± 1.4; P = 0.014) and had fasting hyperglucagonemia (8 ± 3 vs 3 ± 4 pmol/L; P = 0.027). Isoglycemia was achieved using 35 ± 12 g of intravenous glucose in patients with cirrhosis compared with 24 ± 10 g in healthy controls (P = 0.003). The gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal was markedly lower in patients with cirrhosis (30 ± 23 vs 52 ± 20%; P = 0.003). Despite higher levels of the incretin hormones glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide patients with cirrhosis had reduced incretin effect (35 ± 44 vs 55 ± 30%; P = 0.008).

CONCLUSION

Impaired gastrointestinal-mediated glucose disposal and reduced incretin effect may contribute to the glucose intolerance seen in patients with cirrhosis.

Diabetes increases renovascular impedance in patients with liver cirrhosis

Renal failure is a common complication of cirrhosis and is associated with poor prognosis. Several reports have demonstrated the clinical utility of renal resistive indices in the assessment of renal function in cirrhosis patients. It is unknown whether the occurrence of diabetes affects renal haemodynamic indices in patients with cirrhosis. Therefore, the aim of our study was to compare renal Doppler indices in cirrhotic patients with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and in diabetics without cirrhosis, and to relate the Doppler parameters to albuminuria. We evaluated 89 consecutive patients with normal renal functioning, including 37 with cirrhosis and T2DM (CD-Group), 41 with cirrhosis without diabetes (C-Group) and 11 with diabetes without cirrhosis (D-Group). The kidney pulsatility index (PI) and resistance index (RI) were measured by Doppler ultrasound. Renal function was expressed as the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) using the modification of diet in renal disease (MDRD) formula. Microalbuminuria (µAlb) was also evaluated. No significant differences were observed with respect to age, the Child-Pugh class or the serum creatinine level. The eGFR was mildly reduced in the CD-Group compared with the C-Group and D-Group, and µAlb was present in 24.4 % of the patients in the CD-Group and in 9 % of those in the D-Group. The PI and RI were significantly increased in the CD-Group and D-Group compared with the C-Group. Both the PI and RI were significantly associated with µAlb independent of age and Child-Pugh class. The novel finding of this study was that T2DM potentially impairs renal haemodynamics in patients with cirrhosis.

Burden of decompensated cirrhosis and ascites on hospital services in a tertiary care facility: time for change?

BACKGROUND

Ascites, the most frequent complication of cirrhosis, is associated with poor prognosis and reduced quality of life. Recurrent hospital admissions are common and often unplanned, resulting in increased use of hospital services.

AIMS

To examine use of hospital services by patients with cirrhosis and ascites requiring paracentesis, and to investigate factors associated with early unplanned readmission.

METHODS

A retrospective review of the medical chart and clinical databases was performed for patients who underwent paracentesis between October 2011 and October 2012. Clinical parameters at index admission were compared between patients with and without early unplanned hospital readmissions.

RESULTS

The 41 patients requiring paracentesis had 127 hospital admissions, 1164 occupied bed days and 733 medical imaging services. Most admissions (80.3%) were for management of ascites, of which 41.2% were unplanned. Of those eligible, 69.7% were readmitted and 42.4% had an early unplanned readmission. Twelve patients died and nine developed spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. Of those eligible for readmission, more patients died (P = 0.008) and/or developed spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (P = 0.027) if they had an early unplanned readmission during the study period. Markers of liver disease, as well as haemoglobin (P = 0.029), haematocrit (P = 0.024) and previous heavy alcohol use (P = 0.021) at index admission, were associated with early unplanned readmission.

CONCLUSION

Patients with cirrhosis and ascites comprise a small population who account for substantial use of hospital services. Markers of disease severity may identify patients at increased risk of early readmission. Alternative models of care should be considered to reduce unplanned hospital admissions, healthcare costs and pressure on emergency services.

Hepatic encephalopathy in patients with acute decompensation of cirrhosis and acute-on-chronic liver failure

Hepatic encephalopathy in a hospitalized cirrhotic patient is associated with a high mortality rate and its presence adds further to the mortality of patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF). The exact pathophysiological mechanisms of HE in this group of patients are unclear but hyperammonemia, systemic inflammation (including sepsis, bacterial translocation, and insulin resistance) and oxidative stress, modulated by glutaminase gene alteration, remain as key factors. Moreover, alcohol misuse, hyponatremia, renal insufficiency, and microbiota are actively explored. HE diagnosis requires exclusion of other causes of neurological, metabolic and psychiatric dysfunction. Hospitalization in the ICU should be considered in every patient with overt HE, but particularly if this is associated with ACLF. Precipitating factors should be identified and treated as required. Evidence-based specific management options are limited to bowel cleansing and non-absorbable antibiotics. Ammonia lowering drugs, such as glycerol phenylbutyrate and ornithine phenylacetate show promise but are still in clinical trials. Albumin dialysis may be useful in refractory cases. Antibiotics, prebiotics, and treatment of diabetes reduce systemic inflammation. Where possible and not contraindicated, large portal-systemic shunts may be embolized but liver transplantation is the most definitive step in the management of HE in this setting. HE in patients with ACLF appears to be clinically and pathophysiologically distinct from that of acute decompensation and requires further studies and characterization.

Diabetes mellitus is an independent prognostic factor for major liver-related outcomes in patients with cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis C

In patients with chronic hepatitis C (CHC), cirrhosis is associated with age, gender, diabetes, alcohol abuse, and coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or hepatitis B virus (HBV). The effect of these factors on the outcome of cirrhosis is unknown. This study in CHC patients with cirrhosis aimed to assess the influence of these factors on decompensation, liver transplantation, and death. Consecutive patients with CHC and cirrhosis hospitalized between January 1, 2006 and December 31, 2008 were followed up until death, transplantation, or study closure in March 2013. Gender, age, Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score, diabetes, alcohol abuse, HIV, or HBV coinfection were collected at inclusion. The complications of cirrhosis, death, and liver transplantation were recorded at inclusion and during follow-up. The association between baseline factors and liver-related outcomes at inclusion and during follow-up were tested using logistic regression and Cox's model, respectively. A total of 348 patients with CHC and cirrhosis (68% men; median age: 59 years; median MELD: 10) were included. At baseline, 40% of the patients had diabetes, 29% alcohol abuse, and 6% HIV or HBV coinfection. Baseline MELD≥10 (P<0.001), diabetes (P=0.027), and HBV coinfection (P=0.001) were independently associated with transplantation-free survival. Baseline diabetes was independently associated with ascites (P=0.05), bacterial infections (P=0.001), and encephalopathy (P<0.001) at inclusion. Baseline diabetes was independently associated with development of ascites (P=0.057), renal dysfunction (P=0.004), bacterial infections (P=0.007), and hepatocellular carcinoma (P=0.016) during the follow-up.

CONCLUSION

In patients with CHC and cirrhosis, diabetes is an independent prognostic factor. Improving diabetes control may improve the outcome of cirrhosis.

Diabetes mellitus and decompensated cirrhosis: risk of hepatic encephalopathy in different age groups

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to examine the association of diabetes mellitus (DM) with the prevalence and severity of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) in patients with decompensated cirrhosis (DC) and determine the impact of age and gender on this relationship.

METHODS

West Haven criteria was used to prospectively evaluate 352 consecutive patients with DC for the presence of HE. Detailed clinicobiochemical profiling of patients was performed. Categorical data and ordered categorical variables were evaluated using the Chi-squared test for independence and trend, respectively. Continuous normal and non-parametric data were evaluated using the t-test and Mann-Whitney U-test, respectively.

RESULTS

At the time of admission, HE was present in 50.3% of patients. In all, 118 patients had DM (33.5%). Patients with DM had a significantly higher prevalence (58.5% vs 42.6%; P = 0.03) and severity of HE (P(trend) = 0.01) than patients without DM. However, there were no significant differences between the two groups in terms of Child-Pugh class, MELD scores, the presence of ascites and esophageal varices. Patients with DM had higher platelet counts than those without DM (P(trend) = 0.003). In age and gender subgroup analyses, older patients and men with DM had significantly greater evidence of HE (P = 0.02 and 0.03, respectively). Multivariate analysis showed that DM (P = 0.03) and older age (P = 0.006) were independently related to HE, whereas the association of gender was non-significant.

CONCLUSION

Both DM and older age are independently associated with HE in patients with cirrhosis.

Role of diabetes mellitus on hepatic encephalopathy

Hepatic encephalopathy is the main cognitive dysfunction in cirrhotic patients associated with impaired prognosis. Hyperammonemia plus inflammatory response do play a crucial role on hepatic encephalopathy. However, in some patients HE appeared without hyperammonemia and patients with increased levels of ammonia could not show cognitive dysfunction. This has led to investigate other factors that could act in a synergistic way. Diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance are characterized by releasing and enhancing these pro-inflammatory cytokines and, additionally, has been related to hepatic encephalopathy. Indeed, patients with diabetes showed raised risk of over hepatic encephalopathy in comparison with non-cirrhotics. Type 2 diabetes mellitus could impair hepatic encephalopathy by different mechanisms that include: a) increasing glutaminase activity; b) impairing gut motility and promoting constipation, intestinal bacterial overgrowth and bacterial translocation. Despite of insufficient clarity about the practicability of anti-diabetic therapy and the most efficacious therapy, we would have to pay a special attention to the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus and insulin resistance in cirrhotic patients.

Hepatic encephalopathy is related to anemia and fat-free mass depletion in liver transplant candidates with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND

Although muscle wasting may lead to decreased ammonia detoxification in cirrhosis, the potential role of lean mass depletion in hepatic encephalopathy (HE) has not been explored. Anemia, hormonal abnormalities, and psychological distress may contribute to cognitive dysfunction, but data on their potential relation to HE are limited.

METHODS

Data on 108 cirrhotic liver transplant candidates enrolled in a prospective study on fatigue were retrospectively analyzed. HE was assessed clinically and with the number connection tests (NCT) A and B. Psychosocial distress was assessed with a validated questionnaire. Fasting serum glucose, insulin, ammonia, and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) were measured. Fat and fat-free mass was evaluated with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Serum cortisol, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone, thyroid function tests, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were measured in a subgroup of 80 patients.

RESULTS

A total of 28% of patients had (overt or minimal) HE. Anemia was present in 59%, diabetes in 29%, renal impairment in 16%, and fat-free mass depletion in 14%. In multivariate analysis, fat-free mass depletion was an independent predictor of HE and NCT-A; renal impairment of NCT-A and -B; and anemia of NCT-B (p < 0.05 for all). HE was also independently related to international normalized ratio and TNF-α (p < 0.05 for both), but not to other hormonal abnormalities or psychological distress. Plasma ammonia was independently associated to anemia (beta = 15.24, p = 0.049), fasting insulin (beta = 0.26, p < 0.05), and GFR (beta = -0.43, p = 0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

Anemia and fat-free mass depletion are predictors of HE in cirrhotic liver transplant candidates along with liver failure, renal impairment, and systemic inflammation.

Risk factors for frequent readmissions and barriers to transplantation in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND

Hospital readmission rate is receiving increasing regulatory scrutiny. Patients with cirrhosis have high hospital readmissions rates but the relationship between frequent readmissions and barriers to transplantation remains unexplored. The goal of this study was to determine risk factors for frequent readmissions among patients with cirrhosis and identify barriers to transplantation in this population.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed medical records of 587 patients with a confirmed diagnosis of cirrhosis admitted to a large tertiary care center between May 1, 2008 and May 1, 2009. Demographics, clinical factors, and outcomes were recorded. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to identify risk factors for high readmission rates. Transplant-related factors were assessed for patients in the high readmission group.

RESULTS

The 587 patients included in the study had 1557 admissions during the study period. A subset of 87 (15%) patients with 5 or more admissions accounted for 672 (43%) admissions. The factors associated with frequent admissions were non-white race (OR = 2.45, p = 0.01), diabetes (OR = 2.04, p = 0.01), higher Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score (OR = 35.10, p<0.0001 for MELD>30) and younger age (OR = 0.98, p = 0.02). Among the 87 patients with ≥5 admissions, only 14 (16%) underwent liver transplantation during the study period. Substance abuse, medical co-morbidities, and low (<15) MELD scores were barriers to transplantation in this group.

CONCLUSIONS

A small group of patients with cirrhosis account for a disproportionately high number of hospital admissions. Interventions targeting this high-risk group may decrease frequent hospital readmissions and increase access to transplantation.

Metformin inhibits glutaminase activity and protects against hepatic encephalopathy

AIM

To investigate the influence of metformin use on liver dysfunction and hepatic encephalopathy in a retrospective cohort of diabetic cirrhotic patients. To analyze the impact of metformin on glutaminase activity and ammonia production in vitro.

METHODS

Eighty-two cirrhotic patients with type 2 diabetes were included. Forty-one patients were classified as insulin sensitizers experienced (metformin) and 41 as controls (cirrhotic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus without metformin treatment). Baseline analysis included: insulin, glucose, glucagon, leptin, adiponectin, TNFr2, AST, ALT. HOMA-IR was calculated. Baseline HE risk was calculated according to minimal hepatic encephalopathy, oral glutamine challenge and mutations in glutaminase gene. We performed an experimental study in vitro including an enzymatic activity assay where glutaminase inhibition was measured according to different metformin concentrations. In Caco2 cells, glutaminase activity inhibition was evaluated by ammonia production at 24, 48 and 72 hours after metformina treatment.

RESULTS

Hepatic encephalopathy was diagnosed during follow-up in 23.2% (19/82): 4.9% (2/41) in patients receiving metformin and 41.5% (17/41) in patients without metformin treatment (logRank 9.81; p=0.002). In multivariate analysis, metformin use [H.R.11.4 (95% CI: 1.2-108.8); p=0.034], age at diagnosis [H.R.1.12 (95% CI: 1.04-1.2); p=0.002], female sex [H.R.10.4 (95% CI: 1.5-71.6); p=0.017] and HE risk [H.R.21.3 (95% CI: 2.8-163.4); p=0.003] were found independently associated with hepatic encephalopathy. In the enzymatic assay, glutaminase activity inhibition reached 68% with metformin 100 mM. In Caco2 cells, metformin (20 mM) decreased glutaminase activity up to 24% at 72 hours post-treatment (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Metformin was found independently related to overt hepatic encephalopathy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and high risk of hepatic encephalopathy. Metformin inhibits glutaminase activity in vitro. Therefore, metformin use seems to be protective against hepatic encephalopathy in diabetic cirrhotic patients.

[Chronic hepatitis C and insulin resistance]

Insulin resistance is frequently associated with chronic liver disease, and the interaction between hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection and insulin resistance is a major public health issue, bound to increase in the near term. Because of their potential synergism on liver disease severity, a better understanding of the clinical consequences of the relationship between HCV infection and insulin resistance is needed. This translates into accelerated liver disease progression, reduced response to anti-viral agents and, in susceptible individuals, increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes. HCV may also cause hepatic steatosis, especially in patients infected with genotype 3, although the clinical impact of viral steatosis is debated. Little is known regarding the effect of anti-diabetic agents on HCV infection, and a possible association between use of exogenous insulin or a sulfonylurea agents and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma has recently been reported. Thus, modified lifestyle and pharmacological modalities are urgently warranted in chronic hepatitis C with metabolic alterations.

Metabolic alterations and chronic hepatitis C: treatment strategies

INTRODUCTION

Chronic hepatitis C (HCV) infection is considered a metabolic disease. It is associated with a specific metabolic syndrome, HCV-associated dysmetabolic syndrome (HCADS), consisting of steatosis, hypocholesterolemia and insulin resistance/diabetes. These metabolic derangements contribute to a decrease in sustained virological response (SVR) to pegylated-interferon-α-ribavirin as standard of care (SOC), and are associated with progression of liver fibrosis.

AREAS COVERED

The review, highlighting the impact of HCADS and metabolic syndrome components of HCV disease progression and SOC, discusses current knowledge and perspectives on metabolic therapeutic strategies aimed at improving SVR rate of SOC for chronic hepatitis C.

EXPERT OPINION

HCV, features of HCADS and of metabolic syndrome may coexist in the same patient, thus all components of the metabolic syndrome must be assessed to individualize treatment. The results of therapeutic trials evaluating metabolic strategies combined with current SOC indicate that weight loss is a critical part of treatment which will improve both disease outcome and therapeutic response to SOC. Similarly, statins seem to improve response rate to SOC representing, once confirmed to be safe, an important therapeutic tool for HCV-infected patients. Findings from studies using insulin sensitizers combined with SOC are not conclusive and do not justify the use of this class of drugs in clinical practice.

Hepatitis C and diabetes: the inevitable coincidence?

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) and HCV infection are common conditions involving, respectively, at least 170 and 130 million people worldwide. However, the distribution of such cases does not overlap in the same age groups in different geographic areas. Following pioneering reports of increased prevalence of T2D in HCV-positive cirrhosis, interest concerning the relationship between HCV and T2D has escalated. HCV is able to induce insulin resistance (IR) directly and the role of specific viral genotypes responsible for such effect is disputed. IR has consistently been found to be closely linked to fibrosis in HCV infection, although also typically associated with T2D in prefibrotic stages. HCV infection could be associated with a reduced prevalence of metabolic syndrome owing to virus-associated reduction in BMI (reported in population but not clinical studies) and hypobetaliproteinemia. A three- to ten-fold increased risk of HCV infection was reported among diabetic patients in comparison with different control groups and a meta-analysis showed a 1.8-fold excess risk of T2D among HCV-positive compared with HBV-positive patients. Moreover, HCV positivity is associated with an increased risk of T2D in patients receiving liver or kidney transplantations. T2D and IR are independent predictors of a more rapid progression of liver fibrosis and impaired response to antiviral treatment in chronic hepatitis C. Patients with cirrhosis and T2D have an increased susceptibility to hepatic encephalopathy and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the beneficial effects of antiviral treatment on IR and T2D are controversial. Theoretically, glycemic control in chronic hepatitis C, and particularly in cirrhotic patients, could improve the prognosis and the response to antivirals, although the evidence for this is limited. Future studies should elucidate the relationship between insulin signaling, HCV and interferon signaling, entity of cardiovascular risk in patients with HCV infection, the potential role of 'metabolic' strategies added to antiviral treatment schedules, the impact of IR on liver failure, portal hypertension and HCC, particularly in patients managed in a transplant setting.

Type and etiology of liver cirrhosis are not related to the presence of hepatic encephalopathy or health-related quality of life: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Hepatic encephalopathy has a negative impact on health-related quality of life (QoL) in liver cirrhosis. There are scarce and conflicting data on whether type or etiology of liver cirrhosis could be related to hepatic encephalopathy in patients with cirrhosis. We aimed to determine the impact of cirrhosis etiology on hepatic encephalopathy and whether hepatic encephalopathy affects health-related QoL among patients with cirrhosis of different etiologies.

METHODS

A total of 156 cirrhotic patients were prospectively evaluated for the presence of hepatic encephalopathy according to the West-Haven criteria as well as by means of two psychometric tests. Patients with cryptogenic cirrhosis or cirrhosis due to mixed hepatocellular/cholestatic etiologies were excluded. Fasting plasma glucose levels were also measured. QoL was evaluated by means of a validated questionnaire (SF-36).

RESULTS

Diabetes mellitus was more common in patients with hepatocellular cirrhosis compared to those with cholestatic cirrhosis but the two groups did not differ in cirrhosis severity or the prevalence of hepatic encephalopathy (p > 0.05). The groups of patients with cirrhosis due to alcohol, hepatitis C, or cholestatic liver disease did not differ in severity of liver cirrhosis or the prevalence of hepatic encephalopathy (p > 0.05). Patients with cirrhosis of different etiologies did not differ in any SF-36 domain (p > 0.05). In multivariate analysis, performance at neuropsychological testing was independently related only to age, diabetes mellitus, and the Child-Pugh score whereas the SF-36 physical component summary only to the Child-Pugh score and hepatic encephalopathy.

CONCLUSION

Cirrhosis etiology does not seem to be related to hepatic encephalopathy or health-related QoL. Cognitive impairment is associated mainly with age, liver disease severity and diabetes mellitus.

Minimal hepatic encephalopathy matters in daily life

Minimal hepatic encephalopathy is a neuro-cognitive dysfunction which occurs in an epidemic proportion of cirrhotic patients, estimated as high as 80% of the population tested. It is characterized by a specific, complex cognitive dysfunction which is independent of sleep dysfunction or problems with overall intelligence. Although named “minimal”, minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE) can have a far-reaching impact on quality of life, ability to function in daily life and progression to overt hepatic encephalopathy. Importantly, MHE has a profound negative impact on the ability to drive a car and may be a significant factor behind motor vehicle accidents. A crucial aspect of the clinical care of MHE patients is their driving history, which is often ignored in routine care and can add a vital dimension to the overall disease assessment. Driving history should be an integral part of care in patients with MHE. The lack of specific signs and symptoms, the preserved communication skills and lack of insight make MHE a difficult condition to diagnose. Diagnostic strategies for MHE abound, but are usually limited by financial, normative or time constraints. Recent studies into the inhibitory control and critical flicker frequency tests are encouraging since these tests can increase the rates of MHE diagnosis without requiring a psychologist. Although testing for MHE and subsequent therapy is not standard of care at this time, it is important to consider this in cirrhotics in order to improve their ability to live their life to the fullest.

Hepatic encephalopathy in patients with liver cirrhosis: Is there a role of malnutrition?

Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a common complication in patients with liver cirrhosis but its pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. Malnutrition is commonly encountered in patients with liver cirrhosis and it has been reported to affect the quality of life of this group of patients. Experimental studies suggest that low energy intake and poor nutritional status may facilitate the development of HE but there are scarce data on the potential role of malnutrition in HE in patients with liver cirrhosis. Two recently published studies have evaluated the potential role of malnutrition in the development of HE in cirrhotic patients with conflicting results. In this letter to the editor we briefly present the results of the two studies as well as potential reasons for the conflicting results reported.

Therapeutic studies in hepatic encephalopathy

This article has arisen from presentations made at the 4th International Hannover Conference on Hepatic Encephalopathy held in Dresden, 2006. Each author as listed describes their presentation given as part of a section entitled "Therapeutic Studies in Hepatic Encephalopathy." The first section deals with the justification for placebo-controlled trials in hepatic encephalopathy. The other two sections discuss, in detail, outcome parameters for therapeutic studies in the clinical and research setting, respectively.

Malnutrition and diabetes mellitus are related to hepatic encephalopathy in patients with liver cirrhosis

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Studies on animal models of hepatic encephalopathy (HE) suggest that poor nutritional status may facilitate the development of HE. Insulin resistance and diabetes mellitus have recently been reported to affect cognition in patients with hepatitis C cirrhosis awaiting liver transplantation. Our aim was to investigate the effects of malnutrition and diabetes mellitus on HE in unselected patients with liver cirrhosis.

METHODS

A total of 128 consecutive cirrhotic patients were prospectively evaluated for the presence of HE according to the West-Haven criteria as well as by means of two psychometric tests and fasting plasma ammonium ion concentrations. Nutritional status was assessed by anthropometry and estimation of recent weight change. Fasting plasma glucose was measured, and in a subgroup of 84 patients fasting serum insulin and insulin resistance were also determined.

RESULTS

Fifty-one (40%) cirrhotics were malnourished, 33 (26%) had diabetes and 42 (34%) had HE. Patients with vs. without malnutrition had more frequently HE (46 vs. 27%; P=0.031) but did not differ in age, aetiology or severity of liver cirrhosis (P>0.1). Multivariate analysis showed that the time needed to perform number connection test A was independently correlated to age, the Child-Pugh score, diabetes and malnutrition (P<0.05 for all). Plasma ammonium ion levels were related to insulin resistance (r=0.42, P<0.001) and muscle mass (r=0.28, P=0.003).

CONCLUSION

Malnutrition and diabetes mellitus seem to be related to HE in patients with liver cirrhosis. Nutritional status and insulin resistance might be implicated in the pathogenesis of HE.