The Kinetics of Phagosome Maturation as a Function of Phagosome/Lysosome Fusion and Acquisition of Hydrolytic Activity

Phagocytic Plasma Cells in Teleost Fish Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of B Cells in Vertebrates

Teleost IgM+ B cells can phagocytose, like mammalian B1 cells, and secrete Ag-specific IgM, like mammalian B2 cells. Therefore, teleost IgM+ B cells may have the functions of both mammalian B1 and B2 cells. To support this view, we initially found that grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) IgM+ plasma cells (PCs) exhibit robust phagocytic ability, akin to IgM+ naive B cells. Subsequently, we sorted grass carp IgM+ PCs into two subpopulations: nonphagocytic (Pha-IgM+ PCs) and phagocytic IgM+ PCs (Pha+IgM+ PCs), both of which demonstrated the capacity to secrete natural IgM with LPS and peptidoglycan binding capacity. Remarkably, following immunization of grass carp with an Ag, we observed that both Pha-IgM+ PCs and Pha+IgM+ PCs could secrete Ag-specific IgM. Furthermore, in vitro concatenated phagocytosis experiments in which Pha-IgM+ PCs from an initial phagocytosis experiment were sorted and exposed again to beads confirmed that these cells also have phagocytic capabilities, thereby suggesting that all teleost IgM+ B cells have phagocytic potential. Additionally, we found that grass carp IgM+ PCs display classical phenotypic features of macrophages, providing support for the hypothesis that vertebrate B cells evolved from ancient phagocytes. These findings together reveal that teleost B cells are a primitive B cell type with functions reminiscent of both mammalian B1 and B2 cells, providing insights into the origin and evolution of B cells in vertebrates.

Two-pore channels regulate endomembrane tension to enable remodeling and resolution of phagolysosomes

Phagocytes promptly resolve ingested targets to replenish lysosomes and maintain their responsiveness. The resolution process requires that degradative hydrolases, solute transporters, and proteins involved in lipid traffic are delivered and made active in phagolysosomes. It also involves extensive membrane remodeling. We report that cation channels that localize to phagolysosomes were essential for resolution. Specifically, the conductance of Na+ by two-pore channels (TPCs) and the presence of a Na+ gradient between the phagolysosome lumen and the cytosol were critical for the controlled release of membrane tension that permits deformation of the limiting phagolysosome membrane. In turn, membrane deformation was a necessary step to efficiently transport the cholesterol extracted from cellular targets, permeabilizing them to hydrolases. These results place TPCs as regulators of endomembrane remodeling events that precede target degradation in cases when the target is bound by a cholesterol-containing membrane. The findings may help to explain lipid metabolism dysfunction and autophagic flux impairment reported in TPC KO mice and establish stepwise regulation to the resolution process that begins with lysis of the target.

Propulsive cell entry diverts pathogens from immune degradation by remodeling the phagocytic synapse

Phagocytosis is a critical immune function for infection control and tissue homeostasis. During phagocytosis, pathogens are internalized and degraded in phagolysosomes. For pathogens that evade immune degradation, the prevailing view is that virulence factors are required to disrupt the biogenesis of phagolysosomes. In contrast, we present here that physical forces from motile pathogens during cell entry divert them away from the canonical degradative pathway. This altered fate begins with the force-induced remodeling of the phagocytic synapse formation. We used the parasite Toxoplasma gondii as a model because live Toxoplasma actively invades host cells using gliding motility. To differentiate the effects of physical forces from virulence factors in phagocytosis, we employed magnetic forces to induce propulsive entry of inactivated Toxoplasma into macrophages. Experiments and computer simulations show that large propulsive forces hinder productive activation of receptors by preventing their spatial segregation from phosphatases at the phagocytic synapse. Consequently, the inactivated parasites are engulfed into vacuoles that fail to mature into degradative units, similar to the live motile parasite's intracellular pathway. Using yeast cells and opsonized beads, we confirmed that this mechanism is general, not specific to the parasite used. These results reveal new aspects of immune evasion by demonstrating how physical forces during active cell entry, independent of virulence factors, enable pathogens to circumvent phagolysosomal degradation.

MtrA modulates Mycobacterium tuberculosis cell division in host microenvironments to mediate intrinsic resistance and drug tolerance

The success of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is largely attributed to its ability to physiologically adapt and withstand diverse localized stresses within host microenvironments. Here, we present a data-driven model (EGRIN 2.0) that captures the dynamic interplay of environmental cues and genome-encoded regulatory programs in Mtb. Analysis of EGRIN 2.0 shows how modulation of the MtrAB two-component signaling system tunes Mtb growth in response to related host microenvironmental cues. Disruption of MtrAB by tunable CRISPR interference confirms that the signaling system regulates multiple peptidoglycan hydrolases, among other targets, that are important for cell division. Further, MtrA decreases the effectiveness of antibiotics by mechanisms of both intrinsic resistance and drug tolerance. Together, the model-enabled dissection of complex MtrA regulation highlights its importance as a drug target and illustrates how EGRIN 2.0 facilitates discovery and mechanistic characterization of Mtb adaptation to specific host microenvironments within the host.

Bi-functional particles for real-time phagosome acidification and proteolysis multiplex assay in macrophages

Phagosome acidification and proteolysis are essential processes in the immune response to contain and eliminate pathogens. In recent years, there has been an increased desire for a rapid and accurate method of assessing these processes in real-time. Here, we outline the development of a multiplexed assay that allows simultaneous monitoring of phagosome acidification and proteolysis in the same sample using silica beads conjugated to pHrodo and DQ BSA. We describe in detail how to prepare the bi-functional particles and show proof of concept using differentially activated macrophages. This multiplexed spectrophotometric assay allows rapid and accurate assessment of phagosome acidification and proteolysis in real-time and could provide valuable information for understanding the immune response to pathogen invasion.

α-Hemolysin promotes uropathogenic E. coli persistence in Bladder epithelial cells Via abrogating bacteria-harboring lysosome acidification

There is a growing consensus that a significant proportion of recurrent urinary tract infections are linked to the persistence of uropathogens within the urinary tract and their re-emergence upon the conclusion of antibiotic treatment. Studies in mice and human have revealed that uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) can persist in bladder epithelial cells (BECs) even after the apparent resolution of the infection. Here, we found that, following the entry of UPEC into RAB27b+ fusiform vesicles in BECs, some bacteria escaped into the cytoplasmic compartment via a mechanism involving hemolysin A (HlyA). However, these UPEC were immediately recaptured within LC3A/B+ autophagosomes that matured into LAMP1+ autolysosomes. Thereafter, HlyA+ UPEC-containing lysosomes failed to acidify, which is an essential step for bacterial elimination. This lack of acidification was related to the inability of bacteria-harboring compartments to recruit V-ATPase proton pumps, which was attributed to the defragmentation of cytosolic microtubules by HlyA. The persistence of UPEC within LAMP1+ compartments in BECs appears to be directly linked to HlyA. Thus, through intravesicular instillation of microtubule stabilizer, this host defense response can be co-opted to reduce intracellular bacterial burden following UTIs in the bladder potentially preventing recurrence.

Propulsive cell entry diverts pathogens from immune degradation by remodeling the phagocytic synapse

Phagocytosis is a critical immune function for infection control and tissue homeostasis. This process is typically described as non-moving pathogens being internalized and degraded in phagolysosomes. For pathogens that evade immune degradation, the prevailing view is that virulence factors that biochemically disrupt the biogenesis of phagoslysosomes are required. In contrast, here we report that physical forces exerted by pathogens during cell entry divert them away from the canonical phagolysosomal degradation pathway, and this altered intracellular fate is determined at the time of phagocytic synapse formation. We used the eukaryotic parasite Toxoplasma gondii as a model because live Toxoplasma uses gliding motility to actively invade into host cells. To differentiate the effect of physical forces from that of virulence factors in phagocytosis, we developed a strategy that used magnetic forces to induce propulsive entry of inactivated Toxoplasma into macrophage cells. Experiments and computer simulations collectively reveal that large propulsive forces suppress productive activation of receptors by hindering their spatial segregation from phosphatases at the phagocytic synapse. Consequently, the inactivated parasites, instead of being degraded in phagolysosomes, are engulfed into vacuoles that fail to mature into degradative units, following an intracellular pathway strikingly similar to that of the live motile parasite. Using opsonized beads, we further confirmed that this mechanism is general, not specific to the parasite used. These results reveal previously unknown aspects of immune evasion by demonstrating how physical forces exerted during active cell entry, independent of virulence factors, can help pathogens circumvent phagolysosomal degradation.

A terpene nucleoside from M. tuberculosis induces lysosomal lipid storage in foamy macrophages

Induction of lipid-laden foamy macrophages is a cellular hallmark of tuberculosis (TB) disease, which involves the transformation of infected phagolysosomes from a site of killing into a nutrient-rich replicative niche. Here, we show that a terpenyl nucleoside shed from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 1-tuberculosinyladenosine (1-TbAd), caused lysosomal maturation arrest and autophagy blockade, leading to lipid storage in M1 macrophages. Pure 1-TbAd, or infection with terpenyl nucleoside-producing M. tuberculosis, caused intralysosomal and peribacillary lipid storage patterns that matched both the molecules and subcellular locations known in foamy macrophages. Lipidomics showed that 1-TbAd induced storage of triacylglycerides and cholesterylesters and that 1-TbAd increased M. tuberculosis growth under conditions of restricted lipid access in macrophages. Furthermore, lipidomics identified 1-TbAd-induced lipid substrates that define Gaucher's disease, Wolman's disease, and other inborn lysosomal storage diseases. These data identify genetic and molecular causes of M. tuberculosis-induced lysosomal failure, leading to successful testing of an agonist of TRPML1 calcium channels that reverses lipid storage in cells. These data establish the host-directed cellular functions of an orphan effector molecule that promotes survival in macrophages, providing both an upstream cause and detailed picture of lysosome failure in foamy macrophages.

EphH, a unique epoxide hydrolase encoded by Rv3338 is involved in the survival of Mycobacterium tuberculosis under in vitro stress and vacuolar pH-induced changes

Introduction

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), one of the deadliest human pathogen, has evolved with different strategies of survival inside the host, leading to a chronic state of infection. Phagosomally residing Mtb encounters a variety of stresses, including increasing acidic pH. To better understand the host-pathogen interaction, it is imperative to identify the role of various genes involved in the survivability of Mtb during acidic pH environment.

Methods

Bio-informatic and enzymatic analysis were used to identify Mtb gene, Rv3338, as epoxide hydrolase. Subsequently, CRISPRi knockdown strategy was used to decipher its role for Mtb survival during acidic stress, nutrient starvation and inside macrophages. Confocal microscopy was used to analyse its role in subverting phagosomal acidification within macrophage.

Results

The present work describes the characterization of Rv3338 which was previously known to be associated with the aprABC locus induced while encountering acidic stress within the macrophage. Bio-informatic analysis demonstrated its similarity to epoxide hydrolase, which was confirmed by enzymatic assays, thus, renamed EphH. Subsequently, we have deciphered its indispensable role for Mtb in protection from acidic stress by using the CRISPRi knockdown strategy. Our data demonstrated the pH dependent role of EphH for the survival of Mtb during nutrient starvation and in conferring resistance against elevated endogenous ROS levels during stress environment.

Conclusion

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of an EH of Mtb as a crucial protein for bacterial fitness inside the host, a phenomenon central to its pathogenesis.

Filamentous Bacteria as Targets to Study Phagocytosis

Filamentous targets are internalized via phagocytic cups that last for several minutes before closing to form a phagosome. This characteristic offers the possibility to study key events in phagocytosis with greater spatial and temporal resolution than is possible to achieve using spherical particles, for which the transition from a phagocytic cup to an enclosed phagosome occurs within a few seconds after particle attachment. In this chapter, we provide methodologies to prepare filamentous bacteria and describe how they can be used as targets to study different aspects of phagocytosis.

Hox-driven conditional immortalization of myeloid and lymphoid progenitors: Uses, advantages, and future potential

Those who study macrophage biology struggle with the decision whether to utilize primary macrophages derived directly from mice or opt for the convenience and genetic tractability of immortalized macrophage-like cell lines in in vitro studies. Particularly when it comes to studying phagocytosis and phagosomal maturation-a signature cellular process of the macrophage-many commonly used cell lines are not representative of what occurs in primary macrophages. A system developed by Mark Kamps' group, that utilizes conditionally constitutive activity of Hox transcription factors (Hoxb8 and Hoxa9) to immortalize differentiation-competent myeloid cell progenitors of mice, offers an alternative to the macrophage/macrophage-like dichotomy. In this resource, we will review the use of Hoxb8 and Hoxa9 as hematopoietic regulators to conditionally immortalize murine hematopoietic progenitor cells which retain their ability to differentiate into many functional immune cell types including macrophages, neutrophils, basophils, osteoclasts, eosinophils, dendritic cells, as well as limited potential for the generation of lymphocytes. We further demonstrate that the use of macrophages derived from Hoxb8/Hoxa9 immortalized progenitors and their similarities to bone marrow-derived macrophages. To supplement the existing data, mass spectrometry-based proteomics, flow cytometry, cytology, and in vitro phagosomal assays were conducted on macrophages derived from Hoxb8 immortalized progenitors and compared to bone marrow-derived macrophages and the macrophage-like cell line J774. We additionally propose the use of a standardized nomenclature to describe cells derived from the Hoxb8/Hoxa9 system in anticipation of their expanded use in the study of leukocyte cell biology.

Kinetics of phagosome maturation is coupled to their intracellular motility

Immune cells degrade internalized pathogens in phagosomes through sequential biochemical changes. The degradation must be fast enough for effective infection control. The presumption is that each phagosome degrades cargos autonomously with a distinct but stochastic kinetic rate. However, here we show that the degradation kinetics of individual phagosomes is not stochastic but coupled to their intracellular motility. By engineering RotSensors that are optically anisotropic, magnetic responsive, and fluorogenic in response to degradation activities in phagosomes, we monitored cargo degradation kinetics in single phagosomes simultaneously with their translational and rotational dynamics. We show that phagosomes that move faster centripetally are more likely to encounter and fuse with lysosomes, thereby acidifying faster and degrading cargos more efficiently. The degradation rates increase nearly linearly with the translational and rotational velocities of phagosomes. Our results indicate that the centripetal motion of phagosomes functions as a clock for controlling the progression of cargo degradation.

Emerging Concepts in Defective Macrophage Phagocytosis in Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is caused by mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. Chronic inflammation and decline in lung function are major reasons for morbidity in CF. Mutant CFTR expressed in phagocytic cells such as macrophages contributes to persistent infection, inflammation, and lung disease in CF. Macrophages play a central role in innate immunity by eliminating pathogenic microbes by a process called phagocytosis. Phagocytosis is required for tissue homeostasis, balancing inflammation, and crosstalk with the adaptive immune system for antigen presentation. This review focused on (1) current understandings of the signaling underlying phagocytic mechanisms; (2) existing evidence for phagocytic dysregulation in CF; and (3) the emerging role of CFTR modulators in influencing CF phagocytic function. Alterations in CF macrophages from receptor initiation to phagosome formation are linked to disease progression in CF. A deeper understanding of macrophages in the context of CFTR and phagocytosis proteins at each step of phagosome formation might contribute to the new therapeutic development of dysregulated innate immunity in CF. Therefore, the review also indicates future areas of research in the context of CFTR and macrophages.

Macrophages disseminate pathogen associated molecular patterns through the direct extracellular release of the soluble content of their phagolysosomes

Recognition of pathogen-or-damage-associated molecular patterns is critical to inflammation. However, most pathogen-or-damage-associated molecular patterns exist within intact microbes/cells and are typically part of non-diffusible, stable macromolecules that are not optimally immunostimulatory or available for immune detection. Partial digestion of microbes/cells following phagocytosis potentially generates new diffusible pathogen-or-damage-associated molecular patterns, however, our current understanding of phagosomal biology would have these molecules sequestered and destroyed within phagolysosomes. Here, we show the controlled release of partially-digested, soluble material from phagolysosomes of macrophages through transient, iterative fusion-fission events between mature phagolysosomes and the plasma membrane, a process we term eructophagy. Eructophagy is most active in proinflammatory macrophages and further induced by toll like receptor engagement. Eructophagy is mediated by genes encoding proteins required for autophagy and can activate vicinal cells by release of phagolysosomally-processed, partially-digested pathogen associated molecular patterns. We propose that eructophagy allows macrophages to amplify local inflammation through the processing and dissemination of pathogen-or-damage-associated molecular patterns.

The detection of conserved motifs by pattern recognition receptors is a crucial component of the innate detection of pathogens and danger signals via conserved pattern recognition receptors. Here the authors define a pathway that transfers partially digested material from the phagolysosomal pathway of macrophages to release at the plasma membrane which is associated with enhanced inflammatory potential, by a process they introduce as eructophagy.

Transcriptome alterations in spermatogonial stem cells exposed to bisphenol A

Owing to their self-renewal and differentiation abilities, spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are essential for maintaining male fertility and species preservation through spermatogenesis. With an increase in exposure to plasticizers, the risk of endocrine-disrupting chemicals exerting mimetic effects on estrogen receptors, such as bisphenol A (BPA), has also increased. This has led to concerns regarding the preservation of male fertility. BPA impairs spermatogenesis and the maintenance of SSCs; however, the transcriptome differences caused by BPA in SSCs are poorly understood. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the transcriptome differences in SSCs exposed to BPA, using RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) analysis. We found that cell proliferation and survival were suppressed by SSC exposure to BPA. Therefore, we investigated transcriptome differences through RNA-Seq, functional annotation, and gene set enrichment analysis. Our results showed repetitive and abundant terms related to two genes of lysosomal acidification and five genes of glycosaminoglycan degradation. Furthermore, we validated the transcriptome analyses by detecting mRNA and protein expression levels. The findings confirmed the discovery of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and the mechanism of SSCs following exposure to BPA. Taken together, we expect that the identified DEGs and lysosomal mechanisms could provide new insights into the preservation of male fertility and related research.

Single-phagosome imaging reveals that homotypic fusion impairs phagosome degradative function

Immune cells degrade internalized pathogens in vesicle compartments called phagosomes. Many intracellular bacteria induce homotypic phagosome fusion to survive in host cells, but the fusion interaction between phagosomes and its consequence for phagosome function have scarcely been studied. Here, we characterize homotypic fusion between phagosomes in macrophages and identify how such interactions impact the degradative capacity of phagosomes. By developing a series of particle sensors for measuring biochemical changes of single phagosomes, we show that phagosomes undergo stable fusion, transient "kiss-and-run" fusion, or both in succession. Super-resolution three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy revealed that stably fused phagosomes are connected by membrane "necks" with submicron-sized fusion pores. Furthermore, we demonstrate that, after stable fusion, phagosomes have leaky membranes and thereby impaired degradative functions. Our findings, based on phagosomes that contain synthetic particles, illustrate that homotypic fusion is not exclusive to phagosomes that encapsulate pathogens, as previously believed. The physical process of homotypic fusion is alone sufficient to perturb the degradative functions of phagosomes.

Real-Time Simultaneous Imaging of Acidification and Proteolysis in Single Phagosomes Using Bifunctional Janus-Particle Probes

The digestion of pathogens inside phagosomes by immune cells occurs through a sequence of reactions including acidification and proteolysis, but how the reactions are orchestrated in the right order is unclear due to a lack of methods to simultaneously measure more than one reaction in phagosomes. Here we report a bifunctional Janus-particle probe to simultaneously monitor acidification and proteolysis in single phagosomes in live cells. Each probe consists of a pH reporter and a proteolysis reporter that are spatially separated but function concurrently. Using the Janus probes, we found the acidic pH needed to initiate and maintain proteolysis, revealing the mechanism for the sequential occurrence of both reactions during pathogen digestion. We showed how bacterium-derived lipopolysaccharides alter the acidification and proteolysis in phagosomes. This study showcases Janus-particle probes as a generally applicable tool for monitoring multiple reactions in intracellular vesicles.

High Glucose Concentrations Impair the Processing and Presentation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Antigens In Vitro

Type 2 diabetes is an established risk factor for tuberculosis, but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. We established an in vitro model to analyze the effect of high glucose concentrations in antigen processing and presentation in antigen-presenting cells. Human monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) were exposed to high (11 mM and 30 mM) and low (5.5 mM) glucose concentrations and infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). Flow cytometry was used to analyze the effect of high glucose concentrations in histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules (HLA-DR) and co-stimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86), indispensable for an adequate antigenic presentation and CD4+ T cell activation. HLA-DR and CD86 were significantly decreased by high glucose concentrations compared with low glucose concentrations. Confocal microscopy was used to detect Rab 5 and Lamp-1, proteins involved in the kinetics of antigen processing as early markers, and Rab 7 and cathepsin D as late markers. We observed a delay in the dynamics of the acquisition of Rab 7 and cathepsin D in high glucose concentrations. Moreover, the kinetics of the formation M. tuberculosis peptide-MHC II complexes in MDMs was decreased under high glucose concentrations, reducing their capacity for T cell activation. These findings suggest that high glucose concentrations directly affect antigenic processing, and therefore antigenic presentation.

Maintenance and loss of endocytic organelle integrity: mechanisms and implications for antigen cross-presentation

The membranes of endosomes, phagosomes and macropinosomes can become damaged by the physical properties of internalized cargo, by active pathogenic invasion or by cellular processes, including endocytic maturation. Loss of membrane integrity is often deleterious and is, therefore, prevented by mitigation and repair mechanisms. However, it can occasionally be beneficial and actively induced by cells. Here, we summarize the mechanisms by which cells, in particular phagocytes, try to prevent membrane damage and how, when this fails, they repair or destroy damaged endocytic organelles. We also detail how one type of phagocyte, the dendritic cell, can deliberately trigger localized damage to endocytic organelles to allow for major histocompatibility complex class I presentation of exogenous antigens and initiation of CD8⁺ T-cell responses to viruses and tumours. Our review highlights mechanisms for the regulation of endocytic organelle membrane integrity at the intersection of cell biology and immunology that could be co-opted for improving vaccination and intracellular drug delivery.

Listeria exploits IFITM3 to suppress antibacterial activity in phagocytes

The type I interferon (IFN) signaling pathway has important functions in resistance to viral infection, with the downstream induction of interferon stimulated genes (ISG) protecting the host from virus entry, replication and spread. Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), a facultative intracellular foodborne pathogen, can exploit the type I IFN response as part of their pathogenic strategy, but the molecular mechanisms involved remain unclear. Here we show that type I IFN suppresses the antibacterial activity of phagocytes to promote systemic Lm infection. Mechanistically, type I IFN suppresses phagosome maturation and proteolysis of Lm virulence factors ActA and LLO, thereby promoting phagosome escape and cell-to-cell spread; the antiviral protein, IFN-induced transmembrane protein 3 (IFITM3), is required for this type I IFN-mediated alteration. Ifitm3^-/- mice are resistant to systemic infection by Lm, displaying decreased bacterial spread in tissues, and increased immune cell recruitment and pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling. Together, our findings show how an antiviral mechanism in phagocytes can be exploited by bacterial pathogens, and implicate IFITM3 as a potential antimicrobial therapeutic target.

Overexpression of Toll-like receptor 4 contributes to the internalization and elimination of Escherichia coli in sheep by enhancing caveolae-dependent endocytosis

BACKGROUND

Gram-negative bacterial infections have a major economic impact on both the livestock industry and public health. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) plays a crucial role in host defence against Gram-negative bacteria. Exploring the defence mechanism regulated by TLR4 may provide new targets for treatment of inflammation and control of bacterial infections. In a previous study, we generated transgenic sheep overexpressing TLR4 by microinjection to improve disease resistance. The defence mechanism through which TLR4 overexpression protected these sheep against pathogens is still not fully understood.

RESULTS

In the present study, we used Escherichia coli to infect monocytes isolated from peripheral blood of the animal model. The overexpression of TLR4 strongly enhanced the percentage of endocytosis and capacity of elimination in monocytes during the early stages of infection. This phenomenon was mainly due to overexpression of TLR4 promoting caveolae-mediated endocytosis. Pretreatment of the transgenic sheep monocytes with inhibitors of TLR4, Src signalling, or the caveolae-mediated endocytosis pathway reduced the internalization of bacteria, weakened the ability of the monocytes to eliminate the bacteria, and increased the pH of the endosomes.

CONCLUSION

Together, our results reveal the effects of TLR4 on the control of E. coli infection in the innate immunity of sheep and provide crucial evidence of the caveolae-mediated endocytosis pathway required for host resistance to invading bacteria in a large animal model, providing theoretical support for breeding disease resistance in the future. Furthermore, Src and caveolin 1 (CAV1) could be potentially valuable targets for the control of infectious diseases.

Solution and Membrane Interaction Dynamics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Fatty Acyl-CoA Synthetase FadD13

The very-long-chain fatty acyl-CoA synthetase FadD13 from Mycobacterium tuberculosis activates fatty acids for further use in mycobacterial lipid metabolism. FadD13 is a peripheral membrane protein, with both soluble and membrane-bound populations in vivo. The protein displays a distinct positively charged surface patch, suggested to be involved in membrane association. In this paper, we combine structural analysis with liposome co-flotation assays and membrane association modeling to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms behind membrane association. We show that FadD13 has affinity for negatively charged lipids, such as cardiolipin. Addition of a fatty acid substrate to the liposomes increases the apparent affinity of FadD13, consistent with our previous hypothesis that FadD13 can utilize the membrane to harbor its very-long-chain fatty acyl substrates. In addition, we unambiguously show that FadD13 adopts a dimeric arrangement in solution. The dimer interface partly buries the positive surface patch, seemingly inconsistent with membrane binding. Notably, when cross-linking the dimer, it lost its ability to bind and co-migrate with liposomes. To better understand the dynamics of association, we utilized two mutant variants of FadD13, one in which the positively charged patch was altered to become more negative and one more hydrophobic. Both variants were predominantly monomeric in solution. The hydrophobic variant maintained the ability to bind to the membrane, whereas the negative variant did not. Taken together, our data indicate that FadD13 exists in a dynamic equilibrium between the dimer and monomer, where the monomeric state can adhere to the membrane via the positively charged surface patch.

TPL-2 kinase induces phagosome acidification to promote macrophage killing of bacteria

Tumour progression locus 2 (TPL‐2) kinase mediates Toll‐like receptor (TLR) activation of ERK1/2 and p38α MAP kinases in myeloid cells to modulate expression of key cytokines in innate immunity. This study identified a novel MAP kinase‐independent regulatory function for TPL‐2 in phagosome maturation, an essential process for killing of phagocytosed microbes. TPL‐2 catalytic activity was demonstrated to induce phagosome acidification and proteolysis in primary mouse and human macrophages following uptake of latex beads. Quantitative proteomics revealed that blocking TPL‐2 catalytic activity significantly altered the protein composition of phagosomes, particularly reducing the abundance of V‐ATPase proton pump subunits. Furthermore, TPL‐2 stimulated the phosphorylation of DMXL1, a regulator of V‐ATPases, to induce V‐ATPase assembly and phagosome acidification. Consistent with these results, TPL‐2 catalytic activity was required for phagosome acidification and the efficient killing of Staphylococcus aureus and Citrobacter rodentium following phagocytic uptake by macrophages. TPL‐2 therefore controls innate immune responses of macrophages to bacteria via V‐ATPase induction of phagosome maturation.

Polyphosphate is an extracellular signal that can facilitate bacterial survival in eukaryotic cells

Polyphosphate is a linear chain of phosphate residues and is present in organisms ranging from bacteria to humans. Pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis accumulate polyphosphate, and reduced expression of the polyphosphate kinase that synthesizes polyphosphate decreases their survival. How polyphosphate potentiates pathogenicity is poorly understood. Escherichia coli K-12 do not accumulate detectable levels of extracellular polyphosphate and have poor survival after phagocytosis by Dictyostelium discoideum or human macrophages. In contrast, Mycobacterium smegmatis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis accumulate detectable levels of extracellular polyphosphate, and have relatively better survival after phagocytosis by D. discoideum or macrophages. Adding extracellular polyphosphate increased E. coli survival after phagocytosis by D. discoideum and macrophages. Reducing expression of polyphosphate kinase 1 in M. smegmatis reduced extracellular polyphosphate and reduced survival in D. discoideum and macrophages, and this was reversed by the addition of extracellular polyphosphate. Conversely, treatment of D. discoideum and macrophages with recombinant yeast exopolyphosphatase reduced the survival of phagocytosed M. smegmatis or M. tuberculosis D. discoideum cells lacking the putative polyphosphate receptor GrlD had reduced sensitivity to polyphosphate and, compared to wild-type cells, showed increased killing of phagocytosed E. coli and M. smegmatis Polyphosphate inhibited phagosome acidification and lysosome activity in D. discoideum and macrophages and reduced early endosomal markers in macrophages. Together, these results suggest that bacterial polyphosphate potentiates pathogenicity by acting as an extracellular signal that inhibits phagosome maturation.

Phagosomal F-Actin Retention by Cryptococcus gattii Induces Dendritic Cell Immunoparalysis

Cryptococcus yeast species typically display characteristics of opportunistic pathogens, with the exception of C. gattii, which can cause life-threatening respiratory and disseminated brain infections in otherwise healthy people. The pathogenesis of C. gattii is not well understood, but an important characteristic is that C. gattii is capable of evading host cell-mediated immune defenses initiated by DCs. Here, we report that when virulent C. gattii becomes ingested by a DC, the intracellular compartment containing the fungi is covered by a persistent protein cage structure consisting of F-actin. This F-actin cage acts as a barrier to prevent interaction with other intracellular compartments, and as a result, the DC fails to kill the fungi and activate important cell-mediated immune responses. We propose that this unique immune evasion mechanism permits C. gattii to remain unchallenged within host cells, leading to persistent infection.

Cryptococcus gattii is a major cause of life-threatening mycosis in immunocompetent individuals and responsible for the ongoing epidemic outbreak of cryptococcosis in the Pacific Northwest of North America. This deadly fungus is known to evade important host immune responses, including dendritic cell (DC) maturation and concomitant T cell immunity, via immune evasion mechanisms that remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that primary human DCs phagocytose C. gattii but the maturation of phagosomes to phagolysosomes was blocked as a result of sustained filamentous actin (F-actin) that entrapped and concealed the phagosomes from recognition. Superresolution structured illumination microscopy (SR-SIM) revealed that the persistent phagosomal F-actin formed a cage-like structure that sterically hindered and functionally blocked the fusion of lysosomes. Blocking lysosome fusion was sufficient to inhibit phagosomal acidification and subsequent intracellular fungal killing by DCs. Retention of phagosomal F-actin by C. gattii also caused DC immunoparalysis. Disrupting the retained F-actin cage with cytochalasin D not only restored DC phagosomal maturation but also promoted DC costimulatory maturation and robust T cell activation and proliferation. Collectively, these results reveal a unique mechanism of DC immune evasion that enhances intracellular fungal pathogenicity and may explain suppressed cell-mediated immunity.

Variations in Antimicrobial Activities of Human Monocyte-Derived Macrophage and Their Associations With Tuberculosis Clinical Manifestations

Macrophages play a significant role in preventing infection through antimicrobial activities, particularly acidification, and proteolysis. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection can lead to diverse outcomes, from latent asymptomatic infection to active disease involving multiple organs. Monocyte-derived macrophage is one of the main cell types accumulating in lungs following Mtb infection. The variation of intracellular activities of monocyte-derived macrophages in humans and the influence of these activities on the tuberculosis (TB) spectrum are not well understood. By exploiting ligand-specific bead-based assays, we investigated macrophage antimicrobial activities real-time in healthy volunteers (n = 53) with 35 cases of latent TB (LTB), and those with active TB (ATB), and either pulmonary TB (PTB, n = 70) or TB meningitis (TBM, n = 77). We found wide person-to-person variations in acidification and proteolytic activities in response to both non-immunogenic IgG and pathogenic ligands comprising trehalose 6,6'−dimycolate (TDM) from Mtb or β-glucan from Saccharamyces cerevisiase. The variation in the macrophage activities remained similar regardless of stimuli; however, IgG induced stronger acidification activity than immunogenic ligands TDM (P = 10⁻⁵, 3 × 10⁻⁵ and 0.01 at 30, 60, and 90 min) and β-glucan (P = 10⁻⁴, 3 × 10⁻⁴ and 0.04 at 30, 60, and 90 min). Variation in proteolysis activity was slightly higher in LTB than in ATB (CV = 40% in LTB vs. 29% in ATB, P = 0.03). There was no difference in measured antimicrobial activities in response to TDM and bacterial killing in macrophages from LTB and ATB, or from PTB and TBM. Our results indicate that antimicrobial activities of monocyte-derived macrophages vary among individuals and show immunological dependence, but suggest these activities cannot be solely responsible for the control of bacterial replication or dissemination in TB.

A Zinc-Dependent Metalloproteinase of Brucella abortus Is Required in the Intracellular Adaptation of Macrophages

Brucella abortus is a pathogen that survives in macrophages. Several virulence factors participate in this process, including the open reading frame (ORF) BAB1_0270 codifying for a zinc-dependent metalloproteinase (ZnMP). Here, its contribution in the intracellular adaptation of B. abortus was analyzed by infecting RAW264.7 macrophages with the mutant B. abortus Δ270 strain. Results showed that this ZnMP did not participated in either the adherence or the initial intracellular traffic of B. abortus in macrophages. Nevertheless, its deletion significantly increased the co-localization of B. abortus Δ270 with phagolysosomal cathepsin D and reduced its co-localization with calnexin present in endoplasmic reticulum (RE)-derived vesicles. Although B. abortus Δ270 showed an upregulated expression of genes involved in virulence (vjbR, hutC, bvrR, virB1), it was insufficient to reach a successful intracellular replication within macrophages. Furthermore, its attenuation favored in macrophages infected the production of high levels of cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and co-stimulatory proteins (CD80 and CD86), signals required in T cell activation. Finally, its deletion significantly reduced the ability of B. abortus Δ270 to adapt, grow and express several virulence factors under acidic conditions. Based on these results, and considering that this ZnMP has homology with ImmA/IrrE proteases, we discuss its role in the virulence of this pathogen, concluding that ZnMP is required in the intracellular adaptation of B. abortus 2308 during the infection of macrophages.

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Antimicrobial Peptides to Better Predict Efficacy

During the development of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) as potential therapeutics, antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) stands as an essential part of the process in identification and optimisation of candidate AMP. Standard methods for AST, developed almost 60 years ago for testing conventional antibiotics, are not necessarily fit for purpose when it comes to determining the susceptibility of microorganisms to AMP. Without careful consideration of the parameters comprising AST there is a risk of failing to identify novel antimicrobials at a time when antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is leading the planet toward a post-antibiotic era. More physiologically/clinically relevant AST will allow better determination of the preclinical activity of drug candidates and allow the identification of lead compounds. An important consideration is the efficacy of AMP in biological matrices replicating sites of infection, e.g., blood/plasma/serum, lung bronchiolar lavage fluid/sputum, urine, biofilms, etc., as this will likely be more predictive of clinical efficacy. Additionally, specific AST for different target microorganisms may help to better predict efficacy of AMP in specific infections. In this manuscript, we describe what we believe are the key considerations for AST of AMP and hope that this information can better guide the preclinical development of AMP toward becoming a new generation of urgently needed antimicrobials.

Isolation and transcriptome analysis of three subpopulations of shrimp hemocytes reveals the underlying mechanism of their immune functions

Hemocytes in shrimp play important roles in innate immune responses against pathogens. Although three types of hemocytes including hyalinocytes, semi-granulocytes and granulocytes were identified based on their morphological characters in penaeid shrimp, knowledge about the molecular basis of their functions in the immunity is still very limited. In the present study, three subpopulations of hemocytes were firstly separated by Percoll gradient centrifugation, and their transcriptomes were analyzed. The data showed that significantly differential gene expression patterns existed in different types of hemocytes. The genes encoding phagocytic receptors, lectins and actin cytoskeleton involved in phagocytosis were highly expressed in hyalinocytes, while genes involved in the humoral immunity signaling pathways were highly expressed in semi-granulocytes, and genes encoding prophenoloxidase (proPO)-activating enzyme and serine proteases involved in proPO system activation were highly expressed in granulocytes. Further flow cytometry analysis indicated that hyalinocytes were the main hemocytes subpopulation responsible for ingesting foreign fluorescent beads, and this ingestion process mainly depends on the endocytic way of macropinocytosis. These data provide valuable information for understanding the molecular basis of distinct shrimp hemocytes subpopulations of shrimp in cellular and humoral immunity.

Evasion of host defenses by intracellular Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the leading causes of hospital and community-acquired infections worldwide. The increasing occurrence of antibiotic resistant strains and the high rates of recurrent staphylococcal infections have placed several treatment challenges on healthcare systems. In recent years, it has become evident that S. aureus is a facultative intracellular pathogen, able to invade and survive in a range of cell types. The ability to survive intracellularly provides this pathogen with yet another way to evade antibiotics and immune responses during infection. Intracellular S. aureus have been strongly linked to several recurrent infections, including severe bone infections and septicemias. S. aureus is armed with an array of virulence factors as well as an intricate network of regulators that enable it to survive, replicate and escape from a number of immune and nonimmune host cells. It is able to successfully manipulate host cell pathways and use it as a niche to multiply, disseminate, as well as persist during an infection. This bacterium is also known to adapt to the intracellular environment by forming small colony variants, which are metabolically inactive. In this review we will discuss the clinical evidence, the molecular pathways involved in S. aureus intracellular persistence, and new treatment strategies for targeting intracellular S. aureus.

Hemocyte phagosomal proteome is dynamically shaped by cytoskeleton remodeling and interorganellar communication with endoplasmic reticulum during phagocytosis in a marine invertebrate, Crassostrea gigas

Phagosomes are task-force organelles of innate immune systems, and evolutionary diversity and continuity abound in the protein machinery executing this coordinately regulated process. In order to clarify molecular mechanisms underlying phagocytosis, we studied phagocyte response to beads and Vibrio species, using hemocytes of the Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) as a marine invertebrate model. Phagosomes from different stages of phagocytosis were isolated by density-gradient centrifugation, and more than 400 phagosome-associated proteins were subsequently identified via high-throughput quantitative proteomics. In modeling key networks of phagosomal proteins, our results support the essential roles of several processes driving phagosome formation and maturation, including cytoskeleton remodeling and signal transduction by Rab proteins. Several endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated proteins were identified, while live cell imaging confirms an apparent intimate interaction between the ER and phagosomes. In further quantitative proteomic analysis, the signal transducers CgRhoGDI and CgPI4K were implicated. Through experimental validation, CgRhoGDI was shown to negatively regulate actin cytoskeleton remodeling in the formation of oyster phagosomes, while CgPI4K signaling drives phagosome maturation and bacterial killing. Our current work illustrates the diversity and dynamic interplay of phagosomal proteins, providing a framework for better understanding host-microbe interactions during phagosome activities in under-examined invertebrate species.

Sialic Acid-Siglec-E Interactions During Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infection of Macrophages Interferes With Phagosome Maturation by Altering Intracellular Calcium Concentrations

Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) is commonly associated with nosocomial and chronic infections of lungs. We have earlier demonstrated that an acidic sugar, sialic acid, is present in PA which is recognized and bound by sialic acid binding immunoglobulin type lectins (siglecs) expressed on neutrophils. Here, we have tried to gain a detailed insight into the immunosuppressive role of sialic acid-siglec interactions in macrophage-mediated clearance of sialylated PA (PA^+Sia). We have demonstrated that PA^+Sia shows enhanced binding (~1.5-fold) to macrophages due to additional interactions between sialic acids and siglec-E and exhibited more phagocytosis. However, internalization of PA^+Sia is associated with a reduction in respiratory burst and increase in anti-inflammatory cytokines secretion which is reversed upon desialylation of the bacteria. Phagocytosis of PA^+Sia is also associated with reduced intracellular calcium ion concentrations and altered calcium-dependent signaling which negatively affects phagosome maturation. Consequently, although more PA^+Sia was localized in early phagosomes (Rab5 compartment), only fewer bacteria reach into the late phagosomal compartment (Rab7). Possibly, this leads to reduced phagosome lysosome fusion where reduced numbers of PA^+Sia are trafficked into lysosomes, compared to PA^−Sia. Thus, internalized PA^+Sia remain viable and replicates intracellularly in macrophages. We have also demonstrated that such siglec-E-sialic acid interaction recruited SHP-1/SHP-2 phosphatases which modulate MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. Disrupting sialic acid-siglec-E interaction by silencing siglec-E in macrophages results in improved bactericidal response against PA^+Sia characterized by robust respiratory burst, enhanced intracellular calcium levels and nuclear translocation of p65 component of NF-κB complex leading to increased pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion. Taken together, we have identified that sialic acid-siglec-E interactions is another pathway utilized by PA in order to suppress macrophage antimicrobial responses and inhibit phagosome maturation, thereby persisting as an intracellular pathogen in macrophages.

Optimisation of External Factors for the Growth of Francisella novicida within Dictyostelium discoideum

The amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has been used as a model organism to study host-pathogen interaction in many intracellular bacteria. Francisella tularensis is a Gram-negative, highly infectious bacterium that causes the zoonotic disease tularemia. The bacterium is able to replicate in different phagocytic and nonphagocytic cells including mammalian, amoebae, and arthropod cells. The aim of this study was to determine the optimal temperature and infection dose in the interaction of Francisella novicida with D. discoideum in order to establish a model of Francisella infection in the social amoeba. The amoeba cells were infected with a different multiplicity of infection (5, 10, and 100) and incubated at different temperatures (22, 25, 27, 30, and 37°C). The number of intracellular bacteria within D. discoideum, as well as cytotoxicity, was determined at 2, 4, 24, 48, and 72 hours after infection. Our results showed that the optimal temperature for Francisella intracellular replication within amoeba is 30°C with the MOI of 10. We can conclude that this MOI and temperature induced the optimal growth of bacteria in Dictyostelium with low cytotoxicity.

Vomocytosis: Too Much Booze, Base, or Calcium?

Macrophages are well known for their phagocytic activity and their role in innate immune responses. Macrophages eat non-self particles, via a variety of mechanisms, and typically break down internalized cargo into small macromolecules. However, some pathogenic agents have the ability to evade this endosomal degradation through a nonlytic exocytosis process termed vomocytosis.

Macrophages are well known for their phagocytic activity and their role in innate immune responses. Macrophages eat non-self particles, via a variety of mechanisms, and typically break down internalized cargo into small macromolecules. However, some pathogenic agents have the ability to evade this endosomal degradation through a nonlytic exocytosis process termed vomocytosis. This phenomenon has been most often studied for Cryptococcus neoformans, a yeast that causes roughly 180,000 deaths per year, primarily in immunocompromised (e.g., human immunodeficiency virus [HIV]) patients. Existing dogma purports that vomocytosis involves distinctive cellular pathways and intracellular physicochemical cues in the host cell during phagosomal maturation. Moreover, it has been observed that the immunological state of the individual and macrophage phenotype affect vomocytosis outcomes. Here we compile the current knowledge on the factors (with respect to the phagocytic cell) that promote vomocytosis of C. neoformans from macrophages.

Growth hormone-mediated reprogramming of macrophage transcriptome and effector functions

Macrophages are an important component of the innate immune response. Priming and activation of macrophages is stimulated by cytokines (i.e IFNγ). However, growth hormone (GH) can also stimulate macrophage activation. Based on these observations, the goal of this work was to 1) to compare the transcriptome profile of macrophages activated in vitro with GH and IFNγ, and 2) to assess the impact of GH on key macrophage functional properties like reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and phagosomal proteolysis. To assess the global transcriptional and functional impact of GH on macrophage programming, bone marrow derived macrophages were treated with GH or IFNγ. Our data strongly support a potential link between GH, which wanes with age, and impaired macrophage function. The notable overlap of GH with IFNγ-induced pathways involved in innate immune sensing of pathogens and antimicrobial responses argue for an important role for GH in macrophage priming and maturation. By using functional assays that report on biochemical activities within the lumen of phagosomes, we have also shown that GH alters physiologically relevant processes such as ROS production and proteolysis. These changes could have far reaching impacts on antimicrobial capacity, signaling, and antigen presentation.

Encapsulation in lipid-core nanocapsules improves topical treatment with the potent antileishmanial compound CH8

Cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is a neglected parasitic disease conventionally treated by multiple injections with systemically toxic drugs. Aiming at a more acceptable therapy, we developed lipid-core nanocapsules (LNCs) entrapping the potent antileishmanial chalcone (CH8) for topical application. Rhodamine-labeled LNC (Rho-LNC-CH8) was produced for imaging studies. LNC-CH8 and Rho-LNC-CH8 had narrow size distributions (polydispersity index <0.10), with similar mean sizes (~180 nm) by dynamic light scattering. In vitro, Rho-LNC-CH8 was rapidly internalized by extracellular Leishmania amazonensis parasites macrophages in less than 15 min. LNC-CH8 activated macrophage oxidative mechanisms more efficiently than CH8, and was more selectively toxic against the intracellular parasites. In vivo, topically applied Rho-LNC-CH8 efficiently permeated mouse skin. In L. amazonensis-infected mice, LNC-CH8 reduced the parasite load by 86% after three weeks of daily topical treatment, while free CH8 was ineffective. In conclusion, LNC-CH8 has strong potential as a novel topical formulation for CL treatment.

Guardians of the Cell: Effector-Triggered Immunity Steers Mammalian Immune Defense

The mammalian innate immune system deals with invading pathogens and stress by activating pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) in the host. Initially proposed to be triggered by the discrimination of defined molecular signatures from pathogens rather than from self, it is now clear that PRRs can also be activated by endogenous ligands, bacterial metabolites and, following pathogen-induced alterations of cellular processes, changes in the F-actin cytoskeleton. These processes are collectively referred to as effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Here, we summarize the molecular and conceptual advances in our understanding of cell autonomous innate immune responses against bacterial pathogens, and discuss how classical activation of PRRs and ETI interplay to drive inflammatory responses.

Acid Fasting: Modulation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Metabolism at Acidic pH

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) senses and adapts to acidic host environments during the course of pathogenesis. Mutants defective in acidic pH-dependent adaptations are often attenuated during macrophage or animal infections, supporting that these pathways are essential for pathogenesis and represent important new targets for drug discovery. This review examines a confluence of findings supporting that Mtb has restricted metabolism at acidic pH that results in the slowing of bacterial growth and changes in redox homeostasis. It is proposed that induction of the PhoPR regulon and anaplerotic metabolism, in concert with the restricted use of specific carbon sources, functions to counter reductive stress associated with acidic pH.

Triggering MSR1 promotes JNK-mediated inflammation in IL-4-activated macrophages

Alternatively activated M2 macrophages play an important role in maintenance of tissue homeostasis by scavenging dead cells, cell debris and lipoprotein aggregates via phagocytosis. Using proteomics, we investigated how alternative activation, driven by IL‐4, modulated the phagosomal proteome to control macrophage function. Our data indicate that alternative activation enhances homeostatic functions such as proteolysis, lipolysis and nutrient transport. Intriguingly, we identified the enhanced recruitment of the TAK1/MKK7/JNK signalling complex to phagosomes of IL‐4‐activated macrophages. The recruitment of this signalling complex was mediated through K63 polyubiquitylation of the macrophage scavenger receptor 1 (MSR1). Triggering of MSR1 in IL‐4‐activated macrophages leads to enhanced JNK activation, thereby promoting a phenotypic switch from an anti‐inflammatory to a pro‐inflammatory state, which was abolished upon MSR1 deletion or JNK inhibition. Moreover, MSR1 K63 polyubiquitylation correlated with the activation of JNK signalling in ovarian cancer tissue from human patients, suggesting that it may be relevant for macrophage phenotypic shift in vivo. Altogether, we identified that MSR1 signals through JNK via K63 polyubiquitylation and provides evidence for the receptor's involvement in macrophage polarization.

Nontuberculous Mycobacteria Persistence in a Cell Model Mimicking Alveolar Macrophages

Nontuberculous Mycobacteria (NTM) respiratory infections have been gradually increasing. Here, THP-1 cells were used as a model to evaluate intracellular persistence of three NTM species (reference and clinical strains) in human alveolar macrophages. The contribution of phagosome acidification, nitric oxide (NO) production and cell dead on NTM intracellular fate was assessed. In addition, strains were characterized regarding their repertoire of virulence factors by whole-genome sequencing. NTM experienced different intracellular fates: M. smegmatis and M. fortuitum ATCC 6841 were cleared within 24h. In contrast, M. avium strains (reference/clinical) and M. fortuitum clinical strain were able to replicate. Despite this fact, unexpectedly high percentages of acidified phagosomes were found harbouring rab7, but not CD63. All NTM were able to survive in vitro at acidic pHs, with the exception of M. smegmatis. Our data further suggested a minor role for NO in intracellular persistence and that apoptosis mediated by caspase 8 and 3/7, but not necrosis, is triggered during NTM infection. Insights regarding the bacteria genomic backbone corroborated the virulence potential of M. avium and M. fortuitum. In conclusion, the phenotypic traits detected contrast with those described for M. tuberculosis, pointing out that NTM adopt distinct strategies to manipulate the host immune defense and persist intracellularly.

ELMO1 Regulates Autophagy Induction and Bacterial Clearance During Enteric Infection

Macrophages are specialized phagocytic cells involved in clearing invading pathogens. Previously we reported that engulfment and cell motility protein 1 (ELMO1) in macrophages mediates bacterial internalization and intestinal inflammation. Here we studied the role of ELMO1 in the fate of internalized targets. ELMO1 is present in the intracellular vesicles and enhances accumulation of the protein LC3B following engulfment of Salmonella or treatment with autophagy-inducing rapamycin. The protein ATG5 and the kinase ULK1 are involved in classical autophagy, while LC3-associated phagocytosis is ULK1 independent. ATG5 but not ULK1 cooperated with ELMO1 in LC3 accumulation after infection, suggesting the ELMO1 preferentially regulated LC3-associated phagocytosis. Because LC3-associated phagocytosis delivers cargo for degradation, the contribution of ELMO1 to the lysosome degradation pathways was evaluated by studying pH and cathepsin B activity. ELMO1-depleted macrophages showed a time-dependent increase in pH and a decrease in cathepsin B activity associated with bacterial survival. Together, ELMO1 regulates LC3B accumulation and antimicrobial responses involved in the clearance of enteric pathogens. This paper investigated how innate immune pathways involving ELMO1 work in a coordinated fashion to eliminate bacterial threats. ELMO1 is present in the phagosome and enhances bacterial clearance by differential regulation of lysosomal acidification and enzymatic activity.

Inhibition of calmodulin increases intracellular survival of Salmonella in chicken macrophage cells

Calcium (Ca²⁺) is a pivotal intracellular second messenger and calmodulin (CaM) acts as a multifunctional Ca²⁺-binding protein that regulates downstream Ca²⁺ dependent signaling. Together they play an important role in regulating various cellular functions, including gene expression, maturation of phagolysosome, apoptosis, and immune response. Intracellular Ca²⁺ has been shown to play a critical role in Toll-like receptor-mediated immune response to microbial agonists in the HD11 chicken macrophage cell line. The role of that the Ca²⁺/CaM pathway plays in the intracellular survival of Salmonella in chicken macrophages has not been reported. In this study, kinome peptide array analysis indicated that the Ca²⁺/CaM pathway was significantly activated when chicken macrophage HD11 cells were infected with S. Enteritidis or S. Heidelberg. Further study demonstrated that treating cells with a pharmaceutical CaM inhibitor W-7, which disrupts the formation of Ca²⁺/CaM, significantly inhibited macrophages to produce nitric oxide and weaken the control of intracellular Salmonella replication. These results strongly indicate that CaM plays an important role in the innate immune response of chicken macrophages and that the Ca²⁺/CaM mediated signaling pathway is critically involved in the host cell response to Salmonella infection.

Spatiotemporal Changes of the Phagosomal Proteome in Dendritic Cells in Response to LPS Stimulation

Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional phagocytes that use innate sensing and phagocytosis to internalize and degrade self as well as foreign material, such as pathogenic bacteria, within phagosomes. These intracellular compartments are equipped to generate antigenic peptides that serve as source for antigen presentation to T cells initiating adaptive immune responses. The phagosomal proteome of DCs is only partially studied and is highly dynamic as it changes during phagosome maturation, when phagosomes sequentially interact with endosomes and lysosomes. In addition, the activation status of the phagocyte can modulate the phagosomal composition and is able to shape phagosomal functions.In this study, we determined spatiotemporal changes of the proteome of DC phagosomes during their maturation and compared resting and lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated bone marrow-derived DCs by label-free, quantitative mass spectrometry. Ovalbumin-coupled latex beads were used as phagocytosis model system and revealed that LPS-treated DCs show decreased recruitment of proteins involved in phagosome maturation, such as subunits of the vacuolar proton ATPase, cathepsin B, D, S, and RAB7. In contrast, those phagosomes were characterized by an increased recruitment of proteins involved in antigen cross-presentation, e.g. different subunits of MHC I molecules, the proteasome and tapasin, confirming the observed increase in cross-presentation efficacy in those cells. Further, several proteins were identified that were not previously associated with phagosomal functions. Hierarchical clustering of phagosomal proteins demonstrated that their acquisition to DC phagosomes is not only dependent on the duration of phagosome maturation but also on the activation state of DCs. Thus, our study provides a comprehensive overview of how DCs alter their phagosome composition in response to LPS, which has profound impact on the initiation of efficient immune responses.

Potassium response and homeostasis in Mycobacterium tuberculosis modulates environmental adaptation and is important for host colonization

Successful host colonization by bacteria requires sensing and response to the local ionic milieu, and coordination of responses with the maintenance of ionic homeostasis in the face of changing conditions. We previously discovered that Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) responds synergistically to chloride (Cl-) and pH, as cues to the immune status of its host. This raised the intriguing concept of abundant ions as important environmental signals, and we have now uncovered potassium (K+) as an ion that can significantly impact colonization by Mtb. The bacterium has a unique transcriptional response to changes in environmental K+ levels, with both distinct and shared regulatory mechanisms controlling Mtb response to the ionic signals of K+, Cl-, and pH. We demonstrate that intraphagosomal K+ levels increase during macrophage phagosome maturation, and find using a novel fluorescent K+-responsive reporter Mtb strain that K+ is not limiting during macrophage infection. Disruption of Mtb K+ homeostasis by deletion of the Trk K+ uptake system results in dampening of the bacterial response to pH and Cl-, and attenuation in host colonization, both in primary murine bone marrow-derived macrophages and in vivo in a murine model of Mtb infection. Our study reveals how bacterial ionic homeostasis can impact environmental ionic responses, and highlights the important role that abundant ions can play during host colonization by Mtb.

Gene expression of putative type VI secretion system (T6SS) genes in the emergent fish pathogen Francisella noatunensis subsp. orientalis in different physiochemical conditions

Background

Francisella noatunensis subsp. orientalis (Fno) is an emergent fish pathogen and the etiologic agent of piscine francisellosis. Besides persisting in the environment in both biofilm and planktonic forms, Fno is known to infect and replicate inside tilapia macrophages and endothelial-derived cells. However, the mechanism used by this emergent bacterium for intracellular survival is unknown. Additionally, the basis of virulence for Fno is still poorly understood. Several potential virulence determinants have been identified in Fno, including homologues of the recently described F. tularensis Type VI Secretion System (T6SS). In order to gain a better understanding of the role the putative Fno T6SS might play in the pathogenesis of piscine francisellosis, we performed transcriptional analysis of Fno T6SS gene-homologues under temperature, acidic, and oxidative stress conditions.

Results

Few transcriptional differences were observed at different temperatures, growth stages and pHs; however, a trend towards higher expression of Fno T6SS-homologue genes at 25 °C and under oxidative stress was detected when compared to those quantified at 30 °C and under no H₂O₂ (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Results from this study suggest that several of the F. tularensis T6SS-homologues may play an important role in the virulence of Fno, particularly when the bacterium is exposed to low temperatures and oxidative stress.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-019-1389-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Interleukin-22 promotes phagolysosomal fusion to induce protection against Salmonella enterica Typhimurium in human epithelial cells

Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) play a key role in regulating immune responses and controlling infection. However, the direct role of IECs in restricting pathogens remains incompletely understood. Here, we provide evidence that IL-22 primed intestinal organoids derived from healthy human induced pluripotent stem cells (hIPSCs) to restrict Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium SL1344 infection. A combination of transcriptomics, bacterial invasion assays, and imaging suggests that IL-22-induced antimicrobial activity is driven by increased phagolysosomal fusion in IL-22-pretreated cells. The antimicrobial phenotype was absent in hIPSCs derived from a patient harboring a homozygous mutation in the IL10RB gene that inactivates the IL-22 receptor but was restored by genetically complementing the IL10RB deficiency. This study highlights a mechanism through which the IL-22 pathway facilitates the human intestinal epithelium to control microbial infection.

The phagosome and redox control of antigen processing

In addition to debris clearance and antimicrobial function, versatile organelles known as phagosomes play an essential role in the processing of exogenous antigen in antigen presenting cells. While there has been much attention on human leukocyte antigen haplotypes in the determination of antigenic peptide repertoires, the lumenal biochemistries within phagosomes and endosomes are emerging as equally-important determinants of peptide epitope composition and immunodominance. Recently, the lumenal redox microenvironment within these degradative compartments has been shown to impact two key antigenic processing chemistries: proteolysis by lysosomal cysteine proteases and disulfide reduction of protein antigens. Through manipulation of the balance between oxidative and reductive capacities in the phagosome-principally by modulating NADPH oxidase (NOX2) and γ-interferon-inducible lysosomal thiol reductase (GILT) activities-studies have demonstrated changes to antigen processing patterns leading to modified repertoires of antigenic peptides available for presentation, and subsequently, altered disease progression in T cell-driven autoimmunity. This review focuses on the mechanisms and consequences of redox-mediated phagosomal antigen processing, and the potential downstream implications to tolerance and autoimmunity.