Galectin-4-regulated delivery of glycoproteins to the brush border membrane of enterocyte-like cells

Galectin-4 is associated with diabetes and obesity in a heart failure population

An association between high Galectin-4 (Gal-4) and prevalence of diabetes in subjects with heart failure (HF) has previously been reported. The purpose of this study was to confirm these findings, as well as to further investigate this association, in a Swedish HF population. In addition, a second aim was to explore Gal-4's association with obesity and biomarkers of metabolism and heart failure. Gal-4 was measured using a proximity extension array technique in 324 hospitalized HF patients within the Swedish HeArt and bRain failure investigation trial cohort. Obesity was defined as BMI ≥ 30. Multivariable logistic regression models were used to explore associations between Gal-4 and diabetes/obesity, and linear regression models were used to explore the associations between Gal-4 and biomarkers. A total of 309 participants (29.1% female; mean age 74.8 years) provided complete data for the analysis of associations between Gal-4 and diabetes. Additionally, for the analysis of heart failure phenotype, complete data was available for 230 subjects. Gal-4 was positively associated with prevalent diabetes (OR 2.60; CI 95% 1.56-4.32). In multivariable models, Gal-4 levels were significantly associated with obesity, but only for subjects with diabetes (OR 2.48; 1.09-5.62). Additionally, Gal-4 demonstrated a significant association with the incretin Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), as well as with biomarkers of HF. In the stratified analyses, the association between Gal-4 and diabetes was prominent in patients with reduced ejection fraction (n = 160, OR 3.26; 95%CI 1.88-5.66), while it was not observed in those without (n = 70, 1.96 (0.75-5.10)). In this cross-sectional, observational study, higher Gal-4 levels in HF patients were associated with higher GIP levels. Further, increased levels of Gal-4 were associated with increased likelihood of diabetes, and obesity. This association was particularly pronounced in individuals with HF characterized by reduced ejection fraction. Additionally, Gal-4 levels were significantly elevated in heart failure patients with diabetes and obesity.

Galectin-9 interacts with Vamp-3 to regulate cytokine secretion in dendritic cells

Intracellular vesicle transport is essential for cellular homeostasis and is partially mediated by SNARE proteins. Endosomal trafficking to the plasma membrane ensures cytokine secretion in dendritic cells (DCs) and the initiation of immune responses. Despite its critical importance, the specific molecular components that regulate DC cytokine secretion are poorly characterised. Galectin-9, a ß-galactoside-binding protein, has emerged as a novel cellular modulator although its exact intracellular roles in regulating (immune) cell homeostasis and vesicle transport are virtually unknown. We investigated galectin-9 function in primary human DCs and report that galectin-9 is essential for intracellular cytokine trafficking to the cell surface. Galectin-9-depleted DCs accumulate cytokine-containing vesicles in the Golgi complex that eventually undergo lysosomal degradation. We observed galectin-9 to molecularly interact with Vamp-3 using immunoprecipitation-mass-spectrometry and identified galectin-9 was required for rerouting Vamp-3-containing endosomes upon DC activation as the underlying mechanism. Overall, this study identifies galectin-9 as a necessary mechanistic component for intracellular trafficking. This may impact our general understanding of vesicle transport and sheds new light into the multiple roles galectins play in governing cell function.

Galectin-targeting glycocalix[4]arenes can enter the cells

Elevated levels of galectin-3 are associated with tumorigenesis. Its inhibition with high-affinity carbohydrate ligands opens new therapeutic routes. Targeting of intracellular galectin-3 is challenging for polar inhibitors like carbohydrates. We demonstrate the potential of novel biomedical research tools, glycocalix[4]arenes, to enter epithelial cells, which may allow their interaction with galectin-3.

Suppression of galectin-4 attenuates peritoneal metastasis of poorly differentiated gastric cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Peritoneal dissemination, most often seen in metastatic and/or recurrent gastric cancer, is an inoperable condition that lacks effective treatment. The use of molecular targeted drugs is also limited; therefore, identifying novel therapeutic targets and improving our understanding of this metastatic cancer are an urgent requirement. In this study, we focused on galectin-4, which is specifically expressed in poorly differentiated cells with high potential for peritoneal dissemination.

METHODS

We knocked out the galectin-4 gene in NUGC4 cells using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing. Proliferation and peritoneal cancer formation in knockout cells were compared with those in wild-type and galectin-4 re-expressing cells. Western blotting and proximity ligation assays were performed to identify associated molecules affected by the expression of galectin-4. The effect of galectin-4 knockdown on cell proliferation and peritoneal metastasis was studied using a specific siRNA. Expression of galectin-4 in peritoneal metastatic tumors from 10 patients with gastric cancer was examined by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

Suppression of galectin-4 expression reduced proliferation and peritoneal metastasis of malignant gastric cancer cells. Galectin-4 knockout and knockdown reduced the expression of activated c-MET and CD44. Galectin-4 was found to interact with several proteins on the cell surface, including CD44 and c-MET, via its carbohydrate-binding ability. Immunohistochemistry showed galectin-4 expression in peritoneal metastatic tumor cells in all patients examined.

CONCLUSIONS

We clarified the role of galectin-4 in the development of peritoneal dissemination of poorly differentiated gastric cancer cells. Our data highlight the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of galectin-4 in the peritoneal dissemination of gastric cancer.

The role of galectins in immunity and infection

The galectin family consists of carbohydrate (glycan) binding proteins that are expressed by a wide variety of cells and bind to galactose-containing glycans. Galectins can be located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm, or can be secreted into the extracellular space. They can modulate innate and adaptive immune cells by binding to glycans on the surface of immune cells or intracellularly via carbohydrate-dependent or carbohydrate-independent interactions. Galectins expressed by immune cells can also participate in host responses to infection by directly binding to microorganisms or by modulating antimicrobial functions such as autophagy. Here we explore the diverse ways in which galectins have been shown to impact immunity and discuss the opportunities and challenges in the field.

Extracellular Galectin 4 Drives Immune Evasion and Promotes T-cell Apoptosis in Pancreatic Cancer

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is characterized by rich deposits of extracellular matrix (ECM), affecting the pathophysiology of the disease. Here, we identified galectin 4 (gal 4) as a cancer cell-produced protein that was deposited into the ECM of PDAC tumors and detected high-circulating levels of gal 4 in patients with PDAC. In orthotopic transplantation experiments, we observed increased infiltration of T cells and prolonged survival in immunocompetent mice transplanted with cancer cells with reduced expression of gal 4. Increased survival was not observed in immunodeficient RAG1-/- mice, demonstrating that the effect was mediated by the adaptive immune system. By performing single-cell RNA-sequencing, we found that the myeloid compartment and cancer-associated fibroblast (CAF) subtypes were altered in the transplanted tumors. Reduced gal 4 expression associated with a higher proportion of myofibroblastic CAFs and reduced numbers of inflammatory CAFs. We also found higher proportions of M1 macrophages, T cells, and antigen-presenting dendritic cells in tumors with reduced gal 4 expression. Using a coculture system, we observed that extracellular gal 4 induced apoptosis in T cells by binding N-glycosylation residues on CD3ε/δ. Hence, we show that gal 4 is involved in immune evasion and identify gal 4 as a promising drug target for overcoming immunosuppression in PDAC.

Proteotoxic stress disrupts epithelial integrity by inducing MTOR sequestration and autophagy overactivation

Macroautophagy/autophagy, an evolutionarily conserved degradation system, serves to clear intracellular components through the lysosomal pathway. Mounting evidence has revealed cytoprotective roles of autophagy; however, the intracellular causes of overactivated autophagy, which has cytotoxic effects, remain elusive. Here we show that sustained proteotoxic stress induced by loss of the RING and Kelch repeat-containing protein C53A5.6/RIKE-1 induces sequestration of LET-363/MTOR complex and overactivation of autophagy, and consequently impairs epithelial integrity in C. elegans. In C53A5.6/RIKE-1-deficient animals, blocking autophagosome formation effectively prevents excessive endosomal degradation, mitigates mislocalization of intestinal membrane components and restores intestinal lumen morphology. However, autophagy inhibition does not affect LET-363/MTOR aggregation in animals with compromised C53A5.6/RIKE-1 function. Improving proteostasis capacity by reducing DAF-2 insulin/IGF1 signaling markedly relieves the aggregation of LET-363/MTOR and alleviates autophagy overactivation, which in turn reverses derailed endosomal trafficking and rescues epithelial morphogenesis defects in C53A5.6/RIKE-1-deficient animals. Hence, our studies reveal that C53A5.6/RIKE-1-mediated proteostasis is critical for maintaining the basal level of autophagy and epithelial integrity.Abbreviations: ACT-5: actin 5; ACTB: actin beta; ALs: autolysosomes; APs: autophagosomes; AJM-1: apical junction molecule; ATG: autophagy related; C. elegans: Caenorhabditis elegans; CPL-1: cathepsin L family; DAF: abnormal dauer formation; DLG-1: Drosophila discs large homolog; ERM-1: ezrin/radixin/moesin; EPG: ectopic P granule; GFP: freen fluorescent protein; HLH-30: helix loop helix; HSP: heat shock protein; LAAT-1: lysosome associated amino acid transporter; LET: lethal; LGG-1: LC3, GABARAP and GATE-16 family; LMP-1: LAMP (lysosome-associated membrane protein) homolog; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; NUC-1: abnormal nuclease; PEPT-1/OPT-2: Peptide transporter family; PGP-1: P-glycoprotein related; RAB: RAB family; RIKE-1: RING and Kelch repeat-containing protein; SLCF-1: solute carrier family; SQST-1: sequestosome related; SPTL-1: serine palmitoyl transferase family.

Galectins—Potential Therapeutic Targets for Neurodegenerative Disorders

Advancements in medicine have increased the longevity of humans, resulting in a higher incidence of chronic diseases. Due to the rise in the elderly population, age-dependent neurodegenerative disorders are becoming increasingly prevalent. The available treatment options only provide symptomatic relief and do not cure the underlying cause of the disease. Therefore, it has become imperative to discover new markers and therapies to modulate the course of disease progression and develop better treatment options for the affected individuals. Growing evidence indicates that neuroinflammation is a common factor and one of the main inducers of neuronal damage and degeneration. Galectins (Gals) are a class of β-galactoside-binding proteins (lectins) ubiquitously expressed in almost all vital organs. Gals modulate various cellular responses and regulate significant biological functions, including immune response, proliferation, differentiation, migration, and cell growth, through their interaction with glycoproteins and glycolipids. In recent years, extensive research has been conducted on the Gal superfamily, with Gal-1, Gal-3, and Gal-9 in prime focus. Their roles have been described in modulating neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative processes. In this review, we discuss the role of Gals in the causation and progression of neurodegenerative disorders. We describe the role of Gals in microglia and astrocyte modulation, along with their pro- and anti-inflammatory functions. In addition, we discuss the potential use of Gals as a novel therapeutic target for neuroinflammation and restoring tissue damage in neurodegenerative diseases.

Galectin-4 as a Novel Biomarker of Neonatal Intestinal Injury

BACKGROUND

Neonates are at risk of gastrointestinal emergencies including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and spontaneous intestinal perforation (SIP). Identifying biomarkers to aid in diagnosis is imperative. We hypothesized that circulating intestinal-specific protein concentrations would distinguish infants with intestinal injury from controls.

AIMS

To identify serum concentrations of intestinal-specific protein(s) in infants with intestinal injury and controls.

METHODS

We used an in silico approach to identify intestinal-specific proteins. We collected serum from control infants and infants with NEC or SIP and measured protein concentrations using ELISA. If baseline concentrations were near the detection limit in initial control assays, we proceeded to assess concentrations in a larger cohort of controls and infants with injury. Control infants were frequency matched to infants with injury and compared with nonparametric and mixed-effects models analysis.

RESULTS

We evaluated four proteins with high intestinal expression: Galectin-4 (Gal-4), S100G, Trefoil Factor-3, and alanyl aminopeptidase. Only Gal-4 demonstrated consistent results near the lower limit of quantification in controls and was studied in the larger cohorts. Gal-4 concentration was low in 111 control infants (median 0.012 ng/ml). By contrast, Gal-4 was significantly increased at diagnosis in infants with surgical NEC and SIP (n = 14, p ≤ 0.001 and n = 8, p = 0.031) compared to matched controls, but not in infants with medical NEC (n = 32, p = 0.10).

CONCLUSIONS

Of the intestinal-specific proteins evaluated, circulating Gal-4 concentrations were at the assay detection limit in control infants. Gal-4 concentrations were significantly elevated in infants with surgical NEC or SIP, suggesting that Gal-4 may serve as a biomarker for neonatal intestinal injury.

Cloning, Expression, and Purification of Galectins for In Vitro Studies

Galectins are best known for their ability to bind glycoconjugates containing β-galactose, but classification of these small proteins within the galectin family is also defined by amino acid homology within structural domains and exon/intron junctions within genes. As galectins are expressed by organisms as diverse as some fungi, C. elegans, fish, birds and mammals, and biological activities attributed to galectins are equally diverse, it becomes essential to identify, clone, and characterize galectins from many sources. Glutathione S-transferase (GST) fused to the amino-terminus of galectin cDNAs has proven to be especially useful for the preparation of recombinant galectins in bacteria for use on glycan arrays, in experiments with cultured or isolated cells, and in pull-down assays with immunopurified glycoproteins. Many galectins are stabilized by reducing reagents, such that binding and elution of GST-galectins from glutathione-conjugated Sepharose with excess glutathione is both efficient and innocuous. The ability to bind and elute GST-galectins from lactose-conjugated Sepharose with excess lactose provides a relatively easy means to insure that galectins are competent for glycoconjugate binding prior to experimentation. This chapter focuses primarily on the varied approaches to use GST-galectin binding to glutathione- and lactose-conjugated Sepharose to purify recombinant galectins and then develop effective experimental protocols to characterize the specificity, interactions and function of galectins cloned from any source. We provide one example where a pull-down assay with all the GST-tagged canine galectins reveals that the C-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain of galectin-9 (Gal-9C) specifically recognizes the glycan-dependent apical targeting signal from the glycoprotein MUC1.

Glycans in autophagy, endocytosis and lysosomal functions

Glycans have been shown to function as versatile molecular signals in cells. This prompted us to look at their roles in endocytosis, endolysosomal system and autophagy. We start by introducing the cell biological aspects of these pathways, the concept of the sugar code, and provide an overview on the role of glycans in the targeting of lysosomal proteins and in lysosomal functions. Moreover, we review evidence on the regulation of endocytosis and autophagy by glycans. Finally, we discuss the emerging concept that cytosolic exposure of luminal glycans, and their detection by endogenous lectins, provides a mechanism for the surveillance of the integrity of the endolysosomal compartments, and serves their eventual repair or disposal.

Imitating evolution's tinkering by protein engineering reveals extension of human galectin-7 activity

Wild-type lectins have distinct types of modular design. As a step to explain the physiological importance of their special status, hypothesis-driven protein engineering is used to generate variants. Concerning adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins, non-covalently associated homodimers are commonly encountered in vertebrates. The homodimeric galectin-7 (Gal-7) is a multifunctional context-dependent modulator. Since the possibility of conversion from the homodimer to hybrids with other galectin domains, i.e. from Gal-1 and Gal-3, has recently been discovered, we designed Gal-7-based constructs, i.e. stable (covalently linked) homo- and heterodimers. They were produced and purified by affinity chromatography, and the sugar-binding activity of each lectin unit proven by calorimetry. Inspection of profiles of binding of labeled galectins to an array-like platform with various cell types, i.e. sections of murine epididymis and jejunum, and impact on neuroblastoma cell proliferation revealed no major difference between natural and artificial (stable) homodimers. When analyzing heterodimers, acquisition of altered properties was seen. Remarkably, binding properties and activity as effector can depend on the order of arrangement of lectin domains (from N- to C-termini) and on the linker length. After dissociation of the homodimer, the Gal-7 domain can build new functionally active hybrids with other partners. This study provides a clear direction for research on defining the full range of Gal-7 functionality and offers the perspective of testing applications for engineered heterodimers.

Galectin-3: A factotum in carcinogenesis bestowing an archery for prevention

Cancer metastasis and therapy resistance are the foremost hurdles in oncology at the moment. This review aims to pinpoint the functional aspects of a unique multifaceted glycosylated molecule in both intracellular and extracellular compartments of a cell namely galectin-3 along with its metastatic potential in different types of cancer. All materials reviewed here were collected through the search engines PubMed, Scopus, and Google scholar. Among the 15 galectins identified, the chimeric gal-3 plays an indispensable role in the differentiation, transformation, and multi-step process of tumor metastasis. It has been implicated in the molecular mechanisms that allow the cancer cells to survive in the intravascular milieu and promote tumor cell extravasation, ultimately leading to metastasis. Gal-3 has also been found to have a pivotal role in immune surveillance and pro-angiogenesis and several studies have pointed out the importance of gal-3 in establishing a resistant phenotype, particularly through the epithelial-mesenchymal transition process. Additionally, some recent findings suggest the use of gal-3 inhibitors in overcoming therapeutic resistance. All these reports suggest that the deregulation of these specific lectins at the cellular level could inhibit cancer progression and metastasis. A more systematic study of glycosylation in clinical samples along with the development of selective gal-3 antagonists inhibiting the activity of these molecules at the cellular level offers an innovative strategy for primary cancer prevention.

Manning J, Abad-Rodríguez J, Gabius HJ. What Cyto- and Histochemistry Can Do to Crack the Sugar Code

As letters form the vocabulary of a language, biochemical 'symbols' (the building blocks of oligo- and polymers) make writing molecular messages possible. Compared to nucleotides and amino acids, sugars have chemical properties that facilitate to reach an unsurpassed level of oligomer diversity. These glycans are a part of the ubiquitous cellular glycoconjugates. Cyto- and histochemically, the glycans' structural complexity is mapped by glycophenotyping of cells and tissues using receptors ('readers', thus called lectins), hereby revealing its dynamic spatiotemporal regulation: these data support the concept of a sugar code. When proceeding from work with plant (haem)agglutinins as such tools to the discovery of endogenous (tissue) lectins, it became clear that a broad panel of biological meanings can indeed be derived from the sugar-based vocabulary (the natural glycome incl. post-synthetic modifications) by glycan-lectin recognition in situ. As consequence, the immunocyto- and histochemical analysis of lectin expression is building a solid basis for the steps toward tracking down functional correlations, for example in processes leading to cell adhesion, apoptosis, autophagy or growth regulation as well as targeted delivery of glycoproteins. Introduction of labeled tissue lectins to glycan profiling assists this endeavor by detecting counterreceptor(s) in situ. Combining these tools and their applications strategically will help to take the trip toward the following long-range aim: to compile a dictionary for the glycan vocabulary that translates each message (oligosaccharide) into its bioresponse(s), that is to crack the sugar code.

Probing sulfatide-tissue lectin recognition with functionalized glycodendrimersomes

The small 3-O-sulfated galactose head group of sulfatides, an abundant glycosphingolipid class, poses the (sphinx-like) riddle on involvement of glycan bridging by tissue lectins (sugar code). First, synthesis of head group derivatives for functionalization of amphiphilic dendrimers is performed. Aggregation of resulting (biomimetic) vesicles, alone or in combination with lactose, demonstrates bridging by a tissue lectin (galectin-4). Physiologically, this can stabilize glycolipid-rich microdomains (rafts) and associate sulfatide-rich regions with specific glycoproteins. Further testing documents importance of heterobivalency and linker length. Structurally, sulfatide recognition by galectin-8 is shown to involve sphingosine's OH group as substitute for the 3′-hydroxyl of glucose of lactose. These discoveries underscore functionality of this small determinant on biomembranes intracellularly and on the cell surface. Moreover, they provide a role model to examine counterreceptor capacity of more complex glycans of glycosphingolipids and to start their bottom-up glycotope surface programming.

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Nanoparticle programming detects sulfatide-(N)-glycan bridging by galectins-4 and -8

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Protein design (linker/domain type) is a switch for aggregation activity

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Sphingosine's OH group is involved in contact building with a galectin

Lumenal Galectin-9-Lamp2 interaction regulates lysosome and autophagy to prevent pathogenesis in the intestine and pancreas

Intracellular galectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins capable of sensing and repairing damaged lysosomes. As in the physiological conditions glycosylated moieties are mostly in the lysosomal lumen but not cytosol, it is unclear whether galectins reside in lysosomes, bind to glycosylated proteins, and regulate lysosome functions. Here, we show in gut epithelial cells, galectin-9 is enriched in lysosomes and predominantly binds to lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (Lamp2) in a Asn(N)-glycan dependent manner. At the steady state, galectin-9 binding to glycosylated Asn175 of Lamp2 is essential for functionality of lysosomes and autophagy. Loss of N-glycan-binding capability of galectin-9 causes its complete depletion from lysosomes and defective autophagy, leading to increased endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress preferentially in autophagy-active Paneth cells and acinar cells. Unresolved ER stress consequently causes cell degeneration or apoptosis that associates with colitis and pancreatic disorders in mice. Therefore, lysosomal galectins maintain homeostatic function of lysosomes to prevent organ pathogenesis.

Galectins in Intra- and Extracellular Vesicles

Carbohydrate-binding galectins are expressed in various tissues of multicellular organisms. They are involved in autophagy, cell migration, immune response, inflammation, intracellular transport, and signaling. In recent years, novel roles of galectin-interaction with membrane components have been characterized, which lead to the formation of vesicles with diverse functions. These vesicles are part of intracellular transport pathways, belong to the cellular degradation machinery, or can be released for cell-to-cell communication. Several characteristics of galectins in the lumen or at the membrane of newly formed vesicular structures are discussed in this review and illustrate the need to fully elucidate their contributions at the molecular and structural level.

Galectin-3 in Inflammasome Activation and Primary Biliary Cholangitis Development

Primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune liver disease characterized by inflammation and damage of small bile ducts. The NLRP3 inflammasome is a multimeric complex of proteins that after activation with various stimuli initiates an inflammatory process. Increasing data obtained from animal studies implicate the role of NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of various diseases. Galectin-3 is a β-galactoside-binding lectin that plays important roles in various biological processes including cell proliferation, differentiation, transformation and apoptosis, pre-mRNA splicing, inflammation, fibrosis and host defense. The multilineage immune response at various stages of PBC development includes the involvement of Gal-3 in the pathogenesis of this disease. The role of Galectin-3 in the specific binding to NLRP3, and inflammasome activation in models of primary biliary cholangitis has been recently described. This review provides a brief pathogenesis of PBC and discusses the current knowledge about the role of Gal-3 in NLRP3 activation and PBC development.

The emerging role of galectins in (re)myelination and its potential for developing new approaches to treat multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory, demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system with unknown etiology. Currently approved disease-modifying treatment modalities are immunomodulatory or immunosuppressive. While the applied drugs reduce the frequency and severity of the attacks, their efficacy to regenerate myelin membranes and to halt disease progression is limited. To achieve such therapeutic aims, understanding biological mechanisms of remyelination and identifying factors that interfere with remyelination in MS can give respective directions. Such a perspective is given by the emerging functional profile of galectins. They form a family of tissue lectins, which are potent effectors in processes as diverse as adhesion, apoptosis, immune mediator release or migration. This review focuses on endogenous and exogenous roles of galectins in glial cells such as oligodendrocytes, astrocytes and microglia in the context of de- and (re)myelination and its dysregulation in MS. Evidence is arising for a cooperation among family members so that timed expression and/or secretion of galectins-1, -3 and -4 result in modifying developmental myelination, (neuro)inflammatory processes, de- and remyelination. Dissecting the mechanisms that underlie the distinct activities of galectins and identifying galectins as target or tool to modulate remyelination have the potential to contribute to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for MS.

Galectin-10, the protein that forms Charcot-Leyden crystals, is not stored in granules but resides in the peripheral cytoplasm of human eosinophils

A predominant protein of human eosinophils is galectin-10 (Gal-10), also known as Charcot-Leyden crystal protein (CLC-P) because of its remarkable ability to form Charcot-Leyden crystals (CLCs), which are frequently found in tissues from patients with eosinophilic disorders. CLC-P/Gal-10 is highly expressed in human eosinophils and considered a biomarker of eosinophil involvement in inflammation. However, the intracellular sites where large pools of CLC-P/Gal-10 constitutively reside are still unclear, and whether this protein is derived or not from eosinophil granules remains to be established. Here, we applied pre-embedding immunonanogold transmission electron microscopy combined with strategies for optimal antigen and cell preservation and quantitative imaging analysis to investigate, for the first time, the intracellular localization of CLC-P/Gal-10 at high resolution in resting and activated human eosinophils. We demonstrated that CLC-P/Gal-10 is mostly stored in the peripheral cytoplasm of human eosinophils, being accumulated within an area of ∼250 nm wide underneath the plasma membrane and not within specific (secretory) granules, a pattern also observed by immunofluorescence. High-resolution analysis of single cells revealed that CLC-P/Gal-10 interacts with the plasma membrane with immunoreactive microdomains of high CLC-P/Gal-10 density being found in ∼60% of the membrane area. Eosinophil stimulation with CCL11 or TNF-α, which are known inducers of eosinophil secretion, did not change the peripheral localization of CLC-P/Gal-10 as observed by both immunofluorescence and immuno-EM (electron microscopy). Thus, in contrast to other preformed eosinophil proteins, CLC-P/Gal-10 neither is stored within secretory granules nor exported through classical degranulation mechanisms (piecemeal degranulation and compound exocytosis).

How galectins have become multifunctional proteins

Having identified glycans of cellular glycoconjugates as versatile molecular messages, their recognition by sugar receptors (lectins) is a fundamental mechanism within the flow of biological information. This type of molecular interplay is increasingly revealed to be involved in a wide range of (patho)physiological processes. To do so, it is a vital prerequisite that a lectin (and its expression) can develop more than a single skill, that is the general ability to bind glycans. By studying the example of vertebrate galectins as a model, a total of five relevant characteristics is disclosed: i) access to intra- and extracellular sites, ii) fine-tuned gene regulation (with evidence for co-regulation of counterreceptors) including the existence of variants due to alternative splicing or single nucleotide polymorphisms, iii) specificity to distinct glycans from the glycome with different molecular meaning, iv) binding capacity also to peptide motifs at different sites on the protein and v) diversity of modular architecture. They combine to endow these lectins with the capacity to serve as multi-purpose tools. Underscoring the arising broad-scale significance of tissue lectins, their numbers in terms of known families and group members have steadily grown by respective research that therefore unveiled a well-stocked toolbox. The generation of a network of (ga)lectins by evolutionary diversification affords the opportunity for additive/synergistic or antagonistic interplay in situ, an emerging aspect of (ga)lectin functionality. It warrants close scrutiny. The realization of the enormous potential of combinatorial permutations using the five listed features gives further efforts to understand the rules of functional glycomics/lectinomics a clear direction.

How presence of a signal peptide affects human galectins-1 and -4: Clues to explain common absence of a leader sequence among adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins

BACKGROUND

Galectins are multifunctional effectors, which all share absence of a signal sequence. It is not clear why galectins belong to the small set of proteins, which avoid the classical export route.

METHODS

Products of recombinant galectin expression in P. pastoris were analyzed by haemagglutination, gel filtration and electrophoresis and lectin blotting as well as mass spectrometry on the level of tryptic peptides and purified glycopeptides(s). Density gradient centrifugation and confocal laser scanning microscopy facilitated localization in transfected human and rat cells, proliferation assays determined activity as growth mediator.

RESULTS

Directing galectin-1 to the classical secretory pathway in yeast produces N-glycosylated protein that is active. It cofractionates and -localizes with calnexin in human cells, only Gal-4 is secreted. Presence of N-glycan(s) reduces affinity of cell binding and growth regulation by Gal-1.

CONCLUSIONS

Folding and activity of a galectin are maintained in signal-peptide-directed routing, N-glycosylation occurs. This pathway would deplete cytoplasm and nucleus of galectin, presence of N-glycans appears to interfere with lattice formation.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Availability of glycosylated galectins facilitates functional assays to contribute to explain why galectins invariably avoid classical routing for export.

Galectin-4, a Negative Regulator of Oligodendrocyte Differentiation, Is Persistently Present in Axons and Microglia/Macrophages in Multiple Sclerosis Lesions

Neuron-derived molecules are potent regulators of oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination during brain development and upon demyelination. Their analysis will thus contribute to understanding remyelination failure in demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Previously, we have identified neuronal galectin-4 as a novel negative soluble regulator in the timing of developmental myelination. Here, we investigated whether galectin-4 is re-expressed in axons upon demyelination to regulate the timing of remyelination. Our findings revealed that galectin-4 is transiently localized to axons in demyelinated areas upon cuprizone-induced demyelination. In contrast, in chronic demyelinated MS lesions, where remyelination fails, galectin-4 is permanently present on axons. Remarkably, microglia/macrophages in cuprizone-demyelinated areas also harbor galectin-4, as also observed in activated microglia/macrophages that are present in active MS lesions and in inflammatory infiltrates in chronic-relapsing experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. In vitro analysis showed that galectin-4 is effectively endocytosed by macrophages, and may scavenge galectin-4 from oligodendrocytes, and that endogenous galectin-4 levels are increased in alternatively interleukin-4-activated macrophages and microglia. Hence, similar to developmental myelination, the (re)expressed galectin-4 upon demyelination may act as factor in the timing of oligodendrocyte differentiation, while the persistent presence of galectin-4 on demyelinated axons may disrupt this fine-tuning of remyelination.

The sugar code: letters and vocabulary, writers, editors and readers and biosignificance of functional glycan-lectin pairing

Ubiquitous occurrence in Nature, abundant presence at strategically important places such as the cell surface and dynamic shifts in their profile by diverse molecular switches qualifies the glycans to serve as versatile biochemical signals. However, their exceptional structural complexity often prevents one noting how simple the rules of objective-driven assembly of glycan-encoded messages are. This review is intended to provide a tutorial for a broad readership. The principles of why carbohydrates meet all demands to be the coding section of an information transfer system, and this at unsurpassed high density, are explained. Despite appearing to be a random assortment of sugars and their substitutions, seemingly subtle structural variations in glycan chains by a sophisticated enzymatic machinery have emerged to account for their specific biological meaning. Acting as 'readers' of glycan-encoded information, carbohydrate-specific receptors (lectins) are a means to turn the glycans' potential to serve as signals into a multitude of (patho)physiologically relevant responses. Once the far-reaching significance of this type of functional pairing has become clear, the various modes of spatial presentation of glycans and of carbohydrate recognition domains in lectins can be explored and rationalized. These discoveries are continuously revealing the intricacies of mutually adaptable routes to achieve essential selectivity and specificity. Equipped with these insights, readers will gain a fundamental understanding why carbohydrates form the third alphabet of life, joining the ranks of nucleotides and amino acids, and will also become aware of the importance of cellular communication via glycan-lectin recognition.

Galectin-4 Interaction with CD14 Triggers the Differentiation of Monocytes into Macrophage-like Cells via the MAPK Signaling Pathway

Galectin-4 (Gal-4) is a β-galactoside-binding protein mostly expressed in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. Although intensive functional studies have been done for other galectin isoforms, the immunoregulatory function of Gal-4 still remains ambiguous. Here, we demonstrated that Gal-4 could bind to CD14 on monocytes and induce their differentiation into macrophage-like cells through the MAPK signaling pathway. Gal-4 induced the phenotypic changes on monocytes by altering the expression of various surface molecules, and induced functional changes such as increased cytokine production and matrix metalloproteinase expression and reduced phagocytic capacity. Concomitant with these changes, Gal-4-treated monocytes became adherent and showed elongated morphology with higher expression of macrophage markers. Notably, we found that Gal-4 interacted with CD14 and activated the MAPK signaling cascade. Therefore, these findings suggest that Gal-4 may exert the immunoregulatory functions through the activation and differentiation of monocytes.

The galectin LEC-5 is a novel binding partner for RAB-11

RAB-11/Rab11 is an endosomal GTPase with conserved roles in directional trafficking and apical domain formation in polarized epithelial cells. From a yeast two-hybrid screen using full-length C. elegans RAB-11 as bait, we identified LEC-5 as a novel binding protein for RAB-11. LEC-5 is an ortholog of mammalian Galectin-9 which associates with glycosphingolipids and is implicated in apical cargo sorting. We further confirmed the interaction between RAB-11 and LEC-5 via GST-pull down, co-immunoprecipitation and bimolecular fluorescence complementation. In addition, we showed that LEC-5 binds to RAB-11 with its C-terminus. Our results indicate a novel role of RAB-11 in apical sorting via LEC-5. Such a role would extend RAB-11's function as a master regulator of apical trafficking and suggest it could translate apical sorting signals into apical vesicle directionality.

Galectin-3 modulates the polarized surface delivery of β1-integrin in epithelial cells

Epithelial cells require a precise intracellular transport and sorting machinery to establish and maintain their polarized architecture. This machinery includes β-galactoside-binding galectins for targeting of glycoprotein to the apical membrane. Galectin-3 sorts cargo destined for the apical plasma membrane into vesicular carriers. After delivery of cargo to the apical milieu, galectin-3 recycles back into sorting organelles. We analysed the role of galectin-3 in the polarized distribution of β1-integrin in MDCK cells. Integrins are located primarily at the basolateral domain of epithelial cells. We demonstrate that a minor pool of β1-integrin interacts with galectin-3 at the apical plasma membrane. Knockdown of galectin-3 decreases apical delivery of β1-integrin. This loss is restored by supplementation with recombinant galectin-3 and galectin-3 overexpression. Our data suggest that galectin-3 targets newly synthesized β1-integrin to the apical membrane and promotes apical delivery of β1-integrin internalized from the basolateral membrane. In parallel, knockout of galectin-3 results in a reduction in cell proliferation and an impairment in proper cyst development. Our results suggest that galectin-3 modulates the surface distribution of β1-integrin and affects the morphogenesis of polarized cells.

Galectins at a glance

Galectins are carbohydrate-binding proteins that are involved in many physiological functions, such as inflammation, immune responses, cell migration, autophagy and signalling. They are also linked to diseases such as fibrosis, cancer and heart disease. How such a small family of only 15 members can have such widespread effects remains a conundrum. In this Cell Science at a Glance article, we summarise recent literature on the many cellular activities that have been ascribed to galectins. As shown on the accompanying poster, these include carbohydrate-independent interactions with cytosolic or nuclear targets and carbohydrate-dependent interactions with extracellular glycoconjugates. We discuss how these intra- and extracellular activities might be linked and point out the importance of unravelling molecular mechanisms of galectin function to gain a true understanding of their contributions to the physiology of the cell. We close with a short outlook on the organismal functions of galectins and a perspective on the major challenges in the field.

Glycan Chains of Gangliosides: Functional Ligands for Tissue Lectins (Siglecs/Galectins)

Molecular signals on the cell surface are responsible for adhesion and communication. Of relevance in this respect, their chemical properties endow carbohydrates with the capacity to store a maximum of information in a minimum of space. One way to present glycans on the cell surface is their covalent conjugation to a ceramide anchor. Among the resulting glycosphingolipids, gangliosides are special due to the presence of at least one sialic acid in the glycan chains. Their spatial accessibility and the dynamic regulation of their profile are factors that argue in favor of a role of glycans of gangliosides as ligands (counterreceptors) for carbohydrate-binding proteins (lectins). Indeed, as discovered first for a bacterial toxin, tissue lectins bind gangliosides and mediate contact formation (trans) and signaling (cis). While siglecs have a preference for higher sialylated glycans, certain galectins also target the monosialylated pentasaccharide of ganglioside GM1. Enzymatic interconversion of ganglioside glycans by sialidase action, relevant for neuroblastoma cell differentiation and growth control in vitro, for axonogenesis and axon regeneration, as well as for proper communication between effector and regulatory T cells, changes lectin-binding affinity profoundly. The GD1a-to-GM1 "editing" is recognized by such lectins, for example, myelin-associated glycoprotein (siglec-4) losing affinity and galectin-1 gaining reactivity, and then translated into postbinding signaling. Orchestrations of loss/gain of affinity, of ganglioside/lectin expression, and of lectin presence in a network offer ample opportunities for fine-tuning. Thus glycans of gangliosides such as GD1a and GM1 are functional counterreceptors by a pairing with tissue lectins, an emerging aspect of ganglioside and lectin functionality.

Galectins in Intestinal Inflammation: Galectin-1 Expression Delineates Response to Treatment in Celiac Disease Patients

Galectins, a family of animal lectins characterized by their affinity for N-acetyllactosamine-enriched glycoconjugates, modulate several immune cell processes shaping the course of innate and adaptive immune responses. Through interaction with a wide range of glycosylated receptors bearing complex branched N-glycans and core 2-O-glycans, these endogenous lectins trigger distinct signaling programs thereby controling immune cell activation, differentiation, recruitment and survival. Given the unique features of mucosal inflammation and the differential expression of galectins throughout the gastrointestinal tract, we discuss here key findings on the role of galectins in intestinal inflammation, particularly Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and celiac disease (CeD) patients, as well as in murine models resembling these inflammatory conditions. In addition, we present new data highlighting the regulated expression of galectin-1 (Gal-1), a proto-type member of the galectin family, during intestinal inflammation in untreated and treated CeD patients. Our results unveil a substantial upregulation of Gal-1 accompanying the anti-inflammatory and tolerogenic response associated with gluten-free diet in CeD patients, suggesting a major role of this lectin in favoring resolution of inflammation and restoration of mucosal homeostasis. Thus, a coordinated network of galectins and their glycosylated ligands, exerting either anti-inflammatory or proinflammatory responses, may influence the interplay between intestinal epithelial cells and the highly specialized gut immune system in physiologic and pathologic settings.

Exploring functional pairing between surface glycoconjugates and human galectins using programmable glycodendrimersomes

Cells are decorated with charged and uncharged carbohydrate ligands known as glycans, which are responsible for several key functions, including their interactions with proteins known as lectins. Here, a platform consisting of synthetic nanoscale vesicles, known as glycodendrimersomes, which can be programmed with cell surface-like structural and topological complexity, is employed to dissect design aspects of glycan presentation, with specificity for lectin-mediated bridging. Aggregation assays reveal the extent of cross-linking of these biomimetic nanoscale vesicles—presenting both anionic and neutral ligands in a bioactive manner—with disease-related human and other galectins, thus offering the possibility of unraveling the nature of these fundamental interactions.

Precise translation of glycan-encoded information into cellular activity depends critically on highly specific functional pairing between glycans and their human lectin counter receptors. Sulfoglycolipids, such as sulfatides, are important glycolipid components of the biological membranes found in the nervous and immune systems. The optimal molecular and spatial design aspects of sulfated and nonsulfated glycans with high specificity for lectin-mediated bridging are unknown. To elucidate how different molecular and spatial aspects combine to ensure the high specificity of lectin-mediated bridging, a bottom-up toolbox is devised. To this end, negatively surface-charged glycodendrimersomes (GDSs), of different nanoscale dimensions, containing sulfo-lactose groups are self-assembled in buffer from a synthetic sulfatide mimic: Janus glycodendrimer (JGD) containing a 3′-O-sulfo-lactose headgroup. Also prepared for comparative analysis are GDSs with nonsulfated lactose, a common epitope of human membranes. These self-assembled GDSs are employed in aggregation assays with 15 galectins, comprising disease-related human galectins, and other natural and engineered variants from four families, having homodimeric, heterodimeric, and chimera architectures. There are pronounced differences in aggregation capacity between human homodimeric and heterodimeric galectins, and also with respect to their responsiveness to the charge of carbohydrate-derived ligand. Assays reveal strong differential impact of ligand surface charge and density, as well as lectin concentration and structure, on the extent of surface cross-linking. These findings demonstrate how synthetic JGD-headgroup tailoring teamed with protein engineering and network assays can help explain how molecular matchmaking operates in the cellular context of glycan and lectin complexity.

Parallel mRNA, proteomics and miRNA expression analysis in cell line models of the intestine

AIM

To identify miRNA-regulated proteins differentially expressed between Caco2 and HT-29: two principal cell line models of the intestine.

METHODS

Exponentially growing Caco-2 and HT-29 cells were harvested and prepared for mRNA, miRNA and proteomic profiling. mRNA microarray profiling analysis was carried out using the Affymetrix GeneChip Human Gene 1.0 ST array. miRNA microarray profiling analysis was carried out using the Affymetrix Genechip miRNA 3.0 array. Quantitative Label-free LC-MS/MS proteomic analysis was performed using a Dionex Ultimate 3000 RSLCnano system coupled to a hybrid linear ion trap/Orbitrap mass spectrometer. Peptide identities were validated in Proteome Discoverer 2.1 and were subsequently imported into Progenesis QI software for further analysis. Hierarchical cluster analysis for all three parallel datasets (miRNA, proteomics, mRNA) was conducted in the R software environment using the Euclidean distance measure and Ward's clustering algorithm. The prediction of miRNA and oppositely correlated protein/mRNA interactions was performed using TargetScan 6.1. GO biological process, molecular function and cellular component enrichment analysis was carried out for the DE miRNA, protein and mRNA lists via the Pathway Studio 11.3 Web interface using their Mammalian database.

RESULTS

Differential expression (DE) profiling comparing the intestinal cell lines HT-29 and Caco-2 identified 1795 Genes, 168 Proteins and 160 miRNAs as DE between the two cell lines. At the gene level, 1084 genes were upregulated and 711 were downregulated in the Caco-2 cell line relative to the HT-29 cell line. At the protein level, 57 proteins were found to be upregulated and 111 downregulated in the Caco-2 cell line relative to the HT-29 cell line. Finally, at the miRNAs level, 104 were upregulated and 56 downregulated in the Caco-2 cell line relative to the HT-29 cell line. Gene ontology (GO) analysis of the DE mRNA identified cell adhesion, migration and ECM organization, cellular lipid and cholesterol metabolic processes, small molecule transport and a range of responses to external stimuli, while similar analysis of the DE protein list identified gene expression/transcription, epigenetic mechanisms, DNA replication, differentiation and translation ontology categories. The DE protein and gene lists were found to share 15 biological processes including for example epithelial cell differentiation [P value ≤ 1.81613E-08 (protein list); P ≤ 0.000434311 (gene list)] and actin filament bundle assembly [P value ≤ 0.001582797 (protein list); P ≤ 0.002733714 (gene list)]. Analysis was conducted on the three data streams acquired in parallel to identify targets undergoing potential miRNA translational repression identified 34 proteins, whose respective mRNAs were detected but no change in expression was observed. Of these 34 proteins, 27 proteins downregulated in the Caco-2 cell line relative to the HT-29 cell line and predicted to be targeted by 19 unique anti-correlated/upregulated microRNAs and 7 proteins upregulated in the Caco-2 cell line relative to the HT-29 cell line and predicted to be targeted by 15 unique anti-correlated/downregulated microRNAs.

CONCLUSION

This first study providing "tri-omics" analysis of the principal intestinal cell line models Caco-2 and HT-29 has identified 34 proteins potentially undergoing miRNA translational repression.

The sugar code: Why glycans are so important

The cell surface is the platform for presentation of biochemical signals that are required for intercellular communication. Their profile necessarily needs to be responsive to internal and external factors in a highly dynamic manner. The structural features of the signals must meet the criterion of high-density information coding in a minimum of space. Thus, only biomolecules that can generate many different oligomers ('words') from few building blocks ('letters') qualify to meet this challenge. Examining the respective properties of common biocompounds that form natural oligo- and polymers comparatively, starting with nucleotides and amino acids (the first and second alphabets of life), comes up with sugars as clear frontrunner. The enzymatic machinery for the biosynthesis of sugar chains can indeed link monosaccharides, the letters of the third alphabet of life, in a manner to reach an unsurpassed number of oligomers (complex carbohydrates or glycans). Fittingly, the resulting glycome of a cell can be likened to a fingerprint. Conjugates of glycans with proteins and sphingolipids (glycoproteins and glycolipids) are ubiquitous in Nature. This implies a broad (patho)physiologic significance. By looking at the signals, at the writers and the erasers of this information as well as its readers and ensuing consequences, this review intends to introduce a broad readership to the principles of the concept of the sugar code.

Mimicking Complex Biological Membranes and Their Programmable Glycan Ligands with Dendrimersomes and Glycodendrimersomes

Synthetic vesicles have been assembled and coassembled from phospholipids, their modified versions, and other single amphiphiles into liposomes, and from block copolymers into polymersomes. Their time-consuming synthesis and preparation as stable, monodisperse, and biocompatible liposomes and polymersomes called for the elaboration of new synthetic methodologies. Amphiphilic Janus dendrimers (JDs) and glycodendrimers (JGDs) represent the most recent self-assembling amphiphiles capable of forming monodisperse, stable, and multifunctional unilamellar and multilamellar onion-like vesicles denoted dendrimersomes (DSs) and glycodendrimersomes (GDSs), dendrimercubosomes (DCs), glycodendrimercubosomes (GDCs), and other complex architectures. Amphiphilic JDs consist of hydrophobic dendrons connected to hydrophilic dendrons and can be thought of as monodisperse oligomers of a single amphiphile. They can be functionalized with a variety of molecules such as dyes, and, in the case of JGDs, with carbohydrates. Their iterative modular synthesis provides efficient access to sequence control at the molecular level, resulting in topologies with specific epitope sequence and density. DSs, GDSs, and other architectures from JDs and JGDs serve as powerful tools for mimicking biological membranes and for biomedical applications such as targeted drug and gene delivery and theranostics. This Review covers all aspects of the synthesis of JDs and JGDs and their biological activity and applications after assembly in aqueous media.

Eukaryotic protein glycosylation: a primer for histochemists and cell biologists

Proteins undergo co- and posttranslational modifications, and their glycosylation is the most frequent and structurally variegated type. Histochemically, the detection of glycan presence has first been performed by stains. The availability of carbohydrate-specific tools (lectins, monoclonal antibodies) has revolutionized glycophenotyping, allowing monitoring of distinct structures. The different types of protein glycosylation in Eukaryotes are described. Following this educational survey, examples where known biological function is related to the glycan structures carried by proteins are given. In particular, mucins and their glycosylation patterns are considered as instructive proof-of-principle case. The tissue and cellular location of glycoprotein biosynthesis and metabolism is reviewed, with attention to new findings in goblet cells. Finally, protein glycosylation in disease is documented, with selected examples, where aberrant glycan expression impacts on normal function to let disease pathology become manifest. The histological applications adopted in these studies are emphasized throughout the text.

Long-chain GM1 gangliosides alter transmembrane domain registration through interdigitation

Extracellular and cytosolic leaflets in cellular membranes are distinctly different in lipid composition, yet they contribute together to signaling across the membranes. Here we consider a mechanism based on long-chain gangliosides for coupling the extracellular and cytosolic membrane leaflets together. Based on atomistic molecular dynamics simulations, we find that long-chain GM1 in the extracellular leaflet exhibits a strong tendency to protrude into the opposing bilayer leaflet. This interdigitation modulates the order in the cytosolic monolayer and thereby strengthens the interaction and coupling across a membrane. Coarse-grained simulations probing longer time scales in large membrane systems indicate that GM1 in the extracellular leaflet modulates the phase behavior in the cytosolic monolayer. While short-chain GM1 maintains phase-symmetric bilayers with a strong membrane registration effect, the situation is altered with long-chain GM1. Here, the significant interdigitation induced by long-chain GM1 modulates the behavior in the cytosolic GM1-free leaflet, weakening and slowing down the membrane registration process. The observed physical interaction mechanism provides a possible means to mediate or foster transmembrane communication associated with signal transduction.

Teaming up synthetic chemistry and histochemistry for activity screening in galectin-directed inhibitor design

A hallmark of endogenous lectins is their ability to select a few distinct glycoconjugates as counterreceptors for functional pairing from the natural abundance of cellular glycoproteins and glycolipids. As a consequence, assays to assess inhibition of lectin binding should necessarily come as close as possible to the physiological situation, to characterize an impact of a synthetic compound on biorelevant binding with pharmaceutical perspective. We here introduce in a proof-of-principle manner work with sections of paraffin-embedded tissue (jejunum, epididymis) and labeled adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins, harboring one (galectin-1 and galectin-3) or two (galectin-8) types of lectin domain. Six pairs of synthetic lactosides from tailoring of the headgroup (3'-O-sulfation) and the aglycone (β-methyl to aromatic S- and O-linked extensions) as well as three bi- to tetravalent glycoclusters were used as test compounds. Varying extents of reduction in staining intensity by synthetic compounds relative to unsubstituted/free lactose proved the applicability and sensitivity of the method. Flanking cytofluorimetric assays on lectin binding to native cells gave similar grading, excluding a major impact of tissue fixation. The experiments revealed cell/tissue binding of galectin-8 preferentially via one domain, depending on the cell type so that the effect of an inhibitor in a certain context cannot be extrapolated to other cells/tissues. Moreover, the work with the other galectins attests that this assay enables comprehensive analysis of the galectin network in serial tissue sections to determine overlaps and regional differences in inhibitory profiles.

Glycolipids and Lectins in Endocytic Uptake Processes

A host of endocytic processes has been described at the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells. Their categorization has most commonly referenced cytosolic machinery, of which the clathrin coat has occupied a preponderant position. In what concerns intra-membrane constituents, the focus of interest has been on phosphatidylinositol lipids and their capacity to orchestrate endocytic events on the cytosolic leaflet of the membrane. The contribution of extracellular determinants to the construction of endocytic pits has received much less attention, depite the fact that (glyco)sphingolipids are exoplasmic leaflet fabric of membrane domains, termed rafts, whose contributions to predominantly clathrin-independent internalization processes is well recognized. Furthermore, sugar modifications on extracellular domains of proteins, and sugar-binding proteins, termed lectins, have also been linked to the uptake of endocytic cargoes at the plasma membrane. In this review, we first summarize these contributions by extracellular determinants to the endocytic process. We thus propose a molecular hypothesis - termed the GL-Lect hypothesis - on how GlycoLipids and Lectins drive the formation of compositional nanoenvrionments from which the endocytic uptake of glycosylated cargo proteins is operated via clathrin-independent carriers. Finally, we position this hypothesis within the global context of endocytic pathway proposals that have emerged in recent years.

Sweet complementarity: the functional pairing of glycans with lectins

Carbohydrates establish the third alphabet of life. As part of cellular glycoconjugates, the glycans generate a multitude of signals in a minimum of space. The presence of distinct glycotopes and the glycome diversity are mapped by sugar receptors (antibodies and lectins). Endogenous (tissue) lectins can read the sugar-encoded information and translate it into functional aspects of cell sociology. Illustrated by instructive examples, each glycan has its own ligand properties. Lectins with different folds can converge to target the same epitope, while intrafamily diversification enables functional cooperation and antagonism. The emerging evidence for the concept of a network calls for a detailed fingerprinting. Due to the high degree of plasticity and dynamics of the display of genes for lectins the validity of extrapolations between different organisms of the phylogenetic tree yet is inevitably limited.

The role of galectin-4 in physiology and diseases

Galectin-4, a tandem repeat member of the β-galactoside-binding proteins, possesses two carbohydrate-recognition domains (CRD) in a single peptide chain. This lectin is mostly expressed in epithelial cells of the intestinal tract and secreted to the extracellular. The two domains have 40% similarity in amino acid sequence, but distinctly binding to various ligands. Just because the two domains bind to different ligands simultaneously, galectin-4 can be a crosslinker and crucial regulator in a large number of biological processes. Recent evidence shows that galectin-4 plays an important role in lipid raft stabilization, protein apical trafficking, cell adhesion, wound healing, intestinal inflammation, tumor progression, etc. This article reviews the physiological and pathological features of galectin-4 and its important role in such processes.

Structural characterisation of human galectin-4 N-terminal carbohydrate recognition domain in complex with glycerol, lactose, 3'-sulfo-lactose, and 2'-fucosyllactose

Galectin-4 is a tandem-repeat galectin with two distinct carbohydrate recognition domains (CRD). Galectin-4 is expressed mainly in the alimentary tract and is proposed to function as a lipid raft and adherens junction stabilizer by its glycan cross-linking capacity. Galectin-4 plays divergent roles in cancer and inflammatory conditions, either promoting or inhibiting each disease progression, depending on the specific pathological condition. The study of galectin-4's ligand-binding profile may help decipher its roles under specific conditions. Here we present the X-ray structures of human galectin-4 N-terminal CRD (galectin-4N) bound to different saccharide ligands. Galectin-4's overall fold and its core interactions to lactose are similar to other galectin CRDs. Galectin-4N recognises the sulfate cap of 3'-sulfated glycans by a weak interaction through Arg45 and two water-mediated hydrogen bonds via Trp84 and Asn49. When galectin-4N interacts with the H-antigen mimic, 2'-fucosyllactose, an interaction is formed between the ring oxygen of fucose and Arg45. The extended binding site of galectin-4N may not be well suited to the A/B-antigen determinants, α-GalNAc/α-Gal, specifically due to clashes with residue Phe47. Overall, galectin-4N favours sulfated glycans whilst galectin-4C prefers blood group determinants. However, the two CRDs of galectin-4 can, to a less extent, recognise each other's ligands.

Galactosylated Polymer Nano-objects by Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly, Potential Drug Nanocarriers

Glycopolymer-based nanostructures are invaluable tools to both study biological phenomena and to design future targeted drug delivery systems. Polymerization-induced self-assembly, especially RAFT aqueous dispersion polymerization is a unique method to prepare such polymer nanostructures, as it enables the preparation of very-well-defined morphologies at very high concentrations. Here we describe the implementation of PISA to the synthesis of galactosylated spheres, wormlike micelles and vesicles, and the preliminary results of cell toxicity, cell uptake, and cargo delivering capacity of galactose-decorated vesicles.

Network monitoring of adhesion/growth-regulatory galectins: localization of the five canonical chicken proteins in embryonic and maturing bone and cartilage and their introduction as histochemical tools

Divergence from an ancestral gene leads to a family of homologous proteins. Whether they are physiologically distinct, similar, or even redundant is an open question in each case. Defining profiles of tissue localization is a step toward giving diversity a functional meaning. Due to the significance of endogenous sugar receptors (lectins) as effectors for a wide range of cellular activities we have focused on galectins. The comparatively low level of network complexity constituted by only five canonical proteins makes chicken galectins (CGs) an attractive choice to perform comprehensive analysis, here studied on bone/cartilage as organ system. Galectin expression was monitored by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry using non-cross-reactive antibodies. Overall, three galectins (CG-1B, CG-3, CG-8) were present with individual expression patterns, one was found exclusively in the mesenchyme (CG-1A), the fifth (CG-2) not being detectable. The documented extents of separation are a sign for functional divergence; in cases with overlapping stainings, as for example in the osteoprogenitor layer or periosteum, cooperation may also be possible. Recombinant production enabled the introduction of the endogenous lectins as tools for binding-site localization. Their testing revealed developmental regulation and cell-type-specific staining. Of relevance for research on mammalian galectins, this study illustrates that certain cell types can express more than one galectin, letting functional interrelationships appear likely. Thus, complete network analysis irrespective of its degree of complexity is mandatory.

Structural and functional analysis of endosomal compartments in epithelial cells

Epithelial cells display segregated early endosomal compartments, termed apical sorting endosomes and basolateral sorting endosomes, that converge into a common late endosomal-lysosomal degradative compartment and common recycling endosomes (CREs). Unlike recycling endosomes of nonpolarized cells, CREs have the ability to sort apical and basolateral plasma membrane proteins into distinct apical and basolateral recycling routes, utilizing mechanisms similar to those employed by the trans Golgi network in the biosynthetic pathway. The apical recycling route includes an additional compartment, the apical recycling endosomes, consisting of multiple vesicles bundled around the basal body. Recent evidence indicates that, in addition to their role in internalizing ligands and recycling their receptors back to the cell surface, endosomal compartments act as intermediate stations in the biosynthetic routes to the plasma membrane. Here we review methods employed by our laboratory to study the endosomal compartments of epithelial cells and their multiple trafficking roles.