Role of interferons and other cytokines in the regulation of the immune response

Effects of parity and early pregnancy on peripheral blood leukocytes in dairy cattle

Subfertility remains a major problem in the dairy industry. Only 35-40% of high-yielding dairy cows and 55-65% of nonlactating heifers become pregnant after their first service. The immune system plays a critical role in the establishment of pregnancy. However, it can also create challenges for embryo survival and contribute to reduced fertility. We conducted 2 separate experiments to characterize changes in subsets of peripheral blood leukocytes (PBL) and their phenotype over the estrous cycle and early pregnancy in heifers and cows. We used flow cytometry and RT-qPCR to assess protein and mRNA expression of molecules important for immune function. We observed that monocytes and T cells were most affected by pregnancy status in heifers, whereas, CD8+ lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cells were most affected during early pregnancy in cows. Changes in immune parameters measured appeared to be greater in heifers than cows including changes in expression of numerous immune function molecules. To test the hypothesis, we conducted a third experiment to simultaneously analyze the immunological responses to pregnancy between cows and heifers. We observed that cows had greater expression of proinflammatory cytokines and molecules associated with leukocyte migration and phagocytosis compared to heifers. Moreover, animals that failed to become pregnant showed altered expression of anti-inflammatory molecules. Overall, these findings support the hypothesis that early pregnancy signaling alters the proportions and functions of peripheral blood immune cells and differences between cows and heifers may yield insight into the reduced fertility of mature lactating dairy cows.

Self-Healing Porous Microneedles Fabricated Via Cryogenic Micromoulding and Phase Separation for Efficient Loading and Sustained Delivery of Diverse Therapeutics

Sustained-release drug delivery formulations are preferable for treating various diseases as they enhance and prolong efficacy, minimize adverse effects, and avoid frequent dosing. However, these formulations are associated with poor patient compliance, require trained personnel for administration, and involve harsh manufacturing conditions that compromise drug stability. Here, a self-healing biodegradable porous microneedle (PMN) patch is reported for sustained drug delivery. The PMN patch is fabricated by a cryogenic micromoulding followed by phase separation, leading to formation of interconnected pores on the surface and internals of MNs. The pores with self-healing feature enable the PMNs to load hydrophilic drugs with different molecular weights in a mild and efficient manner. The healed PMNs can easily penetrate into the skin under press and detach from the supporting substrate under shear, thereby acting as implantable drug reservoirs for achieving sustained release of drugs for at least 40 days. One-time administration of desired therapeutics using the sustained-release healed PMNs resulted in stronger and longer-lasting efficacy in mitigating psoriasis and eliciting immunity compared to conventional methods with multiple administrations. The self-healing PMN patch for self-administrated and long-acting drug delivery can eventually improve medication adherence in prophylactic and therapeutic protocols that typically require frequent dosages.

Research Note: Isolation and immunomodulatory activity of bursal peptide, a novel peptide from avian immune system developments

The bursa of Fabricius (BF) is pivotal for B lymphocyte ontogenesis. In the present investigation, a novel bursal peptide, designated BP7, was extracted from BF and was found to stimulate colony-forming unit pre-B (CFU pre-B) formation at various concentrations (1 μg/mL, P < 0.05; 5 μg/mL, P < 0.05; 25 μg/mL, P < 0.05). Moreover, BP7 modulated B cell differentiation pathways. The immunoregulatory potential of BP7 was further assessed in avian and murine models subjected to immunization with inactivated avian influenza virus (AIV, H9N2 subtype). BP7 significantly augmented AIV-specific antibody levels (Prime immunization: 5 mg/kg, P < 0.05; Boost immunization: 0.4, 1, and 5 mg/kg, P < 0.05) and cytokine secretion in the avian model (IL-4 and IFN-γ: 0.4, 1, and 5 mg/kg, P < 0.05). Similarly, in the murine model, AIV-specific antibody levels (Prime and Boost immunization: 0.4, 1, and 5 mg/kg, P < 0.05) and cytokine production (IL-4 and IFN-γ: 0.4, 1, and 5 mg/kg, P < 0.05) were notably enhanced. This study offers novel insights into the mechanisms underlying B cell maturation and holds implications for future immunopharmacological interventions.

Advances on adaptive immune responses affected by infectious bursal disease virus in chicken

Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is an acute, highly infectious, and immunosuppressive disease caused by the infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), which interferes with the immune system, causes hypoimmunity and seriously threatens the healthy development of the poultry industry. Adaptive immune response, an important defense line of host resistance to pathogen infection, is the host-specific immune response mainly mediated by T and B lymphocytes. As an important immunosuppressive pathogen in poultry, IBDV infection is closely related to the injury of the adaptive immune system. In this review, we focus on recent advances in adaptive immune response influenced by IBDV infection, especially the damage on immune organs, as well as the effect on humoral immune response and cellular immune response, hoping to provide a theoretical basis for further exploration of the molecular mechanism of immunosuppression induced by IBDV infection and the establishment of novel prevention and control measures for IBD.

Interleukin-15 alters hippocampal synaptic transmission and impairs episodic memory formation in mice

Cytokines are potent immunomodulators exerting pleiotropic effects in the central nervous system (CNS). They influence neuronal functions and circuit activities with effects on memory processes and behaviors. Here, we unravel a neuromodulatory activity of interleukin-15 (IL-15) in mouse brain. Acute exposure of hippocampal slices to IL-15 enhances gamma-aminobutyricacid (GABA) release and reduces glutamatergic currents, while chronic treatment with IL-15 increases the frequency of hippocampal miniature inhibitory synaptic transmission and impairs memory formation in the novel object recognition (NOR) test. Moreover, we describe that serotonin is involved in mediating the hippocampal effects of IL-15, because a selective 5-HT3A receptor antagonist prevents the effects on inhibitory neurotransmission and ameliorates mice performance in the NOR test. These findings provide new insights into the modulatory activities of cytokines in the CNS, with implications on behavior.

An Ultraswelling Microneedle Device for Facile and Efficient Drug Loading and Transdermal Delivery

The advancement and extensive demand for transdermal therapies can benefit from a safe, and efficient and user-friendly transdermal technology with broad applicability in delivering various hydrophilic drugs. Here the design and proof of concept applications of an ultraswelling microneedle device that enables the facile and efficient loading and transdermal delivery of hydrophilic drugs with different molecular weights is reported. The device consists of a super-hydrophilic hydrogel microneedle array and a resin base substrate. Using a special micromolding technique that involves hydrated crosslinking and cryogenic-demolding, the microneedle part displays a rapid swelling ratio of ≈3800%, enabling the loading of drugs up to 500 kDa in molecular weight. The drug loading process using the device just involves incubating the microneedle part in a drug solution for 1 min, followed by 15 min of drying. The microneedles can easily penetrate the skin under press and detach from the base substrate under shear, thereby releasing the payload. Administration of desired therapeutic agents using the device outperformed conventional administration methods in mitigating psoriasis and eliciting immunity. This biocompatible device, capable of withstanding ethylene oxide sterilization, can enhance the efficacy and accessibility of transdermal therapies in research institutes, hospitals, and even home settings.

A Rapidly Dissolvable Microneedle Patch with Tip-Accumulated Antigens for Efficient Transdermal Vaccination

Dissolvable microneedles (DMNs) are an attractive alternative for vaccine delivery due to their user-friendly, skin-targeted, and minimally invasive features. However, vaccine waste and inaccurate dosage remain significant issues faced by DMNs, as the skin's elasticity makes it difficult to insert MNs completely. Here, a simple and reliable fabrication method are introduced based on two-casting micromolding with centrifugal drying to create a rapidly DMN patch made of hyaluronic acid. Ovalbumin (OVA), as the model antigens, is concentrated in the tip parts of the DMNs (60% of the needle height) to prevent antigen waste caused by skin elasticity. The time and temperature of the initial centrifugal drying significantly affect antigen distribution within the needle tips, with lower temperature facilitating antigen accumulation. The resulting DMN patch is able to penetrate the skin with enough mechanical strength and quickly release antigens into the skin tissue within 3 min. The in vivo study demonstrates that immunization of OVA with DMNs outperforms conventional vaccination routes, including subcutaneous and intramuscular injections, in eliciting both humoral and cellular immunity. This biocompatible DMN patch offers a promising and effective strategy for efficient and safe vaccination.

Recombinant Porcine Interferon-α Decreases Pseudorabies Virus Infection

Interferon (IFN) is a cell-secreted cytokine possessing biological activities including antiviral functioning, immune regulation, and others. Interferon-alpha (IFN-α) mainly derives from plasmacytoid dendritic cells, which activate natural killer cells and regulate immune responses. IFN-α responds to the primary antiviral mechanism in the innate immune system, which can effectively cure acute infectious diseases. Pseudorabies (PR) is an acute infectious disease caused by pseudorabies virus (PRV). The clinical symptoms of PRV are as follows: reproductive dysfunction among pregnant sows and high mortality rates among piglets. These pose a severe threat to the swine industry. Related studies show that IFN-α has broad applications in preventing and treating viral diseases. Therefore, a PRV mouse model using artificial infection was established in this study to explore the pathogenic effect of IFN-α on PRV. We designed a sequence with IFN-α4 (M28623, Genbank) and cloned it on the lentiviral vector. CHO-K1 cells were infected and identified using WB and RT-PCR; a CHO-K1 cell line with a stable expression of the recombinant protein PoIFN-α was successfully constructed. H&E staining and virus titer detection were used to investigate the recombinant protein PoIFN-α's effect on PR in BALB/c mice. The results show that the PoIFN-α has a preventive and therapeutic impact on PR. In conclusion, the recombinant protein can alleviate symptoms and reduce the replication of PRV in vivo.

Strategies for overcoming protein and peptide instability in biodegradable drug delivery systems

The global pharmaceutical market has recently shifted its focus from small molecule drugs to peptide, protein, and nucleic acid drugs, which now comprise a majority of the top-selling pharmaceutical products on the market. Although these biologics often offer improved drug specificity, new mechanisms of action, and/or enhanced efficacy, they also present new challenges, including an increased potential for degradation and a need for frequent administration via more invasive administration routes, which can limit patient access, patient adherence, and ultimately the clinical impact of these drugs. Controlled-release systems have the potential to mitigate these challenges by offering superior control over in vivo drug levels, localizing these drugs to tissues of interest (e.g., tumors), and reducing administration frequency. Unfortunately, adapting controlled-release devices to release biologics has proven difficult due to the poor stability of biologics. In this review, we summarize the current state of controlled-release peptides and proteins, discuss existing techniques used to stabilize these drugs through encapsulation, storage, and in vivo release, and provide perspective on the most promising opportunities for the clinical translation of controlled-release peptides and proteins.

Immunomodulatory activity of semen Ziziphi Spinosae protein: a potential plant protein functional food raw material

Semen Ziziphi Spinosae protein (SZSP) is a new plant protein resource with good food functional properties and health care function. However, the biological activity of SZSP has not been further studied, which greatly limits the development and utilization of SZSP in the food industry. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effect of SZSP on immunosuppressed mice and its inhibitory effect on immune-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. The results demonstrated that SZSP remarkably improved the immunomodulatory secretion in serum (interleukin-2, tumor necrosis factor-α [TNF-α], interferon-γ, immunoglobulin-A, immunoglobulin-G, immunoglobulin-M) and primary macrophages (nitric oxide, interleukin-1β, TNF-α) and promoted the NK-cell killing activity of primary splenocytes in CTX-induced immunosuppression mice. Immunohistochemical analysis results indicated that the secretion of CD₄⁺ and CD₈⁺ in the spleen and thymus can be regulated by SZSP, leading to inhibition of the damage induced by cyclophosphamide in mice. Meanwhile, in order to clarify the immunomodulatory mechanism of SZSP, we showed that SZSP significantly inhibited the secretion of NO, interleukin-6, and TNF-α and reduced the phosphorylation expression of p-ERK, p-JNK, and p-IκBα in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Therefore, the immunomodulatory effect of SZSP may be related to the activation of MAPKs and NF-κB signaling pathways. Based on the above studies, the preliminary purification of SZSP was continued, and S1F2G1 with immunomodulatory activity was obtained. Taken together, SZSP has an immunoregulatory effect in vivo and in vitro and may be a favorable candidate of functional food raw material for regulating immune responses.

Characterization of macrophage activation after treatment with polysaccharides from ginseng according to heat processing

The worldwide persistence of infectious diseases is a significant public health issue. Consequently, studying immunomodulatory ingredients present in natural products, such as ginseng, is important for developing new treatment options. Here, we extracted three different types of polysaccharides from white (P-WG), red (P-RG), and heat-processed (P-HPG) ginseng and analyzed their chemical properties and immunostimulatory activity against RAW 264.7 murine macrophages. Carbohydrates were the main components of all three polysaccharide types, while uronic acid and protein levels were relatively low. Chemical analysis indicated that the content of carbohydrates (total sugar) increased with processing temperature, while that of uronic acid decreased. Treatment with P-WG, P-RG or P-HPG stimulated nitric oxide (NO) production and increased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin (IL)-6 levels in RAW 264.7 macrophages, with P-WG showing the highest activity among the three polysaccharides. The expression of inducible NO synthase, which affects NO secretion, was highest in the macrophages treated with P-WG. Analysis of intracellular signaling pathways showed that mitogen-activated protein kinases (ERK, JNK, and p38) and NF-kB p65 were strongly phosphorylated by P-WG in macrophages but were only moderately phosphorylated by P-RG and P-HPG. Collectively, these results suggest that the polysaccharides isolated from ginseng undergo different changes in response to heat processing and display different chemical compositions and immune-enhancing activities.

Effect of Hydrolyzed Gallotannin on Growth Performance, Immune Function, and Antioxidant Capacity of Yellow-Feather Broilers

Tannins were traditionally considered as anti-nutritional factors in poultry production. Recent studies found that the addition of hydrolyzed gallotannin (HGT) could improve animal health; however, the proper dosage of HGT in chickens' diet is still unknown. Hence, our study aims to recommend its optimal dose by exploring the effects of HGT from Chinese gallnuts on the growth performance, immune function, and antioxidant capacity of yellow-feather broilers. A total of 288 male yellow-feather broilers (34.10 ± 0.08 g) were randomly allocated to four diet treatments, the basal diet with 0 (CON), 150, 300, and 450 mg/kg HGT for 63 days, respectively, with six replications per treatment and 12 birds per replication. The growth performance, slaughter performance, immune organ index, liver antioxidant-related indicators, and serum immune-related factors were evaluated. Results show that HGT supplementation did not influence the growth performance of broilers, but the diets supplemented with 300 and 450 mg/kg HGT increased the semi-eviscerated rate. Furthermore, HGT increased the content of liver T-AOC and the ratio of GSH/GSSG, which can protect against oxidative damage of birds. Additionally, supplementing HGT raised the contents of serum IL-10, IL-4, IL-6, IgA, and IgM. In conclusion, diet supplemented with 450 mg/kg HGT may be the optimal to the health of yellow-feather broilers on the whole.

Scoping review of the medicinal effects of Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker and the underlying mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Eupolyphaga sinensis Walker (ES) is an insect widely used in traditional East Asian medicine known to exhibit clinical effects on various pathological conditions. Overall, ES is a useful medicinal insect that can treat various diseases, including cancer and immune diseases. However, further mechanistic studies based on its therapeutic effects in clinical settings are required.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We aimed to evaluate the current research landscape and diseases associated with ES to synthesize the clinical value of ES based on the associated diseases and underlying therapeutic mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Embase and PubMed databases were searched for experimental studies that evaluated the therapeutic efficacy or underlying mechanisms of ES until May 2021. The evidence for each study was summarized using a narrative synthesis approach. Studies on extracted or dried whole ES and ES-derived compounds were quantitatively analyzed by year and disease type. Meanwhile, the overall research trend was confirmed for studies on ES-containing prescriptions by visualizing the disease type analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 151 studies were identified, of which 51 were included in our review. There were 14 studies on extracted or dried whole ES, 15 on ES-derived compounds, and 22 on ES-containing prescriptions. ES was most commonly used for cancer-related diseases, followed by those related to endocrine function and immunity. ES regulates the cell cycle, tumor suppressor genes and proteins, immune-related biomarkers, and antioxidant molecules.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, ES is a beneficial medicinal insect that can treat various diseases, including cancer and immune diseases. However, further mechanistic studies based on its therapeutic effects in clinical settings are required.

Phenotypic and Transcriptional Changes of Pulmonary Immune Responses in Dogs Following Canine Distemper Virus Infection

Canine distemper virus (CDV), a morbillivirus within the family Paramyxoviridae, is a highly contagious infectious agent causing a multisystemic, devastating disease in a broad range of host species, characterized by severe immunosuppression, encephalitis and pneumonia. The present study aimed at investigating pulmonary immune responses of CDV-infected dogs in situ using immunohistochemistry and whole transcriptome analyses by bulk RNA sequencing. Spatiotemporal analysis of phenotypic changes revealed pulmonary immune responses primarily driven by MHC-II⁺, Iba-1⁺ and CD204⁺ innate immune cells during acute and subacute infection phases, which paralleled pathologic lesion development and coincided with high viral loads in CDV-infected lungs. CD20⁺ B cell numbers initially declined, followed by lymphoid repopulation in the advanced disease phase. Transcriptome analysis demonstrated an increased expression of transcripts related to innate immunity, antiviral defense mechanisms, type I interferon responses and regulation of cell death in the lung of CDV-infected dogs. Molecular analyses also revealed disturbed cytokine responses with a pro-inflammatory M1 macrophage polarization and impaired mucociliary defense in CDV-infected lungs. The exploratory study provides detailed data on CDV-related pulmonary immune responses, expanding the list of immunologic parameters potentially leading to viral elimination and virus-induced pulmonary immunopathology in canine distemper.

Integrative genetic and immune cell analysis of plasma proteins in healthy donors identifies novel associations involving primary immune deficiency genes

Background

Blood plasma proteins play an important role in immune defense against pathogens, including cytokine signaling, the complement system, and the acute-phase response. Recent large-scale studies have reported genetic (i.e., protein quantitative trait loci, pQTLs) and non-genetic factors, such as age and sex, as major determinants to inter-individual variability in immune response variation. However, the contribution of blood-cell composition to plasma protein heterogeneity has not been fully characterized and may act as a mediating factor in association studies.

Methods

Here, we evaluated plasma protein levels from 400 unrelated healthy individuals of western European ancestry, who were stratified by sex and two decades of life (20–29 and 60–69 years), from the Milieu Intérieur cohort. We quantified 229 proteins by Luminex in a clinically certified laboratory and their levels of variation were analyzed together with 5.2 million single-nucleotide polymorphisms. With respect to non-genetic variables, we included 254 lifestyle and biochemical factors, as well as counts of seven circulating immune cell populations measured by hemogram and standardized flow cytometry.

Results

Collectively, we found 152 significant associations involving 49 proteins and 20 non-genetic variables. Consistent with previous studies, age and sex showed a global, pervasive impact on plasma protein heterogeneity, while body mass index and other health status variables were among the non-genetic factors with the highest number of associations. After controlling for these covariates, we identified 100 and 12 pQTLs acting in cis and trans, respectively, collectively associated with 87 plasma proteins and including 19 novel genetic associations. Genetic factors explained the largest fraction of the variability of plasma protein levels, as compared to non-genetic factors. In addition, blood-cell fractions, including leukocytes, lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and platelets, had a larger contribution to inter-individual variability than age and sex and appeared as confounders of specific genetic associations. Finally, we identified new genetic associations with plasma protein levels of five monogenic Mendelian disease genes including two primary immunodeficiency genes (Ficolin-3 and FAS).

Conclusions

Our study identified novel genetic and non-genetic factors associated to plasma protein levels which may inform health status and disease management.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13073-022-01032-y.

Quantification of Type I Interferon Inhibition by Viral Proteins: Ebola Virus as a Case Study

Type I interferons (IFNs) are cytokines with both antiviral properties and protective roles in innate immune responses to viral infection. They induce an antiviral cellular state and link innate and adaptive immune responses. Yet, viruses have evolved different strategies to inhibit such host responses. One of them is the existence of viral proteins which subvert type I IFN responses to allow quick and successful viral replication, thus, sustaining the infection within a host. We propose mathematical models to characterise the intra-cellular mechanisms involved in viral protein antagonism of type I IFN responses, and compare three different molecular inhibition strategies. We study the Ebola viral protein, VP35, with this mathematical approach. Approximate Bayesian computation sequential Monte Carlo, together with experimental data and the mathematical models proposed, are used to perform model calibration, as well as model selection of the different hypotheses considered. Finally, we assess if model parameters are identifiable and discuss how such identifiability can be improved with new experimental data.

Influence of interleukin 17 A and 17 F polymorphisms in keratoconus

BACKGROUND

Until a few years ago, keratoconus was defined as a noninflammatory degenerative disease. However, recent studies have shown that the altered balance between inflammatory cytokines, proteases, and protease inhibitors, as well as free radicals and oxidants, have a crucial role in the pathogenesis of this disease. The aim of this study is to investigate whether interleukin 17 A G197A (rs2275913) and interleukin 17 F T7488C (rs763780) polymorphisms are associated with keratoconus in patients from a population of the northwestern region of the State of São Paulo, Brazil.

METHODS AND RESULTS

35 patients and 61 controls were enrolled. Genotyping of interleukin 17 A G197A and interleukin 17 F T7488C polymorphisms was carried out using the polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. Statistical analyses were conducted using the chi-square test, and an odds ratio with a 95% confidence interval was also calculated to evaluate the association between polymorphisms and disease. Evaluating interleukin 17 F T7488C, we found that the TT genotype is associated as a risk factor for keratoconus (P = 0.04; OR = 3.01; CI 1.11-8.14). As for evaluating interleukin 17 A G197A, the allele and genotype frequencies between patients and controls were compared and no statistically significant differences were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data showed that the interleukin 17 F T7488C polymorphisms may exert an influence in keratoconus.

Application of QuantiFERON ELISA for Detection of Interferon-Gamma Autoantibodies in Adult-Onset Immunodeficiency Syndrome

OBJECTIVE

Patients who develop interferon-gamma autoantibodies (IFN-ɤ autoAbs) in adult-onset immunodeficiency (AOID) syndrome are more likely to develop opportunistic and recurrent intracellular infections. The assay to detect IFN-ɤ autoAbs is essential for the diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring of AOID syndrome. Therefore, this study applied the QuantiFERON assay for the detection of IFN-ɤ autoAbs.

METHODS

Serum from patients with AOID syndrome (n = 19) and serum from healthy patients (n = 20) was collected and applied using 2 neutralizing platforms of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits (the BD ELISA and the QuantiFERON ELISA) for IFN-ɤ autoAbs detection.

RESULTS

The pooled serum from patients with AOID syndrome showed >50% inhibition at 1:5000 dilution (positive), whereas the pooled serum from healthy patients showed <50% inhibition at 1:5000 dilution (negative) according to the neutralizing QuantiFERON ELISA. Each specimen showed the same result according to both the neutralizing BD ELISA and the neutralizing QuantiFERON ELISA. Moreover, the patient serum showed a variation in titer ranging from 1:5000 to >1:5,000,000 according to the neutralizing QuantiFERON ELISA.

CONCLUSION

The QuantiFERON ELISA kit could be applied for the detection of IFN-ɤ autoAbs for the diagnosis and therapeutic monitoring of AOID syndrome.

Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics of Vitamin E: Nanoformulations to Enhance Bioavailability

Vitamin E belongs to the family of lipid-soluble vitamins and can be divided into two groups, tocopherols and tocotrienols, with four isomers (alpha, beta, gamma and delta). Although vitamin E is widely known as a potent antioxidant, studies have also revealed that vitamin E possesses anti-inflammatory properties. These crucial properties of vitamin E are beneficial in various aspects of health, especially in neuroprotection and cardiovascular, skin and bone health. However, the poor bioavailability of vitamin E, especially tocotrienols, remains a great limitation for clinical applications. Recently, nanoformulations that include nanovesicles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, and polymeric nanoparticles have shown promising outcomes in improving the efficacy and bioavailability of vitamin E. This review focuses on the pharmacological properties and pharmacokinetics of vitamin E and current advances in vitamin E nanoformulations for future clinical applications. The limitations and future recommendations are also discussed in this review.

Experimental study of Forsythoside A on prevention and treatment of avian infectious bronchitis

Forsythoside A is the main active ingredient in the Chinese medicine Forsythia suspensa, which has antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, and immunoregulatory effects. It is reported that Forsythoside A can significantly inhibit the replication of the avian infectious bronchitis virus(IBV) in cells, but there is no report in chickens. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of Forsythoside A on IBV-M41, experiments were designed using 120 chickens at 12 days of age. The chickens were randomly divided into eight groups: Forsythoside A high-, medium-, and low-dose prevention groups, Forsythoside A high-, medium-, and low-dose treatment groups, model control group and normal control group. All chickens, except the normal control group, were inoculated with 0.2 ml of IBV-M41 at 15 days of age.The antiviral effects were evaluated by clinical signs, weight, histopathology, T-,B-lymphocyte proliferation, T-lymphocyte subsets and cytokine levels.The results showed that the infection rate in each Forsythoside A prevention group was significantly lower than that in the treatment group and model control group (P < 0.05). The recovery rate in each Forsythoside A treatment group was significantly higher than that in the model control group (P < 0.05), and the recovery rate in high- and medium-dose treatment group was the highest, at up to 86.67%. Lymphocytic transformation ability significantly improved in the prevention and treatment groups. Forsythoside A significantly improved the CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ T-lymphocyte of infected chickens. The cytokine level was able to maintain high concentrations of IL-2 and IFN-α for a long time and maintain a dynamic IL-4-concentration balance. A number of results showed that Forsythoside A had both preventive and therapeutic effects in IBV-M41-infected chickens, among which the high-dose (80 mg/kg/d) prevention group，the high- (80 mg/kg/d) and medium (40 mg/kg/d) -dose treatment group had significant effects.

The Effect of Antiretroviral Therapy on IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ Levels and their Relationship with HIV-RNA and CD4+ T Cells in HIV Patients

BACKGROUND

Serum cytokine levels over the course of HIV infection usually increase with immunosuppression and decrease after antiretroviral treatment (ART).

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study is to compare cytokine levels between HIV-infected patients (HIP) and controls and investigate the relationship between CD4+T cell count, HIV-RNA levels, and cytokine levels.

METHODS

The study subjects comprised ART-naive HIP (n=30) with no comorbidities and age-and sex-matched healthy controls. We measured levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ in serum samples of HIP at the beginning and at month 6 of ART and in controls.

RESULTS

The mean age of the study subjects was 38.7 ±10.3 years, with men making up 86.7% of the study subjects (n=26). IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels were significantly higher in both ART-naive (p<0.001, p=0.002, p=0.001) and ART-experienced HIP (p<0.001) than controls. The IFN-γ level was lower in both ART-naive and ART-experienced HIP compared to controls (p=0.082 and p=0.002). There was a positive correlation between the CD4+T cell count and serum concentration of IFN- γ(r=0.320, p<0.05). While the serum IFN-γ concentration showed a negative correlation with the HIVRNA level(r=-0.412, p<0.001), the serum IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α concentrations showed a positive correlation with the HIV-RNA level (r=0.349, p<0.001; r:0.54, p<0.001; r:0.438, p<0.00).

CONCLUSION

Although serum concentrations of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α showed a significant decrease after ART, they were still significantly higher than the controls. IFN-γ responded differently to ART compared to the other cytokines, indicating that it may play a distinct and important role in the pathogenesis of HIV infection.

Toxicological impact of sodium benzoate on inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress and biochemical markers in male Wistar rats

Sodium benzoate is a widely used food and pharmaceutical preservative due to its antibacterial and antifungal activity. In the present study effect of different concentrations of sodium benzoate on hepatic antioxidants, inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-6), biochemical markers and histopathology of liver was evaluated. Twenty five adult rats (aged 1-2 months) with 5 rats per group were randomly distributed into 5 groups. Group 1 rats were used as control and all groups (1-5) were provided with water and fed ad libitum. In addition to usual water and food, rats of group 2, 3, 4 and 5 were treated with 70, 200, 400 and 700 mg/kg b.wt of sodium benzoate once a day via oral gavage for 30 days. Our results showed that activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase (CAT), glutathione-s-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase (GR) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in rats decreased significantly when treated with 200, 400 and 700 mg/kg b.wt of sodium benzoate. Increase in the concentration of alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, serum total protein, albumin, globulin, urea and creatinine was found to be dose dependent. Severe histopathological damage was observed in the hepatic tissue at higher concentrations of sodium benzoate. It was noticed that high concentrations of sodium benzoate (200, 400 and 700 mg/kg b.wt) produce significant increase in inflammatory cytokine markers (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-1β and IL-6) in comparison to control. Sodium benzoate at concentration of 70 mg/kg b.wt did not produce any significant changes in any of the above studied parameters.

Evaluation of T cell cytokines and their role in recurrent miscarriage

Recurrent miscarriage (RM) is defined as two or more consecutive pregnancy losses that affect approximately 5% of conceived women worldwide. RM is a multi-factorial reproductive problem and has been associated with parental chromosomal abnormalities, embryonic chromosomal rearrangements, uterine anomalies, autoimmune disorders, endocrine dysfunction, thrombophilia, life style factors, and maternal infections. However, the exact cause is still undecided in remaining 50% of cases. Immunological rejection of the embryo due to exacerbated maternal immune reaction against paternal embryonic antigens has been set forth as one of the significant reason for RM. The accurate means that shield the embryo during normal pregnancy from the attack of maternal immune network and dismissal are inadequately implicit. However, it is suggested that the genetically irreconcilable embryo escapes maternal immune rejection due to communication among many vital cytokines exuded at maternal-embryonic interface both by maternal and embryonic cells. Previous investigations suggested the Th1/Th2 dominance in altered immunity of RM patients, according to which the allogenic embryo flees maternal T cell reaction by inclining the Th0 differentiation toward Th2 pathway resulting into diminished pro-inflammatory Th1 immunity. However, recently pro-inflammatory Th17 cells and immunoregulatory Treg cells have been discovered as essential immune players in RM besides Th1/Th2 components. Cytokines are believed to develop a complicated regulatory network so as to establish a state of homeostasis between the semi-allogenic embryo and the maternal immune system. However, an adverse imbalance among cytokines at maternal-embryonic interface perhaps due to their gene polymorphisms may render immunoregulatory means not enough to re-establish homeostasis and thus may collapse pregnancy.

A Novel C Type CpG Oligodeoxynucleotide Exhibits Immunostimulatory Activity In Vitro and Enhances Antitumor Effect In Vivo

Background

C type CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-C ODNs), possessing the features of both A type and B type CpG ODNs, exert a variety of immunostimulatory activities and have been demonstrated as an effective antitumor immunotherapy. Based on the structural characteristics, we designed 20 potential ODNs with the aim of synthesizing an optimal, novel CpG-C ODN specific to human and murine Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9). We also sought to investigate the in vitro immunostimulatory and in vivo antitumor effects of the novel CpG-C ODN.

Methods

Twenty potential CpG-C ODNs were screened for their ability to secrete interferon (IFN)-α, and interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α production for the three most promising sequences were assayed in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) or cytometric bead array assay. The functions of human and mouse B cells, and cytokine production in mice induced by the most promising sequence, HP06T07, were determined by flow cytometry and ELISA. Growth and morphology of tumor tissues in in vivo murine models inoculated with CT26 cells were analyzed by a growth inhibition assay and immunohistochemistry, respectively.

Results

Among the 20 designed ODNs, HP06T07 significantly induced IFN-α, IL-6, and TNF-α secretion, and promoted B-cell activation and proliferation in a dose-dependent manner in human PBMCs and mouse splenocytes in vitro. Intratumoral injection of HP06T07 notably suppressed tumor growth and prolonged survival in the CT26 subcutaneous mouse model in a dose-dependent manner. HP06T07 administered nine times at 2-day intervals (I2) eradicated tumor growth at both primary and distant sites of CT26 tumors. HP06T07 restrained tumor growth by increasing the infiltration of T cells, NK cells, and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs).

Conclusions

HP06T07, a novel CpG-C ODN, shows potent immunostimulatory activity in vitro and suppresses tumor growth in the CT26 subcutaneous mouse model.

Shikimic acid as intermediary model for the production of drugs effective against influenza virus

This chapter explains the application of shikimic acid as preventive medicine for the outbreak of swine or Avian flu due to H1N1 virus. Shikimic acid (3,4,5-trihydroxy-1-cyclohexene-1-carboxylic acid), a natural organic compound, is generally utilized as a starting material for industrial synthesis of the antiviral oseltamivir, a drug against the H1N1 influenza virus. It is also an important intermediate in the biosynthesis of lignin, aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan), and most alkaloids of plants and microorganisms. Plant and microbial sources are the only sources of shikimic acid. Being a deadly viral disease, influenza causes the death of around half a million people each year. A neuraminidase present on the surface of the virus is the most important factor for viral reproduction by contributing to the release of viruses from infected host cells and hence the treatment of influenza can only be possible by neuraminidase inhibitors. The neuraminidase inhibitors oseltamivir or Tamiflu derived from shikimic acid pathway have been found to be potent influenza viral neuraminidase inhibitors against most influenza strains.

Dopamine regulates cytokine secretion during innate and adaptive immune responses

Dopamine (DA) is synthesized by various immune cells. DA receptors (DARs), which comprise five isoforms, are expressed on the surface of these cells. Therefore, it is likely that DA plays a role in regulating innate and adaptive responses. However, the underlying molecular mechanism(s) is largely unknown. Here, we found that, during innate immune responses, DA suppressed secretion of IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-1β, but promoted secretion of IL-10 and CXCL1 by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated mouse splenocytes, suggesting that DA regulates cytokine secretion. Immune subset studies indicated that DA suppressed secretion of IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-1β by NK cells, as well as secretion of TNF-α by neutrophils and monocytes; however, DA up-regulated IL-10 secretion by neutrophils, monocytes, B cells, macrophages (Mφs) and dendritic cells within the splenocyte population. In addition, DA up-regulated secretion of CXCL1 by LPS-stimulated NK cells and Mφs. Meanwhile, treatment with DAR agonists or antagonists suppressed secretion of inflammatory cytokines from LPS-stimulated splenocytes. Pre-treatment of LPS-stimulated splenocytes with the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin reversed DA-mediated suppression of IFN-γ secretion, indicating that DA regulates IFN-γ secretion via the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate signaling pathway in these cells. Administration of DA and LPS to mice immunized with chicken ovalbumin (OVA) increased secretion of IL-5 by mouse lung lymphocytes, suggesting that DA promotes OVA-specific Th2-mediated immune responses by these cells. Taken together, these findings indicate that DA regulates cytokine secretion during innate and adaptive immune responses.

Resiquimod inhibits Newcastle disease virus replication by modulating host cytokines: An understanding towards its possible therapeutics

Newcastle disease virus (NDV) infects domestic and wild avian species with high mortality and morbidity worldwide. Although this disease is mainly controlled through NDV vaccines, alternative use of antiviral compounds is increasingly under study. Resiquimod (R-848), an imidazoquinoline compound is a potent synthetic agonist of Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). Until now reports regarding the adjuvant potential of resiquimod is well established against human viruses but has been less explored against avian viruses. In the present study, we have analysed the anti-NDV effect of resiquimod in chicken embryo fibroblast cells (DF-1) and embryonated chicken eggs. About 70% reduction in NDV replication was observed 48 h and 72 h post-resiquimod treatment in DF-1 cells. Furthermore, differential host genes expression was observed in resiquimod treated DF-1 cells, PBMCs, and tissue sample of chicken embryos at a different time point. Among all the analyzed genes, significant up-regulation of viperin, IFNα, IFNγ, IL-1β, TNFα, IL18 were observed in its transcriptional level. Furthermore, resiquimod treatment showed NDV reduction in two weeks old chickens. About 61% and 38% reduction in NDV replication was observed 72 h post-infection in lungs and spleen, respectively. The study suggests the modulation of host innate immunity regulatory genes by resiquimod, which eventually modulates the NDV replication. The result of the study could be explored further to establish resiquimod as an alternative antiviral compound against NDV.

A conceptual time window-based model for the early stratification of trauma patients

Progress in the testing of therapies targeting the immune response following trauma, a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, has been slow. We propose that the design of interventional trials in trauma would benefit from a scheme or platform that could support the identification and implementation of prognostic strategies for patient stratification. Here, we propose a stratification scheme based on defined time periods or windows following the traumatic event. This 'time-window' model allows for the incorporation of prognostic variables ranging from circulating biomarkers and clinical data to patient-specific information such as gene variants to predict adverse short- or long-term outcomes. A number of circulating biomarkers, including cell injury markers and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), and inflammatory mediators have been shown to correlate with adverse outcomes after trauma. Likewise, several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associate with complications or death in trauma patients. This review summarizes the status of our understanding of the prognostic value of these classes of variables in predicting outcomes in trauma patients. Strategies for the incorporation of these prognostic variables into schemes designed to stratify trauma patients, such as our time-window model, are also discussed.

Differential expression of type I interferon mRNA and protein levels induced by virulent Marek's disease virus infection in chickens

Marek's disease virus (MDV), an α-herpesvirus targeting avian species, causes fatal Marek's disease (MD) in chickens. The host interferon (IFN) responses play a key role in resisting viral infection. However, host IFN responses following MDV infection in the chicken central immune organs (thymus and bursa of Fabricius), which contain numerous MDV target cells, is poorly understood. In this study, we performed animal experiments in specific pathogen-free chickens infected with two virulent MDV strains (BS/15 and Md5) or without infection as negative controls. Specifically, the type I IFN (IFN-α and IFN-β) transcriptional and proteomic expression levels at 7, 10, 14, 17, and 21 days post infection (dpi) were detected and analyzed. Our results indicated that the mRNA and protein expression levels of IFN-α and IFN-β in the thymus and bursa of Fabricius were mainly downregulated in cytolytic infection (such as 10 dpi) and reactivation (such as 17 dpi) stages, but not the latent (such as 14 dpi) stage of MDV infection, which was determined by comprehensively analyzing the MDV viral load and immune organ damage caused by MDV infection. These data suggest that MDV could inhibit the expression of host type I IFNs, which may be involved in the MDV-induced host immunosuppression and contribute to the immune escape of MDV from host immunity. Furthermore, we found that the downregulated expression of the host type I IFNs induced by BS/15 and Md5 infection was significantly different, which we speculated may be related to the diverse virulence and pathogenicity of MDV strains. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that MDV mostly inhibited the expression of type I IFNs in infected hosts, which may be associated to its pathogenesis.

MafA Expression Preserves Immune Homeostasis in Human and Mouse Islets

Type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes are triggered by a combination of environmental and/or genetic factors. Maf transcription factors regulate pancreatic beta (β)-cell function, and have also been implicated in the regulation of immunomodulatory cytokines like interferon-β (IFNβ1). In this study, we assessed MAFA and MAFB co-expression with pro-inflammatory cytokine signaling genes in RNA-seq data from human pancreatic islets. Interestingly, MAFA expression was strongly negatively correlated with cytokine-induced signaling (such as IFNAR1, DDX58) and T1D susceptibility genes (IFIH1), whereas correlation of these genes with MAFB was weaker. In order to evaluate if the loss of MafA altered the immune status of islets, MafA deficient mouse islets (MafA^−/−) were assessed for inherent anti-viral response and susceptibility to enterovirus infection. MafA deficient mouse islets had elevated basal levels of Ifnβ1, Rig1 (DDX58 in humans), and Mda5 (IFIH1) which resulted in reduced virus propagation in response to coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) infection. Moreover, an acute knockdown of MafA in β-cell lines also enhanced Rig1 and Mda5 protein levels. Our results suggest that precise regulation of MAFA levels is critical for islet cell-specific cytokine production, which is a critical parameter for the inflammatory status of pancreatic islets.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel analogues of Gly-l-Pro-l-Glu (GPE) as neuroprotective agents

This study investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of novel pseudotripeptides (GPE 1-3) as potential candidates to counteract neuroinflammation processes in Alzheimer's disease. GPE 1-3 pseudotripeptides are synthetic derivatives of Gly-l-Pro-l-Glu (GPE), the N-terminal tripeptide of IGF-1, obtained through the introduction of isosteres of the amidic bond (aminomethylene unit) to increase the metabolic stability of the native tripeptide. The results showed that all synthetic derivatives possessed higher half-lives (t_1/2 > 4 h) than GPE (t_1/2 = 30 min) in human plasma and had good water solubility. The biological results demonstrated that GPE 1-3 had protective properties in several experimental models of treated THP-1 cells. Notably, the novel pseudotripeptides influenced inflammatory cytokine expression (IL-1β, IL-18, and TNF-α) in Aβ_25-35-, PMA-, and LPS-treated THP-1 cells. In PMA-differentiated THP-1 macrophages, both GPE 1 and GPE 3 reduced the expression levels of all selected cyto-chemokines, even though GPE 3 showed the best neuroprotective properties.

Gravity-Related Immunological Changes in Human Whole Blood Cultured Under Simulated Microgravity Using an In Vitro Cytokine Release Assay

Although immune dysfunction by space conditions has been reported postflight, as well as during ground-based experiments, the cause(s) and nature of the immunological changes are not completely understood. Microgravity has been suggested as one of the factors responsible for the observed immune dysregulation. The goal of this study was to assess immune changes in simulated microgravity (s-μG) using an in vitro cytokine release assay. The effect of s-μG provided by the desktop random positioning machine on cell-mediated immunity was examined by analyzing interleukin 2 (IL-2), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin 10 (IL-10), in response to immune cell stimulation in whole blood samples (n = 10). Stimuli used were bacterial recall antigens, pokeweed mitogen (PWM), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), or heat-killed Listeria monocytogenes (HKLM). S-μG caused an overall inhibition of the IL-2 and IFN-γ responses to recall antigen and mitogen stimulation. More specifically, s-μG most strongly influenced the levels of all four cytokines elicited by bacterial recall antigen stimulation. In contrast, HKLM-induced TNF-α secretion was elevated. The average concentrations of TNF-α in response to PWM and LPS and IL-10 release stimulated by PWM, LPS, and HKLM were not significantly altered by s-μG. However, a variable response between individual subjects could be observed. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the in vitro cytokine release assay can detect gravity-related immune alterations. Furthermore, the use of multiple stimuli and the associated changes in cytokine secretion has the potential to reveal information on the underlying mechanisms affected by s-μG.

CO2-induced ocean acidification impairs the immune function of the Pacific oyster against Vibrio splendidus challenge: An integrated study from a cellular and proteomic perspective

Ocean acidification (OA) and pathogenic diseases pose a considerable threat to key species of marine ecosystem. However, few studies have investigated the combined impact of reduced seawater pH and pathogen challenge on the immune responses of marine invertebrates. In this study, Pacific oysters, Crassostrea gigas, were exposed to OA (~2000 ppm) for 28 days and then challenged with Vibrio splendidus for another 72 h. Hemocyte parameters showed that V. splendidus infection exacerbated the impaired oyster immune responses under OA exposure. An iTRAQ-based quantitative proteomic analysis revealed that C. gigas responded differently to OA stress and V. splendidus challenge, alone or in combination. Generally, OA appears to act via a generalized stress response by causing oxidative stress, which could lead to cellular injury and cause disruption to the cytoskeleton, protein turnover, immune responses and energy metabolism. V. splendidus challenge in oysters could suppress the immune system directly and lead to a disturbed cytoskeleton structure, increased protein turnover and energy metabolism suppression, without causing oxidative stress. The combined OA- and V. splendidus-treated oysters ultimately presented a similar, but stronger proteomic response pattern compared with OA treatment alone. Overall, the impaired oyster immune functions caused by OA exposure may have increased the risk of V. splendidus infection. These results have important implications for the impact of OA on disease outbreaks in marine invertebrates, which would have significant economic and ecological repercussions.

Flavonoids as Th1/Th2 cytokines immunomodulators: A systematic review of studies on animal models

BACKGROUND

Flavonoids are naturally occurring compounds, extensively distributed in plants. T helper (Th)1 and Th2 cytokines balance plays an essential role in the reaction of inflammatory, allergic and infectious processes and transplantation rejection.

PURPOSE

This systematic review focuses on various classes of flavonoids with a view to evaluate whether Th1/Th2 cytokine-mediated pathways of immunoenhancement could reduce immune overwhelming reactions.

METHODS

Articles in English published from inception to December 2017 reporting flavonoids with immunomodulatory activity for the management of immune-mediated disorders were acquired from PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus and Web of Science and a animal experiments where Th1 and Th2 cytokines were investigated to assess the outcome of immunoregulatory therapy were included.

CHAPTERS

1809 publications were identified and 26 were included in this review. Ten articles described the effect of flavonoids on allergic inflammation in an animal model of asthma; eleven in vivo studies evaluated the immunomodulating and immunosuppressive effects of flavonoids on Th1/Th2 cytokines production and five reports described the regulatory role of flavonoids for Th1/Th2 cytokine responses to experimental arthritis and myocarditis. Modulation of Th1/Th2 cytokine balance, inhibition of eosinophil accumulation and remodeling of the airways and lungs, downregulation of Notch and PI3K signaling pathways, regulation of CD4 + /CD8 + lymphocytes ratio and decreasing inflammatory mediator expressions levels are among the most important immunopharmacological mechanisms for the retrieved flavonoids.

CONCLUSION

Naturally occurring flavonoids discussed in the present article have optimal immunomodulation to prevent immune-mediated disorders through management of Th1/Th2 cytokine balance.

Stimulation of Innate Immune Function by Panax ginseng after Heat Processing

Panax ginseng Meyer has been used for the treatment of immune diseases and for strengthening the immune function. In this study, we evaluated the innate immune-stimulating functions and action mechanisms of white ginseng (WG) and heat-processed ginseng (HPG) in RAW264.7 cells. According to LC-MS analysis results, WG contained typical ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rd, and Rg1, whereas HPG contained Rg3, Rk1, and Rg5 as well as typical ginsenosides. HPG, not WG, enhanced NF-κB transcriptional activity, cytokine production (IL-6 and TNF-α), and MHC class I and II expression in RAW264.7 cells. In addition, HPG phosphorylated MAPKs and NF-kB pathways. In experiments with inhibitors, the ERK inhibitor completely suppressed the effect of HPG on IL-6 and TNF-α production. HPG-induced c-Jun activation was suppressed by an ERK inhibitor and partially suppressed by JNK, p38, and IκBα inhibitors. Collectively, these results suggested that HPG containing Rg3, Rg5, and Rk1 increased macrophage activation which was regulated by the ERK/c-Jun pathway in RAW264.7 cells.

Current Strategies for Inhibition of Chikungunya Infection

Increasing incidences of Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) infection and co-infections with Dengue/Zika virus have highlighted the urgency for CHIKV management. Failure in developing effective vaccines or specific antivirals has fuelled further research. This review discusses updated strategies of CHIKV inhibition and provides possible future directions. In addition, it analyzes advances in CHIKV lifecycle, drug-target development, and potential hits obtained by in silico and experimental methods. Molecules identified with anti-CHIKV properties using traditional/rational drug design and their potential to succeed in subsequent stages of drug development have also been discussed. Possibilities of repurposing existing drugs based on their in vitro findings have also been elucidated. Probable modes of interference of these compounds at various stages of infection, including entry and replication, have been highlighted. The use of host factors as targets to identify antivirals against CHIKV has been addressed. While most of the earlier antivirals were effective in the early phases of the CHIKV life cycle, this review is also focused on drug candidates that are effective at multiple stages of its life cycle. Since most of these antivirals require validation in preclinical and clinical models, the challenges regarding this have been discussed and will provide critical information for further research.

A Strategy for Discovery of Endocrine Interactions with Application to Whole-Body Metabolism

Inter-tissue communication via secreted proteins has been established as a vital mechanism for proper physiologic homeostasis. Here, we report a bioinformatics framework using a mouse reference population, the Hybrid Mouse Diversity Panel (HMDP), which integrates global multi-tissue expression data and publicly available resources to identify and functionally annotate novel circuits of tissue-tissue communication. We validate this method by showing that we can identify known as well as novel endocrine factors responsible for communication between tissues. We further show the utility of this approach by identification and mechanistic characterization of two new endocrine factors. Adipose-derived Lipocalin-5 is shown to enhance skeletal muscle mitochondrial function, and liver-secreted Notum promotes browning of white adipose tissue, also known as "beiging." We demonstrate the general applicability of the method by providing in vivo evidence for three additional novel molecules mediating tissue-tissue interactions.

Conserved structural and functional aspects of the tripartite motif gene family point towards therapeutic applications in multiple diseases

The tripartite motif (TRIM) gene family is a highly conserved group of E3 ubiquitin ligase proteins that can establish substrate specificity for the ubiquitin-proteasome complex and also have proteasome-independent functions. While several family members were studied previously, it is relatively recent that over 80 genes, based on sequence homology, were grouped to establish the TRIM gene family. Functional studies of various TRIM genes linked these proteins to modulation of inflammatory responses showing that they can contribute to a wide variety of disease states including cardiovascular, neurological and musculoskeletal diseases, as well as various forms of cancer. Given the fundamental role of the ubiquitin-proteasome complex in protein turnover and the importance of this regulation in most aspects of cellular physiology, it is not surprising that TRIM proteins display a wide spectrum of functions in a variety of cellular processes. This broad range of function and the highly conserved primary amino acid sequence of family members, particularly in the canonical TRIM E3 ubiquitin ligase domain, complicates the development of therapeutics that specifically target these proteins. A more comprehensive understanding of the structure and function of TRIM proteins will help guide therapeutic development for a number of different diseases. This review summarizes the structural organization of TRIM proteins, their domain architecture, common and unique post-translational modifications within the family, and potential binding partners and targets. Further discussion is provided on efforts to target TRIM proteins as therapeutic agents and how our increasing understanding of the nature of TRIM proteins can guide discovery of other therapeutics in the future.

In vitro assessment of the ability of probiotics, blueberry and food carbohydrates to prevent S. pyogenes adhesion on pharyngeal epithelium and modulate immune responses

Group A streptococci (GAS) cause 20-30% of pediatric pharyngitis episodes, which are a major cause of ambulatory care visits. Therefore, a strategy to prevent GAS dissemination in children could significantly benefit public healthcare. Contextually, we assessed the possibility of employing alternative food-grade strategies to be used with the oral probiotic L. helveticus MIMLh5 for the prevention of pharyngeal infections. First, we demonstrated through an antagonism-by-exclusion assay that guaran may potentially prevent S. pyogenes adhesion on pharyngeal cells. Subsequently, we showed that an anthocyanin-rich fraction extracted from wild blueberry (BbE) exerts anti-inflammatory effects on the human macrophage cell line U937. Finally, we showed that BbE reduces interferon-β expression in MIMLh5-stimulated murine dendritic cells, resulting in a reduction in the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-12 and TNF-α. In conclusion, this proof-of-concept study indicates that different food-grade strategies may be concomitantly adopted to potentially prevent GAS colonization and modulate local immune defences.

Oral Immunization against PEDV with Recombinant Lactobacillus casei Expressing Dendritic Cell-Targeting Peptide Fusing COE Protein of PEDV in Piglets

Porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED) is a highly contagious disease in newborn piglets. In our previous study, a genetically engineered Lactobacillus casei oral vaccine (pPG-COE-DCpep/L393) expressing a dendritic cell (DC)-targeting peptide fused with porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) COE antigen was developed. This vaccine induced significant levels of anti-PEDV specific IgG and IgA antibody responses in mice, indicating a potential strategy against PEDV infection. In this study, pPG-COE-DCpep/L393 was used for oral vaccination of newborn piglets against PEDV. We then assessed the immune responses and protection efficacy of pPG-COE-DCpep/L393. An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) showed that the recombinant Lactobacillus vaccine elicits a specific systemic and mucosal immune response. The T-helper cells mediated by pPG-COE-DCpep/L393 and PEDV infection display a Th1 phenotype. The histopathological results showed that pPG-COE-DCpep/L393 promotes lymphocyte proliferation and effectively protects piglets against PEDV infection. The transforming growth factor-β level indicated that the recombinant Lactobacillus vaccine plays a role in anti-inflammatory responses in mesenteric lymph nodes during PEDV infection. These results show that pPG-COE-DCpep/L393 is a potential vaccine against PEDV infection.