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Entezami M, Mustaqqim F, Morris E, Lim ESH, Prada JM, Paramasivam SJ. Effect of Human Activity and Presence on the Behavior of Long-Tailed Macaques ( Macaca fascicularis) in an Urban Tourism Site in Kuala Selangor, Malaysia. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1173. [PMID: 38672321 PMCID: PMC11047574 DOI: 10.3390/ani14081173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The increasing overlap of resources between human and long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) (LTM) populations have escalated human-primate conflict. In Malaysia, LTMs are labeled as a 'pest' species due to the macaques' opportunistic nature. This study investigates the activity budget of LTMs in an urban tourism site and how human activities influence it. Observational data were collected from LTMs daily for a period of four months. The observed behaviors were compared across differing levels of human interaction, between different times of day, and between high, medium, and low human traffic zones. LTMs exhibited varying ecological behavior patterns when observed across zones of differing human traffic, e.g., higher inactivity when human presence is high. More concerning is the impact on these animals' welfare and group dynamics as the increase in interactions with humans takes place; we noted increased inactivity and reduced intra-group interaction. This study highlights the connection that LTMs make between human activity and sources of anthropogenic food. Only through understanding LTM interaction can the cause for human-primate conflict be better understood, and thus, more sustainable mitigation strategies can be generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahbod Entezami
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford GU2 7AL, UK; (M.E.); (E.M.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Fiqri Mustaqqim
- School of Postgraduate Studies, Perdana University, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Elizabeth Morris
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford GU2 7AL, UK; (M.E.); (E.M.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Erin Swee Hua Lim
- Abu Dhabi Women’s College, Higher Colleges of Technology, Abu Dhabi 41012, United Arab Emirates;
- Centre for Research Excellence, Perdana University, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
| | - Joaquín M. Prada
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford GU2 7AL, UK; (M.E.); (E.M.); (J.M.P.)
| | - Sharmini Julita Paramasivam
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford GU2 7AL, UK; (M.E.); (E.M.); (J.M.P.)
- Animal Neighbours Project, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Daphne Jackson Road, Guildford GU2 7AL, UK
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Yang B, Hong B, Anderson JR, Fu WW, Ren Y, Gou NN, Shen JN, Jia KS, Lei YH, Wang KF, Mao M, Li BG. Dead trees as an indicator in tourism risk monitoring at primate ecotourism sites. Curr Zool 2022; 69:103-105. [PMID: 36974153 PMCID: PMC10039171 DOI: 10.1093/cz/zoac020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Bin Yang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Shaanxi Institute of Zoology, Xi’an, 710032, China
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, and College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an, 710069, China
| | - Bo Hong
- Bio-Agriculture Institute of Shaanxi, Xi’an, 710043, China
| | - James R Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Kyoto University Graduate School of Letters, Kyoto, 606-8501, Japan
| | - Wei-Wei Fu
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Shaanxi Institute of Zoology, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Yi Ren
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Shaanxi Institute of Zoology, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Ni-Na Gou
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Shaanxi Institute of Zoology, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Jie-Na Shen
- Research Center of Qinling Giant Panda, Shaanxi Academy of Forestry, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710402, China
| | - Kang-Sheng Jia
- Research Center of Qinling Giant Panda, Shaanxi Academy of Forestry, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710402, China
| | - Ying-Hu Lei
- Research Center of Qinling Giant Panda, Shaanxi Academy of Forestry, Xi’an, Shaanxi, 710402, China
| | - Kai-Feng Wang
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, Shaanxi Institute of Zoology, Xi’an, 710032, China
| | - Min Mao
- Department of Management and Marketing, School of Business and Economics, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, 43400UPM, Malaysia
| | - Bao-Guo Li
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory for Animal Conservation, and College of Life Sciences, Northwest University, Xi’an, 710069, China
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Muylaert RL, Davidson B, Ngabirano A, Kalema-Zikusoka G, MacGregor H, Lloyd-Smith JO, Fayaz A, Knox MA, Hayman DTS. Community health and human-animal contacts on the edges of Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254467. [PMID: 34818325 PMCID: PMC8612581 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cross-species transmission of pathogens is intimately linked to human and environmental health. With limited healthcare and challenging living conditions, people living in poverty may be particularly susceptible to endemic and emerging diseases. Similarly, wildlife is impacted by human influences, including pathogen sharing, especially for species in close contact with people and domesticated animals. Here we investigate human and animal contacts and human health in a community living around the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda. We used contact and health survey data to identify opportunities for cross-species pathogen transmission, focusing mostly on people and the endangered mountain gorilla. We conducted a survey with background questions and self-reported diaries to investigate 100 participants' health, such as symptoms and behaviours, and contact patterns, including direct contacts and sightings over a week. Contacts were revealed through networks, including humans, domestic, peri-domestic, and wild animal groups for 1) contacts seen in the week of background questionnaire completion, and 2) contacts seen during the diary week. Participants frequently felt unwell during the study, reporting from one to 10 disease symptoms at different intensity levels, with severe symptoms comprising 6.4% of the diary records and tiredness and headaches the most common symptoms. After human-human contacts, direct contact with livestock and peri-domestic animals were the most common. The contact networks were moderately connected and revealed a preference in contacts within the same taxon and within their taxa groups. Sightings of wildlife were much more common than touching. However, despite contact with wildlife being the rarest of all contact types, one direct contact with a gorilla with a timeline including concerning participant health symptoms was reported. When considering all interaction types, gorillas mostly exhibited intra-species contact, but were found to interact with five other species, including people and domestic animals. Our findings reveal a local human population with recurrent symptoms of illness in a location with intense exposure to factors that can increase pathogen transmission, such as direct contact with domestic and wild animals and proximity among animal species. Despite significant biases and study limitations, the information generated here can guide future studies, such as models for disease spread and One Health interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata L. Muylaert
- Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Ben Davidson
- Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Alex Ngabirano
- Conservation Through Public Health, Uring Crescent, Entebbe, Uganda
- Bwindi Development Network, Buhoma, Kanungu, Uganda
| | | | - Hayley MacGregor
- Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex and STEPS, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - James O. Lloyd-Smith
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Ahmed Fayaz
- Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Matthew A. Knox
- Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - David T. S. Hayman
- Molecular Epidemiology and Public Health Laboratory, Hopkirk Research Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Carrillo-Bilbao G, Martin-Solano S, Saegerman C. Zoonotic Blood-Borne Pathogens in Non-Human Primates in the Neotropical Region: A Systematic Review. Pathogens 2021; 10:1009. [PMID: 34451473 PMCID: PMC8400055 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10081009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Understanding which non-human primates (NHPs) act as a wild reservoir for blood-borne pathogens will allow us to better understand the ecology of diseases and the role of NHPs in the emergence of human diseases in Ecuador, a small country in South America that lacks information on most of these pathogens. Methods and principal findings: A systematic review was carried out using PRISMA guidelines from 1927 until 2019 about blood-borne pathogens present in NHPs of the Neotropical region (i.e., South America and Middle America). Results: A total of 127 publications were found in several databases. We found in 25 genera (132 species) of NHPs a total of 56 blood-borne pathogens in 197 records where Protozoa has the highest number of records in neotropical NHPs (n = 128) compared to bacteria (n = 12) and viruses (n = 57). Plasmodium brasilianum and Trypanosoma cruzi are the most recorded protozoa in NHP. The neotropical primate genus with the highest number of blood-borne pathogens recorded is Alouatta sp. (n = 32). The use of non-invasive samples for neotropical NHPs remains poor in a group where several species are endangered or threatened. A combination of serological and molecular techniques is common when detecting blood-borne pathogens. Socioecological and ecological risk factors facilitate the transmission of these parasites. Finally, a large number of countries remain unsurveyed, such as Ecuador, which can be of public health importance. Conclusions and significance: NHPs are potential reservoirs of a large number of blood-borne pathogens. In Ecuador, research activities should be focused on bacteria and viruses, where there is a gap of information for neotropical NHPs, in order to implement surveillance programs with regular and effective monitoring protocols adapted to NHPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Carrillo-Bilbao
- Research Unit of Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Applied to Veterinary Sciences (UREAR-ULiège), Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH) Center, Department of Infections and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
- Facultad de Filosofía y Letras y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Central del Ecuador, 170521 Quito, Ecuador
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis (CIZ), Universidad Central del Ecuador, 170521 Quito, Ecuador;
| | - Sarah Martin-Solano
- Instituto de Investigación en Zoonosis (CIZ), Universidad Central del Ecuador, 170521 Quito, Ecuador;
- Grupo de Investigación en Sanidad Animal y Humana (GISAH), Carrera Ingeniería en Biotecnología, Departamento de Ciencias de la Vida y la Agricultura, Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas—ESPE, 171103 Sangolquí, Ecuador
| | - Claude Saegerman
- Research Unit of Epidemiology and Risk Analysis Applied to Veterinary Sciences (UREAR-ULiège), Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal and Health (FARAH) Center, Department of Infections and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
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Muehlenbein MP, Dore KM, Gassen J, Nguyen V, Jolley OG, Gallagher C. Travel medicine meets conservation medicine in St. Kitts: Disinhibition, cognitive-affective inconsistency, and disease risk among vacationers around green monkeys (Chlorocebus sabaeus). Am J Primatol 2021; 84:e23301. [PMID: 34270796 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Despite concern about environmental protection, travelers often underestimate the contribution they may have to disease transmission to other species, as well as the risk of becoming infected themselves. Tourists in general tend to accept more physical risks when traveling than when at home, and much of this can be blamed on the temporary loss of situational awareness and loss of inhibition with a corresponding relaxed attitude toward safety. To better understand environmental attitudes and travel health knowledge and behaviors, a detailed survey of adult tourists was distributed on the island of St. Kitts, home to many green monkeys. Data from 1097 respondents were collected at two locations where cruise ship passengers typically visit the island. Results revealed that even though individuals with more positive environmental attitudes were more willing to take steps to mitigate tourism-related disease transmission, they were also more likely to report wanting to touch or feed a monkey/ape. Similarly, those more willing to prevent the spread of diseases (e.g., wear a mask and report any illnesses to park authorities) were actually more likely to want to touch or feed a monkey/ape. The human desire for physical contact with other species may be partly the result of biophilia, emotionally arousing events (like contact with exotic species) that can lead to further disinhibition, and social media platforms that provide opportunities for exhibitionism. The attitude-behavior incongruency identified here may also be explained through cognitive-affective inconsistency: environmentally-oriented individuals believe that it is prudent to take steps to prevent zoonotic disease transmission but also desire to touch or feed exotic species as it may be emotionally rewarding. Individuals for whom physically interacting with monkeys/apes may be emotionally rewarding may not alter their behavior in response to cognitive means of persuasion; techniques aimed at appealing to emotions may be more effective.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerry M Dore
- Department of Anthropology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA
| | - Jeffrey Gassen
- Department of Anthropology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA
| | - Vy Nguyen
- Department of Anthropology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA
| | - O Grace Jolley
- Department of Anthropology, Baylor University, Waco, Texas, USA
| | - Christa Gallagher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts
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Hilderink M, de Winter I. No need to beat around the bushmeat-The role of wildlife trade and conservation initiatives in the emergence of zoonotic diseases. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07692. [PMID: 34386637 PMCID: PMC8342965 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Wildlife species constitute a vast and uncharted reservoir of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a severe threat to global human health. Zoonoses have become increasingly impactful over the past decades, and the expanding trade in wildlife is unarguably among the most significant risk factors for their emergence. Despite several warnings from the academic community about the spillover risks associated with wildlife trade, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic underlines that current policies on the wildlife industry are deficient. Conservation initiatives, rather than practices that attempt to eradicate zoonotic pathogens or the wild species that harbour them, could play a vital role in preventing the emergence of life-threatening zoonoses. This review explores how wildlife conservation initiatives could effectively reduce the risk of new zoonotic diseases emerging from the wildlife trade by integrating existing literature on zoonotic diseases and risk factors associated with wildlife trade. Conservation should mainly aim at reducing human-wildlife interactions in the wildlife trade by protecting wildlife habitats and providing local communities with alternative protein sources. In addition, conservation should focus on regulating the legal wildlife trade and education about disease transfer and safer hunting and butchering methods. By uniting efforts for wildlife protection and universal concern for preventing zoonotic epidemics, conservation initiatives have the potential to safeguard both biodiversity, animal welfare, and global human health security.
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Keep your distance: Using Instagram posts to evaluate the risk of anthroponotic disease transmission in gorilla ecotourism. PEOPLE AND NATURE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pan3.10187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
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Muehlenbein MP, Angelo KM, Schlagenhauf P, Chen L, Grobusch MP, Gautret P, Duvignaud A, Chappuis F, Kain KC, Bottieau E, Epelboin L, Shaw M, Hynes N, Hamer DH. Traveller exposures to animals: a GeoSentinel analysis. J Travel Med 2020; 27:5716751. [PMID: 31993666 PMCID: PMC7384971 DOI: 10.1093/jtm/taaa010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human coexistence with other animals can result in both intentional and unintentional contact with a variety of mammalian and non-mammalian species. International travellers are at risk for such encounters; travellers risk injury, infection and possibly death from domestic and wild animal bites, scratches, licks and other exposures. The aim of the present analysis was to understand the diversity and distribution of animal-related exposures among international travellers. METHODS Data from January 2007 through December 2018 from the GeoSentinel Surveillance Network were reviewed. Records were included if the exposure was non-migration travel with a diagnosis of an animal (dog, cat, monkey, snake or other) bite or other exposure (non-bite); records were excluded if the region of exposure was not ascertainable or if another, unrelated acute diagnosis was reported. RESULTS A total of 6470 animal exposures (bite or non-bite) were included. The majority (71%) occurred in Asia. Travellers to 167 countries had at least one report of an animal bite or non-bite exposure. The majority (76%) involved dogs, monkeys and cats, although a wide range of wild and domestic species were involved. Almost two-thirds (62.6%) of 4395 travellers with information available did not report a pretravel consultation with a healthcare provider. CONCLUSIONS Minimizing bites and other animal exposures requires education (particularly during pretravel consultations) and behavioral modification. These should be supplemented by the use of pre-exposure rabies vaccination for travellers to high-risk countries (especially to those with limited access to rabies immunoglobulin), as well as encouragement of timely (in-country) post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies and Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1 (herpesvirus B) when warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristina M Angelo
- Division of Global Migration and Quarantine, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia, 30333, USA
| | - Patricia Schlagenhauf
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Travellers' Health University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland, Department of Public and Global Health Hirschengraben 84, 8001 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Medicine, Mount Auburn Hospital, 330 Mount Auburn Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, USA
| | - Martin P Grobusch
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Internal MEdicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, PO Box 22660, Amsterdam, Netherlands 1100DD
| | - Philippe Gautret
- Méditerranée Infection Foundation, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005, Marseille, France
| | - Alexandre Duvignaud
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine , Division of Tropical Medicine and Clinical International Health, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Bordeaux, Hôpital Pellegrin, Place Amélie Raba Léon, 33076, Bordeaux, France
| | - François Chappuis
- Department of Primary Care Medicine, Geneva University Hospitals, Rue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil 4, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Kevin C Kain
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto General Hospital, MaRS Centre, 101 College St, TMDT 10-360A, Ontario, Canada M5G1L7
| | - Emmanuel Bottieau
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Loïc Epelboin
- Unité des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales, Centre Hospitalier Andree Rosemon, Ave des Flamboyants, 97300 Cayenne, French Guiana
| | - Marc Shaw
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Rehabilitation Services, James Cook University, 1 James Cook Drive, Townsville, Queensland 4811, Australia
| | - Noreen Hynes
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, John Hopkins University School of Medicine, 1830 E Monument St, Suite 419, Baltimore, Maryland, 21205, USA
| | - Davidson H Hamer
- Department of Global Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Crosstown 3rd floor, 801 Massachusetts Ave, Boston, Massachusetts, 02118, USA
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Hoskins HM, McCann NP, Jocque M, Reid N. Rapid defaunation of terrestrial mammals in a protected Neotropical cloud forest remnant. J Nat Conserv 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jnc.2020.125861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Weber A, Kalema-Zikusoka G, Stevens NJ. Lack of Rule-Adherence During Mountain Gorilla Tourism Encounters in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda, Places Gorillas at Risk From Human Disease. Front Public Health 2020; 8:1. [PMID: 32117846 PMCID: PMC7031198 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) are an endangered primate species, with ~43% of the 1,063 individuals that remain on the planet today residing in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) in southwestern Uganda. These primates are at the heart of a growing tourism industry that has incentivized their continued protection, but close proximity between humans and gorillas during such encounters presents well-documented risks for disease transmission. The Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) has developed rules to help protect the health of the gorillas, limiting each habituated gorilla group to a single 60 min visit each day by a group of no more than 8 tourists, and emphasizing that humans maintain a >7 m distance from gorillas at all times. A number of studies have documented that not all tour groups respect these rules. This project assesses rule-adherence during gorilla tourism encounters at BINP using both observational and survey-based data collected during the tourism high season between May and August, 2014. Observational data from 53 treks reveal that groups of 1-11 tourists engaged in gorilla viewing encounters between 46 and 98 min in duration. Although 96% of pre-trek briefings conducted by park rangers emphasized the need to maintain >7 m human-gorilla spacing, the 7 m distance rule was violated in over 98% (52 out of 53) of the tours examined in this study. Observational data were collected at 2 min intervals during gorilla-viewing encounters, documenting the nearest distance between any tourist and a gorilla (n = 1,604), of which 1,094 observations (68.2%) took place at a distance less than or equal to 7 m. Importantly, the 7 m rule was violated in visits to all of the gorilla groups habituated during the time of the study. In 224 observations (~14%, per 1,604 total), human-gorilla spacing was 3 m or less. Survey data (n = 243) revealed promising opportunities to improve tourist understanding of and adherence to park rules, with 73.6% of respondents indicating that they would be willing to utilize a precautionary measure of wearing a face-mask during encounters to protect gorilla health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annalisa Weber
- Applied Research and Evaluation, Division of Global Health Protection, Center for Disease Control, Atlanta, GA, United States
- Environmental Studies Program, Voinovich School for Leadership and Public Affairs, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States
| | | | - Nancy J. Stevens
- Environmental Studies Program, Voinovich School for Leadership and Public Affairs, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Heritage College of Osteopathic Medicine, Ohio University, Athens, OH, United States
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Primate Infectious Disease Ecology: Insights and Future Directions at the Human-Macaque Interface. THE BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY OF THE TIBETAN MACAQUE 2020. [PMCID: PMC7123869 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27920-2_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Global population expansion has increased interactions and conflicts between humans and nonhuman primates over shared ecological space and resources. Such ecological overlap, along with our shared evolutionary histories, makes human-nonhuman primate interfaces hot spots for the acquisition and transmission of parasites. In this chapter, we bring to light the importance of human-macaque interfaces in particular as hot spots for infectious disease ecological and epidemiological assessments. We first outline the significance and broader objectives behind research related to the subfield of primate infectious disease ecology and epidemiology. We then reveal how members of the genus Macaca, being among the most socioecologically flexible and invasive of all primate taxa, live under varying degrees of overlap with humans in anthropogenic landscapes. Thus, human-macaque interfaces may favor the bidirectional exchange of parasites. We then review studies that have isolated various types of parasites at human-macaque interfaces, using information from the Global Mammal Parasite Database (GMPD: http://www.mammalparasites.org/). Finally, we elaborate on avenues through which the implementation of both novel conceptual frameworks (e.g., Coupled Systems, One Health) and quantitative network-based approaches (e.g., social and bipartite networks, agent-based modeling) may potentially address some of the critical gaps in our current knowledge of infectious disease ecology at human-primate interfaces.
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Borremans B, Faust C, Manlove KR, Sokolow SH, Lloyd-Smith JO. Cross-species pathogen spillover across ecosystem boundaries: mechanisms and theory. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20180344. [PMID: 31401953 PMCID: PMC6711298 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2018.0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogen spillover between different host species is the trigger for many infectious disease outbreaks and emergence events, and ecosystem boundary areas have been suggested as spatial hotspots of spillover. This hypothesis is largely based on suspected higher rates of zoonotic disease spillover and emergence in fragmented landscapes and other areas where humans live in close vicinity to wildlife. For example, Ebola virus outbreaks have been linked to contacts between humans and infected wildlife at the rural-forest border, and spillover of yellow fever via mosquito vectors happens at the interface between forest and human settlements. Because spillover involves complex interactions between multiple species and is difficult to observe directly, empirical studies are scarce, particularly those that quantify underlying mechanisms. In this review, we identify and explore potential ecological mechanisms affecting spillover of pathogens (and parasites in general) at ecosystem boundaries. We borrow the concept of 'permeability' from animal movement ecology as a measure of the likelihood that hosts and parasites are present in an ecosystem boundary region. We then discuss how different mechanisms operating at the levels of organisms and ecosystems might affect permeability and spillover. This review is a step towards developing a general theory of cross-species parasite spillover across ecosystem boundaries with the eventual aim of improving predictions of spillover risk in heterogeneous landscapes. This article is part of the theme issue 'Dynamic and integrative approaches to understanding pathogen spillover'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benny Borremans
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Interuniversity Institute for Biostatistics and Statistical Bioinformatics (I-BIOSTAT), Universiteit Hasselt, Hasselt, Limburg, Belgium
| | - Christina Faust
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Kezia R. Manlove
- Department of Wildland Resources and Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | | | - James O. Lloyd-Smith
- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Narat V, Alcayna-Stevens L, Rupp S, Giles-Vernick T. Rethinking Human-Nonhuman Primate Contact and Pathogenic Disease Spillover. ECOHEALTH 2017; 14:840-850. [PMID: 29150826 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1283-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2017] [Revised: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Zoonotic transmissions are a major global health risk, and human-animal contact is frequently raised as an important driver of transmission. A literature examining zooanthroponosis largely agrees that more human-animal contact leads to more risk. Yet the basis of this proposition, the term contact, has not been rigorously analyzed. To understand how contact is used to explain cross-species spillovers, we conducted a multi-disciplinary review of studies addressing human-nonhuman primate (NHP) engagements and pathogenic transmissions and employing the term contact. We find that although contact is frequently invoked, it is employed inconsistently and imprecisely across these studies, overlooking the range of pathogens and their transmission routes and directions. We also examine a related but more expansive approach focusing on human and NHP habitats and their spatial overlap, which can potentially facilitate pathogenic transmission. Contact and spatial overlap investigations cannot, however, explain the processes that bring together people, animals and pathogens. We therefore examine another approach that enhances our understanding of zoonotic spillovers: anthropological studies identifying such historical, social, environmental processes. Comparable to a One Health approach, our ongoing research in Cameroon draws contact, spatial overlap and anthropological-historical approaches into dialog to suggest where, when and how pathogenic transmissions between people and NHPs may occur. In conclusion, we call for zoonotic disease researchers to specify more precisely the human-animal contacts they investigate and to attend to how broader ecologies, societies and histories shape pathogen-human-animal interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victor Narat
- Emerging Diseases Epidemiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex, France
| | - Lys Alcayna-Stevens
- Emerging Diseases Epidemiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex, France
| | - Stephanie Rupp
- Department of Anthropology, City University of New York - Lehman College, Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Tamara Giles-Vernick
- Emerging Diseases Epidemiology Unit, Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du Docteur Roux, 75724, Paris Cedex, France.
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Studies, Toronto, Canada.
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Klaus A, Zimmermann E, Röper KM, Radespiel U, Nathan S, Goossens B, Strube C. Co-infection patterns of intestinal parasites in arboreal primates (proboscis monkeys, Nasalis larvatus) in Borneo. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2017; 6:320-329. [PMID: 29988805 PMCID: PMC6031963 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2017.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Revised: 08/28/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Non-human primates of South-East Asia remain under-studied concerning parasite epidemiology and co-infection patterns. Simultaneously, efforts in conservation demand knowledge of parasite abundance and biodiversity in threatened species. The Endangered proboscis monkey, Nasalis larvatus, a primate flagship species for conservation in Borneo, was investigated in the present study. Habitat loss and fragmentation are among the greatest threats to bachelor and harem groups of this folivorous colobine. Designed as a follow-up study, prevalence and co-infection status of intestinal parasites from N. larvatus in a protected area in Malaysian Borneo were analyzed from fecal samples using a flotation method. For the first time, the intestinal parasite co-infection patterns were examined using quantitative analyses. Overall, 92.3% of fecal samples (N = 652) were positive for helminth eggs. Five helminth groups were detected: (1) trichurids (82.7% prevalence) including Trichuris spp. (82.1%) and Anatrichosoma spp. (1.4%), (2) strongyles (58.9%) including Trichostrongylus spp. (48.5%) and Oesophagostomum/Ternidens spp. (22.8%), (3) Strongyloides fuelleborni (32.7%), (4) Ascaris lumbricoides (8.6%), and (5) Enterobius spp. (5.5%). On average, an individual was co-infected with two different groups. Significant positive associations were found for co-infections of trichurids with strongyles and S. fuelleborni as well as S. fuelleborni with A. lumbricoides and strongyles. This study shows a high prevalence of various gastrointestinal helminths with potential transmission pathways primarily related to soil and with zoonotic relevance in wild proboscis monkeys in their remaining natural habitats. Observed positive associations of trichurids with strongyles and Strongyloides spp. may result from the high prevalence of trichurids. Similarly, positive associations between Strongyloides and Ascaris were found, both of which typically occur predominantly in juvenile hosts. These findings should be considered when proposing conservation actions in altered habitats nearby human settlements and when managing captive populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Klaus
- Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Elke Zimmermann
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Kathrin Monika Röper
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Ute Radespiel
- Institute of Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Senthilvel Nathan
- Sabah Wildlife Department, 5th Floor, B Block, Wisma MUIS, 88100 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Benoit Goossens
- Sabah Wildlife Department, 5th Floor, B Block, Wisma MUIS, 88100 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
- Organisms and Environment Division, School of Biosciences, Cardiff University, The Sir Martin Evans Building, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, United Kingdom
- Danau Girang Field Centre, C/o Sabah Wildlife Department, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia
- Sustainable Places Research Institute, Cardiff University, 33 Park Pl, Cardiff CF10 3BA, United Kingdom
| | - Christina Strube
- Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Buenteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
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Muehlenbein MP. Primates on display: Potential disease consequences beyond bushmeat. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 162 Suppl 63:32-43. [PMID: 28105720 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Human interactions with nonhuman primates vary tremendously, from daily cultural engagements and food commodities, to pet ownership and tourist encounters. These interactions provide opportunities for the exchange of pathogenic organisms (both zoonoses and anthroponoses). As exposures are not limited to areas where bushmeat usage continues to be a major problem, we must work to understand better our motivations for engaging in activities like owning primates as pets and having direct physical contact with wild primates within the context of nature-based tourism. These topics, and the theoretical potential for pathogen transmission, are reviewed in the present manuscript. This is followed by a case study utilizing 3845 survey responses collected from four international locations known for primate-based tourism, with results indicating that while a majority of people understand that they can give/get diseases to/from wild primates, a surprising percentage would still touch or feed these animals if given the opportunity. Many people still choose to touch and/or own primates, as their drive to bond with animals outweighs some basic health behaviors. Desires to tame, control, or otherwise establish emotional connections with other species, combined with the central role of touch for exploring our environment, necessitate the development of better communication and educational campaigns to minimize risks of emerging infectious diseases.
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Grützmacher K, Keil V, Leinert V, Leguillon F, Henlin A, Couacy-Hymann E, Köndgen S, Lang A, Deschner T, Wittig RM, Leendertz FH. Human quarantine: Toward reducing infectious pressure on chimpanzees at the Taï Chimpanzee Project, Côte d'Ivoire. Am J Primatol 2017; 80. [PMID: 28095600 PMCID: PMC7161855 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Due to their genetic relatedness, great apes are highly susceptible to common human respiratory pathogens. Although most respiratory pathogens, such as human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) and human metapneumovirus (HMPV), rarely cause severe disease in healthy human adults, they are associated with considerable morbidity and mortality in wild great apes habituated to humans for research or tourism. To prevent pathogen transmission, most great ape projects have established a set of hygiene measures ranging from keeping a specific distance, to the use of surgical masks and establishment of quarantines. This study investigates the incidence of respiratory symptoms and human respiratory viruses in humans at a human‐great ape interface, the Taï Chimpanzee Project (TCP) in Côte d'Ivoire, and consequently, the effectiveness of a 5‐day quarantine designed to reduce the risk of potential exposure to human respiratory pathogens. To assess the impact of quarantine as a preventative measure, we monitored the quarantine process and tested 262 throat swabs for respiratory viruses, collected during quarantine over a period of 1 year. Although only 1 subject tested positive for a respiratory virus (HRSV), 17 subjects developed symptoms of infection while in quarantine and were subsequently kept from approaching the chimpanzees, preventing potential exposure in 18 cases. Our results suggest that quarantine—in combination with monitoring for symptoms—is effective in reducing the risk of potential pathogen exposure. This research contributes to our understanding of how endangered great apes can be protected from human‐borne infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Grützmacher
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Verena Keil
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vera Leinert
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Floraine Leguillon
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany.,University Montpellier 2, Montpellier, France
| | - Arthur Henlin
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany.,University Montpellier 2, Montpellier, France
| | - Emmanuel Couacy-Hymann
- Laboratoire National d'appui au Développement Agricole/Laboratoire Central de Pathologie Animale, Bingerville, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Sophie Köndgen
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander Lang
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Tobias Deschner
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Roman M Wittig
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany.,Taï Chimpanzee Project, CSRS, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Fabian H Leendertz
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch-Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Setchell JM, Fairet E, Shutt K, Waters S, Bell S. Biosocial Conservation: Integrating Biological and Ethnographic Methods to Study Human-Primate Interactions. INT J PRIMATOL 2016; 38:401-426. [PMID: 28546653 PMCID: PMC5422492 DOI: 10.1007/s10764-016-9938-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Biodiversity conservation is one of the grand challenges facing society. Many people interested in biodiversity conservation have a background in wildlife biology. However, the diverse social, cultural, political, and historical factors that influence the lives of people and wildlife can be investigated fully only by incorporating social science methods, ideally within an interdisciplinary framework. Cultural hierarchies of knowledge and the hegemony of the natural sciences create a barrier to interdisciplinary understandings. Here, we review three different projects that confront this difficulty, integrating biological and ethnographic methods to study conservation problems. The first project involved wildlife foraging on crops around a newly established national park in Gabon. Biological methods revealed the extent of crop loss, the species responsible, and an effect of field isolation, while ethnography revealed institutional and social vulnerability to foraging wildlife. The second project concerned great ape tourism in the Central African Republic. Biological methods revealed that gorilla tourism poses risks to gorillas, while ethnography revealed why people seek close proximity to gorillas. The third project focused on humans and other primates living alongside one another in Morocco. Incorporating shepherds in the coproduction of ecological knowledge about primates built trust and altered attitudes to the primates. These three case studies demonstrate how the integration of biological and social methods can help us to understand the sustainability of human–wildlife interactions, and thus promote coexistence. In each case, an integrated biosocial approach incorporating ethnographic data produced results that would not otherwise have come to light. Research that transcends conventional academic boundaries requires the openness and flexibility to move beyond one’s comfort zone to understand and acknowledge the legitimacy of “other” kinds of knowledge. It is challenging but crucial if we are to address conservation problems effectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna M Setchell
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK.,Behaviour, Ecology and Evolution Research (BEER) Centre, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK
| | - Emilie Fairet
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK.,Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Gabon, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Kathryn Shutt
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK.,Fauna & Flora International, Cambridge, CB2 3QZ UK
| | - Siân Waters
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK.,Barbary Macaque Awareness and Conservation (BMAC), Tetouan, Morocco
| | - Sandra Bell
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, DH1 3LE UK
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Leendertz SAJ, Wich SA, Ancrenaz M, Bergl RA, Gonder MK, Humle T, Leendertz FH. Ebola in great apes - current knowledge, possibilities for vaccination, and implications for conservation and human health. Mamm Rev 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/mam.12082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Siv Aina J. Leendertz
- Great Apes Survival Partnership (GRASP); United Nations Environment Programme; P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi Kenya
- Research Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms; Robert Koch-Institute; Seestrasse 10 13353 Berlin Germany
| | - Serge A. Wich
- Liverpool John Moore's University; 70 Mount Pleasant; Liverpool L3 5UA Merseyside UK
| | - Marc Ancrenaz
- Borneo Futures; Taman Kinanty, Lorong Angsa 12, House 61D 88300 Kota Kinabalu Sabah Malaysia
| | - Richard A. Bergl
- North Carolina Zoo; 4401 Zoo Parkway Asheboro North Carolina USA
| | - Mary K. Gonder
- Department of Biology; Drexel University; 3245 Chestnut Street Philadelphia PA 19104 USA
| | - Tatyana Humle
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology; School of Anthropology and Conservation; University of Kent; Canterbury CT2 7NR UK
| | - Fabian H. Leendertz
- Research Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms; Robert Koch-Institute; Seestrasse 10 13353 Berlin Germany
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19
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Abstract
Understanding pathogen exchange among human, wildlife, and livestock populations, and the varying ecological and cultural contexts in which this exchange takes place, is a major challenge. The present review contextualizes the risk factors that result from human interactions with livestock, companion animals, animal exhibits, wildlife through nature-based tourism, and wildlife through consumption. Given their phylogenetic relatedness to humans, primates are emphasized in this discussion; primates serve as reservoirs for several human pathogens, and some human pathogens can decimate wild primate populations. Anthropologists must play a central role in understanding cultural variation in attitudes toward other species as well as perceived risks when interacting with animals. I argue that the remediation of emerging infectious diseases will be accomplished primarily through human behavioral changes rather than through efforts in pathogen discovery. Given the history of human interactions with wildlife, candid discussions on zoonotic diseases will be increasingly important for our combined survival.
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20
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Conservation Medicine: A Solution-Based Approach for Saving Nonhuman Primates. ETHNOPRIMATOLOGY 2016. [PMCID: PMC7122636 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-30469-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Challenges that threaten the long-term survival of nonhuman primates (NHP) include habitat fragmentation, hunting, and increasingly, infectious diseases. In addition to direct mortality from noninfectious diseases (e.g., hunting) and infectious diseases (e.g., Ebola), human-driven alterations of environments that support NHP often contribute to a decline in population viability. This decline is frequently the result of physiological stress, poor reproduction, decreased immunity, and exposure to novel pathogens. To better understand the diseases that threaten NHP populations, a conservation medicine approach—the application of medicine to augment the conservation of wildlife and ecosystems—is imperative so that we may provide management solutions to help ensure the long-term survival of NHP. Additionally, it is crucial that we gain a better understanding of pathogens at the interface of nonhuman and human primates since the zoonotic potential may create conservation challenges, or alternatively may provide the impetus for conservation actions to be practiced (e.g., minimize bushmeat trade).
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21
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Coming down from the trees: is terrestrial activity in Bornean orangutans natural or disturbance driven? Sci Rep 2014; 4:4024. [PMID: 24526001 PMCID: PMC3923384 DOI: 10.1038/srep04024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The orangutan is the world's largest arboreal mammal, and images of the red ape moving through the tropical forest canopy symbolise its typical arboreal behaviour. Records of terrestrial behaviour are scarce and often associated with habitat disturbance. We conducted a large-scale species-level analysis of ground-based camera-trapping data to evaluate the extent to which Bornean orangutans Pongo pygmaeus come down from the trees to travel terrestrially, and whether they are indeed forced to the ground primarily by anthropogenic forest disturbances. Although the degree of forest disturbance and canopy gap size influenced terrestriality, orangutans were recorded on the ground as frequently in heavily degraded habitats as in primary forests. Furthermore, all age-sex classes were recorded on the ground (flanged males more often). This suggests that terrestrial locomotion is part of the Bornean orangutan's natural behavioural repertoire to a much greater extent than previously thought, and is only modified by habitat disturbance. The capacity of orangutans to come down from the trees may increase their ability to cope with at least smaller-scale forest fragmentation, and to cross moderately open spaces in mosaic landscapes, although the extent of this versatility remains to be investigated.
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Giardia in mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer), and domestic cattle in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. J Wildl Dis 2013; 50:21-30. [PMID: 24171566 DOI: 10.7589/2012-09-229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei) are critically endangered primates surviving in two isolated populations in protected areas within the Virunga Massif of Rwanda, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. Mountain gorillas face intense ecologic pressures due to their proximity to humans. Human communities outside the national parks, and numerous human activities within the national parks (including research, tourism, illegal hunting, and anti-poaching patrols), lead to a high degree of contact between mountain gorillas and wildlife, domestic animals, and humans. To assess the pathogen transmission potential between wildlife and livestock, feces of mountain gorillas, forest buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus), and domestic cattle (Bos taurus) in Rwanda were examined for the parasites Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Giardia was found in 9% of mountain gorillas, 6% of cattle, and 2% of forest buffalo. Our study represents the first report of Giardia prevalence in forest buffalo. Cryptosporidium-like particles were also observed in all three species. Molecular characterization of Giardia isolates identified zoonotic genotype assemblage B in the gorilla samples and assemblage E in the cattle samples. Significant spatial clustering of Giardia-positive samples was observed in one sector of the park. Although we did not find evidence for transmission of protozoa from forest buffalo to mountain gorillas, the genotypes of Giardia samples isolated from gorillas have been reported in humans, suggesting that the importance of humans in this ecosystem should be more closely evaluated.
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Abstract
The majority of all emerging pathogens in humans are zoonotic (nonhuman animal) in origin. Population, ecological, and behavioral changes that increase contact with wildlife exacerbate emergence of these pathogens. Anthropogenic modification of the physical environment has altered not only our risk of zoonotic infection from wildlife but also the likelihood of pathogen transmission from human to nonhuman animal populations. This is particularly the case for primates that share a number of common infections with humans. In this chapter, I use a series of case studies involving SARS, HIV, Nipah virus, Lyme disease, malaria, and Ebola to exemplify how various anthropogenic factors have facilitated pathogen transmission between human and nonhuman animal populations. The costs and benefits of primate-based ecotourism are also reviewed to better illustrate how human-wildlife contact can affect both populations. Responsible health monitoring of human-wildlife interactions is a necessary prerequisite for prevention of the transmission of future emerging infectious diseases.
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Muehlenbein MP, Ancrenaz M, Sakong R, Ambu L, Prall S, Fuller G, Raghanti MA. Ape conservation physiology: fecal glucocorticoid responses in wild Pongo pygmaeus morio following human visitation. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33357. [PMID: 22438916 PMCID: PMC3305311 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Nature-based tourism can generate important revenue to support conservation of biodiversity. However, constant exposure to tourists and subsequent chronic activation of stress responses can produce pathological effects, including impaired cognition, growth, reproduction, and immunity in the same animals we are interested in protecting. Utilizing fecal samples (N = 53) from 2 wild habituated orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus morio) (in addition to 26 fecal samples from 4 wild unhabituated orangutans) in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo, we predicted that i) fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations would be elevated on the day after tourist visitation (indicative of normal stress response to exposure to tourists on the previous day) compared to samples taken before or during tourist visitation in wild, habituated orangutans, and ii) that samples collected from habituated animals would have lower fecal glucocorticoid metabolites than unhabituated animals not used for tourism. Among the habituated animals used for tourism, fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels were significantly elevated in samples collected the day after tourist visitation (indicative of elevated cortisol production on the previous day during tourist visitation). Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels were also lower in the habituated animals compared to their age-matched unhabituated counterparts. We conclude that the habituated animals used for this singular ecotourism project are not chronically stressed, unlike other species/populations with documented permanent alterations in stress responses. Animal temperament, species, the presence of coping/escape mechanisms, social confounders, and variation in amount of tourism may explain differences among previous experiments. Acute alterations in glucocorticoid measures in wildlife exposed to tourism must be interpreted conservatively. While permanently altered stress responses can be detrimental, preliminary results in these wild habituated orangutans suggest that low levels of predictable disturbance can likely result in low physiological impact on these animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Muehlenbein
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America.
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25
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Fedigan LM. Ethical issues faced by field primatologists: asking the relevant questions. Am J Primatol 2010; 72:754-71. [PMID: 20213821 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Field primatologists face unusual ethical issues. We study animals rather than people and receive research approval from animal care rather than ethics committees. However, animal care evaluation forms are developed from concerns about laboratory animal research and are based on the "Three R's" for humane treatment of captive experimental subjects (replacement, reduction and refinement), which are only debatably relevant to field research. Scientists who study wild, free-ranging primates in host countries experience many ethical dilemmas seldom dealt with in animal care forms. This paper reviews the ethical issues many field primatologists say they face and how these might be better addressed by animal care forms. The ethical issues arising for field researchers are divided into three categories: "Presence, Protocols and People" and for each the most frequent issues are described. The most commonly mentioned ethical concern arising from our presence in the field is the possibility of disease transmission. Although most primate field studies employ only observational protocols, the practice of habituating our study animals to close human presence is an ethical concern for many since it can lessen the animals' fear of all humans, thereby facilitating undesirable behaviors (e.g., crop-raiding) and rendering them vulnerable to harm. Field primatologists who work in host countries must observe national laws and local traditions. As conservationists, primatologists must often negotiate between the resource needs and cultural practices of local people and the interests of the nonhuman primates. Many say they face more ethical dilemmas arising from human interactions than from research on the animals per se. This review concludes with suggestions for relevant questions to ask on animal care forms, and actions that field primatologists can take to better inform animal care committees about the common ethical issues we experience as well as how to develop guidelines for addressing them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Marie Fedigan
- Department of Anthropology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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Muehlenbein MP, Martinez LA, Lemke AA, Ambu L, Nathan S, Alsisto S, Sakong R. Unhealthy travelers present challenges to sustainable primate ecotourism. Travel Med Infect Dis 2010; 8:169-75. [PMID: 20541137 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 03/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ecotourism can function as a powerful tool for species conservation. However, a significant proportion of travelers at wildlife sanctuaries may be ill and potentially infectious, creating unnecessary risk of pathogen transmission to wildlife. METHODS A questionnaire was distributed to adult visitors at the Sepilok Orangutan Rehabilitation Centre, Sabah, Malaysia. The questionnaire recorded age, occupation, region of origin, history of recent travel, recent contact with livestock, domestic and wild animals, and diagnoses/symptoms of various infections. RESULTS 15% of the 633 tourists self-reported at least one of the following current symptoms: cough, sore throat, congestion, fever, diarrhea and vomiting. Participants who reported recent animal contact were significantly more likely to report current respiratory symptoms compared to other participants. Likewise, participants with a medical-related occupation were more likely to report current respiratory symptoms while at Sepilok compared to other participants. CONCLUSIONS Despite being ill and potentially infectious, these tourists were visiting a wildlife sanctuary to view endangered species. Many of these visitors had animal contact immediately prior to arriving, and many had at least some basic knowledge about infection transmission. While participants in nature-based tourism are generally concerned about environmental protection, present analyses suggest that a significant proportion of ecotourists are uninformed of the risks they may pose to non-human animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Muehlenbein
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, 701 E. Kirkwood Ave., Student Building 130, Bloomington, IN 47405-7000, USA.
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Klailova M, Hodgkinson C, Lee PC. Behavioral responses of one western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) group at Bai Hokou, Central African Republic, to tourists, researchers and trackers. Am J Primatol 2010; 72:897-906. [DOI: 10.1002/ajp.20829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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