Aged red garlic extract reduces lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 macrophages and acute pulmonary inflammation through haeme oxygenase-1 induction

Up-regulation of inflammatory reactions by MPT32, a secreted protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in RAW264.7 macrophages

Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and is still one of the global health burdens. The occurrence of various cases and multidrug resistance confirm that TB has not been completely conquered. For these reasons, the present research has been conducted to explore TB vaccine and drug candidate possibility using Mtb-secreted proteins. Among these proteins, MPT32 is known to have antigenicity and immunogenicity. There has not been a report on the host immune responses and regulation in macrophage cells. The present study was conducted with MPT32 in RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells that control immune responses by sensing pathogen invasion and environmental change. We have found that MPT32 could activate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced gene expression of metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) and inflammation in RAW 264.7 cells. After treating cells with MPT32, the increase in pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6, was observed. In addition, activated macrophages expressed inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) to generate various inflammatory mediator molecules, such as nitric oxide (NO). The increase in iNOS and COX-2 levels, which are up-regulators of MMP-9 expression, was also confirmed. The biochemical events are involved in the downstream of activated MAPK signaling and translocation of NF-κ B transcription factor. The present results prove the immunomodulatory effect of MPT32 in the RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. it claims the possibility of a TB vaccination and drug candidate using MPT32, contributing to the prevention of TB.

Black Garlic and Thiosulfinate-Enriched Extracts as Adjuvants to Ceftriaxone Treatment in a Rat Peritonitis Model of Sepsis

To date, there have been no new drugs or adjuvants able to decrease both morbidity and mortality in the context of sepsis and septic shock. Our objective was to evaluate the use of thiosulfinate-enriched Allium sativum and black garlic extracts as adjuvants in the management of sepsis. An experimental in vivo study was carried out with male Sprague-Dawley^® rats. Animals were randomized in four treatment groups: antibiotic (ceftriaxone) treatment (group I), ceftriaxone plus thiosulfinate-enriched extract (TASE, group II), ceftriaxone plus thiosulfinate-enriched extract and black garlic extracts (TASE + BGE, group III), and ceftriaxone plus black garlic extract (BGE, group IV). All animals were housed and inoculated with 1 × 10¹⁰ CFU/15 mL of intraperitoneal Escherichia coli ATCC 25922. Subsequently, they received a daily treatment according to each group for 7 days. Clinical, analytical, microbiological, and histopathological parameters were evaluated. Statistically significant clinical improvement was observed in rats receiving garlic extracts in weight (groups II and III), ocular secretions, and piloerection (group IV). Moreover, less liver edema, vacuolization, and inflammation were observed in groups receiving adjuvant support (groups II, III, and IV). When comparing interleukins 24 h after bacteria inoculum, we found statistically significant differences in TNF-alpha levels in groups receiving BGE (groups III and IV, p ≤ 0.05). Blood and peritoneal liquid cultures were also analyzed, and we detected a certain level of Enterococcus faecalis in peritoneal cultures from all treatment groups and less bacteria presence in blood cultures in rats receiving garlic extracts (groups II, III, and IV). In conclusion, TASE and BGE could be promising nutraceutical or medicinal agents as coadjuvants in the treatment of sepsis because of its effects in modulating the inflammatory response.

Immunological effect of fucosylated chondroitin sulfate and its oligomers from Holothuria fuscogilva on RAW 264.7 cells

Fucosylated chondroitin sulfate was obtained from the sea cucumber Holothuria fuscogilva (FCShf). The structure was elucidated by NMR and HILIC-FTMS analysis. FCShf contained a chondroitin core chain [→3)-β-D-GalNAc-(1 → 4)-β-D-GlcA-(1→]_n, where the sulfation positions were the O-4 or O-6 of the GalNAc residues. The ratio of sulfated and non-sulfated GalNAc at O-6 was 1:2, while the ratio of GalNAc at O-4 was 1:1. 2,4-disulfated-fucose (Fuc2,4S), 4-sulfated-fucose (Fuc4S) and 3,4-disulfated-fucose (Fuc3,4S) were attached to the O-3 of GlcA with a molar ratio of 1.00: 0.62: 1.32. The FCShf could significantly promote the proliferative rate, NO production and neutral red uptake of RAW 264.7 cells within the concentration range of 10-300 μg/mL. Compared with the fucosylation and deacetylation degrees, the molecular weight of FCShf had markedly influence on the activation of RAW 264.7 cells. A decrease in molecular weight dramatically improved the immunoregulatory activities. Furthermore, FCShf activated RAW 264.7 cells through TLR-2/4-NF-κB pathway.

Selective Fe(ii)-fluorescence sensor with validated two-consecutive working range using N,S,I-GQDs associated with garlic extract as an auxiliary green chelating agent

The goal of this work was to use the pyrolysis process to synthesize graphene quantum dots doped with garlic extract (as N,S-GQDs) and simultaneously co-doped with iodine (as I-GQDs). XPS, HR-TEM, FE-SEM/EDX, FT-IR, fluorescence, and UV-visible absorption spectroscopy were used to characterize the N,S,I-GQDs and analyze their morphological images. The quantum yield of N,S,I-GQDs was found to be 45%, greater than that of undoped GQDs (31%). When stimulated at 363 nm, the N,S,I-GQDs display a strong fluorescence intensity at a maximum wavelength of 454 nm. Using N,S,I-GQDs as a fluorescence quenching sensor for screening tests with various metal ions, it was discovered that they are extremely selective towards Fe2+ over Fe3+ and other ions. Thus, solution pH, concentration of N,S,I-GQDs, quantity of garlic extract, EDTA and AgNO3 concentration as masking agents, reaction duration under ultrasonic aid, and tolerable limit of Fe3+ presence in the target analyte were all optimized for Fe2+ detection. A highly sensitive detection of Fe2+ was obtained using a linear curve with y = 141.34x + 5.5855, R 2 = 0.9961, LOD = 0.11 mg L-1, and LOQ = 0.35 mg L-1. The method precision, given as RSDs, was determined to be satisfactory at 1.04% for intra-day analysis and 3.22% for inter-day analysis, respectively. As a result, the selective determination of trace amounts of Fe2+ in real water samples using such labile multi-element doped GQDs in conjunction with garlic extract as a green chelating agent to maintain its enhanced sensitivity was successfully applied with good recoveries ranging from 89.16 to 121.45%.

Effect of Garlic Organic Sulfides on Gene Expression Profiling in HepG2 Cells and Its Biological Function Analysis by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis System and Bio-Plex-Based Assays

Garlic organic sulfides are dietary bioactive components with multiple biofunctions to prevent chronic diseases/inflammation and promote human health. DADS (diallyl disulfide), DATS (diallyl trisulfide), and DTS (diallyl tetrasulfide) are typical organic sulfides with similar structures from garlic. However, the structure-activity relationship of garlic organic sulfides remained unknown. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of DADS, DATS, and DTS on the gene expression profiling of human hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2) by application of microarray and specialized analysis software, GO, Bio-Plex-based cytokines assay and IPA and analyze their structure-activity relationship according to antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic-related properties. According to the microarray data, with the increase of S atom in garlic organic sulfides, its biological activity was gradually enhanced. In the general catalog of GO, garlic organic sulfides mainly affect biological process, molecular function, and cellular component. RT-qPCR results indicated that the microarray data is trustworthy, and the structure-activity analysis data found that more sulfur atoms have more powerful properties; thus, microarray data of DTS was preceded to the subsequent IPA analysis. The results of IPA analysis showed that the top 5 signaling pathways and molecular functions were disturbed by DTS; the molecular functions with the highest scores affected by DTS are cancer, cell apoptosis, and cell proliferation, which imply that the occurrence or metabolism of these diseases is related to the differential expression of the above-mentioned related genes and the activation of signaling channels, and the core of the most significant molecular network is inflammation. Finally, the results found that the secretions of 6 cytokines in macrophages were significantly inhibited by DTS treatment. This is the first study that analyzed the structure-activity relationship of garlic organic sulfides, which will provide useful genetic information for its multi-biofunction and promote their clinical application in the near future.

The role of phytochemicals in sepsis: A mechanistic and therapeutic perspective

Sepsis and septic shock are still a leading cause of mortality and morbidity in intensive care units worldwide. Sepsis is an uncontrolled and excessive response of the innate immune system toward the invading infectious microbes, characterized by the hyper-production of pro-inflammatory mediators such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor-necrosis factor (TNF)-α, and high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). In severe sepsis, the overwhelming production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species may compromise organ function and lead to the induction of abnormal apoptosis in different organs, resulting in multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and death. Hence, compounds that are able to attenuate inflammatory responses may have therapeutic potential for sepsis treatment. Understanding the pathophysiology and underlying molecular mechanisms of sepsis may provide useful insights in the discovery and development of new effective therapeutics. Therefore, numerous studies have invested much effort into elucidating the mechanisms involved with the onset and development of sepsis. The present review mainly focuses on the molecules and signaling pathways involved in the pathogenicity of sepsis. Additionally, several well-known natural bioactive herbal compounds and phytochemicals, which have shown protective and therapeutic effects with regard to sepsis, as well as their mechanisms of action, are presented. This review suggests that these phytochemicals are able to attenuate the overwhelming inflammatory responses developed during sepsis by modulating different signaling pathways. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective activities of phytochemicals make them potent compounds to be included as complementary therapeutic agents in the diets of patients suffering from sepsis in an effort to alleviate sepsis and its life-threatening complications, such as multi-organ failure.

The Garlic Compound Z-Ajoene, S-Thiolates COX2 and STAT3 and Dampens the Inflammatory Response in RAW264.7 Macrophages

SCOPE

Garlic (Allium sativum) has been used for centuries as a prophylactic and therapeutic medicinal agent to control inflammation-associated pathologies. To investigate the underlying mechanisms, an in vitro inflammatory model is established using RAW264.7 murine macrophages exposed to low-doses of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the presence of garlic compounds allicin and Z-ajoene (ZA), mimicking regular garlic consumption.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Both allicin and Z-ajoene dampen both transcript and protein expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL1β, IL6, and IL12β, and upregulate the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL10. Protein arrays of selected secreted inflammatory mediators confirm that Z-ajoene has a pronounced down-regulatory effect on LPS-induced inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Many of these proteins are known targets of the transcription factor signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3); and indeed, Z-ajoene or its analogue dansyl-ajoene is found to decrease phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT3, and to covalently modify the protein by S-thiolation at Cys108, Cys367, and Cys687. Z-Ajoene dose-dependently and non-competitively inhibit the activity of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2), possibly attributed to S-thiolation at Cys9 and Cys299.

CONCLUSION

The characterization of Z-ajoene's activity of targeting and covalently modifying STAT3 and COX2, both important regulators of inflammation, may contribute to the health benefits of regular dietary garlic consumption.

Fisetin Suppresses Pulmonary Inflammatory Responses Through Heme Oxygenase-1 Mediated Downregulation of Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase

The effects of a mixture of fisetin on cytokine-mediated pulmonary damages have not been studied, despite its known antiviral, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated human pulmonary artery endothelial cells (HPAECs), we determined the effects of fisetin on the induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). In the lung tissue of LPS-treated mice, fisetin was also evaluated for its effect on the regulation of iNOS and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. In LPS-activated HPAECs, fisetin increased nuclear factor erythrocyte 2-related factor 2-antioxidant response element (Nrf2-ARE) reporter activity through the nuclear translocation of Nrf2, and the expression of HO-1, and decreased IL-1β and iNOS/NO production. In particular, the suppression of iNOS/NO expression by the administration of fisetin was dependent on HO-1. Current findings indicate that the anti-inflammatory activity of fisetin was due to its HO-1 dependent downregulation of p-STAT-1 and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and the resultant inhibition of iNOS, and also suggest TNF-α as a potential target for HO-1. We propose that administration of fisetin may be a novel approach, ideal for the treatment of inflammatory pulmonary disease.

Naturally Derived Heme-Oxygenase 1 Inducers and Their Therapeutic Application to Immune-Mediated Diseases

Heme oxygenase (HO) is the primary antioxidant enzyme involved in heme group degradation. A variety of stimuli triggers the expression of the inducible HO-1 isoform, which is modulated by its substrate and cellular stressors. A major anti-inflammatory role has been assigned to the HO-1 activity. Therefore, in recent years HO-1 induction has been employed as an approach to treating several disorders displaying some immune alterations components, such as exacerbated inflammation or self-reactivity. Many natural compounds have shown to be effective inductors of HO-1 without cytotoxic effects; among them, most are chemicals present in plants used as food, flavoring, and medicine. Here we discuss some naturally derived compounds involved in HO-1 induction, their impact in the immune response modulation, and the beneficial effect in diverse autoimmune disorders. We conclude that the use of some compounds from natural sources able to induce HO-1 is an attractive lifestyle toward promoting human health. This review opens a new outlook on the investigation of naturally derived HO-1 inducers, mainly concerning autoimmunity.

Comparison Among Garlic, Berberine, Resveratrol,Hibiscus sabdariffa, GenusZizyphus, Hesperidin, Red Beetroot,Catha edulis,Portulaca oleracea, and Mulberry Leaves in the Treatment of Hypertension and Type 2 DM: A Comprehensive Review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypertension are 2 of the most prevalent diseases with poor impact on health status worldwide. In most cases, they coexist with other metabolic disorders as well as cardiac, micro- and macrovascular complications. Many plants are known for their hypotensive, cardioprotective, and/or antidiabetic activities. Their active ingredients either identified and isolated or still utilized as herbal preparations of certain plant parts. The use of medicinal plants comprises the main basis for most of the traditional medicine (TM) systems and procedures. As conventional medicines seem insufficient to control such progressive diseases, herbal agents from TM could be used as adjuvant with good impact on disease control and progression as well as other concomitant health conditions. The aim of this study is to compare the efficacy of 10 different herbal medicines of botanical origin or herbal preparations in the management of hypertension and its cardiovascular complications and type 2 DM along with various coexisting health disorders. These herbal medicines are garlic, berberine, resveratrol, Hibiscus sabdariffa, Zizyphus ( oxyphylla, mucronate, jujube, rugosa), hesperidin, red beetroot, Catha edulis, mulberry leaves, and Portulaca oleracea.

Sea Hare Hydrolysate-Induced Reduction of Human Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Cell Growth through Regulation of Macrophage Polarization and Non-Apoptotic Regulated Cell Death Pathways

Sea hare-derived compounds induce macrophage activation and reduce asthmatic parameters in mouse models of allergic asthma. These findings led us to study the role of sea hare hydrolysates (SHH) in cancer pathophysiology. SHH treatment-induced M1 macrophage activation in RAW264.7 cells, peritoneal macrophages, and THP-1 cells, as did lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (+ INF-γ), whereas SHH reduced interleukin (IL)-4 (+IL-13)-induced M2 macrophage polarization. In addition, SHH treatment inhibited the actions of M1 and M2 macrophages, which have anticancer and pro-cancer effects, respectively, in non-small cell lung cancer cells (A549 and HCC-366) and tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Furthermore, SHH induced G2/M phase arrest and cell death in A549 cells. SHH also downregulated STAT3 activation in macrophages and A549 cells, and the down-regulation was recovered by colivelin, a STAT3 activator. SHH-induced reduction of M2 polarization and tumor growth was blocked by colivelin treatment. SHH-induced cell death did not occur in the manner of apoptotic signaling pathways, while the death pattern was mediated through pyroptosis/necroptosis, which causes membrane rupture, formation of vacuoles and bleb, activation of caspase-1, and secretion of IL-1β in SHH-treated A549 cells. However, a combination of SHH and colivelin blocked caspase-1 activation. Z-YVAD-FMK and necrostatin-1, pyrotosis and necroptosis inhibitors, attenuated SHH’s effect on the cell viability of A549 cells. Taken together, SHH showed anticancer effects through a cytotoxic effect on A549 cells and a regulatory effect on macrophages in A549 cells. In addition, the SHH-induced anticancer effects were mediated by non-apoptotic regulated cell death pathways under STAT3 inhibition. These results suggest that SHH may be offered as a potential remedy for cancer immunotherapy.

The aqueous extract of aged black garlic ameliorates colistin-induced acute kidney injury in rats

The use of colistin in the treatment of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacterial infections is restricted due to nephrotoxicity. We investigated the effects of aged black garlic extract (ABGE) on colistin-induced kidney injury in rats. Rats were assigned to four groups. Normal saline was intraperitoneally and intragastrically injected for control group. ABGE was intragastrically injected for garlic group. Ten mg/kg of colistin was intraperitoneally injected for 6 consecutive days for colistin group. One percent of ABGE was done 30 min prior to colistin injection for treatment group. Rats were sacrificed on the next day after last colistin injection. Colistin injection increased the serum levels of blood urea nitrogen and creatinine; however, ABGE prevented deterioration of these serum levels. ABGE also alleviated tubular damage, including vacuolation and necrosis. TUNEL-positive cells were observed less frequently for the ABGE-treated groups. CD68 positive cells were significantly decreased by pretreatment with ABGE. Levels of oxidative stress biomarkers such as 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine and malondialdehyde were lower in the ABGE-treated groups. Levels of NF-κB, inducible NO synthase, COX-2, and TGF-β1 were lower in rats that had been treated with ABGE injection. Renal levels of IL-1β and TNF-α were increased by colistin administration whereas renal SOD, catalase, and GSH levels were restored by ABGE administration. These results suggest that ABGE, which has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, might be a potential therapeutic agent to prevent renal toxicity of colistin.

Anti-inflammatory effect of aged black garlic on 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-induced dermatitis in mice

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Although aged black garlic has various biological activities such as anti-allergy, anti-inflammation and neuroprotection, effect of aged black garlic on chemically contact dermatitis is unclarified.

MATERIALS/METHODS

To evaluate anti-dermatitic activity of aged black garlic extract, we investigated effects of a fraction of aged black garlic extract (BG10) on both in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

BG10 almost inhibited formation of nitric monoxide and interleukin-6 (IL-6; IC₅₀, 7.07 µg/mL) at 25 µg/mL, and dose-dependently reduced production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α; IC₅₀, 52.07 µg/mL) and prostaglandin E₂ (IC₅₀, 38.46 µg/mL) in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. In addition, BG10 significantly inhibited the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2 and nuclear NF-κB, and improved that of cytosolic levels of NF-κB and IκBα in the cells. Consistent with in vitro studies, BG10 (0.5 mg/mL) not only reduced ear edema but also suppressed the formation of IL-6 and TNF-α induced by 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate in ear tissues of mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest BG10 has anti-dermatitic activity through inhibiting activation of macrophages. Therefore, such effects of BG10 may provide information for the application of aged black garlic for prevention and therapy of contact dermatitis.

Alternative and Natural Therapies for Acute Lung Injury and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome

Introduction

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a complex clinical syndrome characterized by acute inflammation, microvascular damage, and increased pulmonary vascular and epithelial permeability, frequently resulting in acute respiratory failure and death. Current best practice for ARDS involves “lung-protective ventilation,” which entails low tidal volumes and limiting the plateau pressures in mechanically ventilated patients. Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the pathogenesis of ARDS, little progress has been made in the development of specific therapies to combat injury and inflammation.

Areas Covered

In recent years, several natural products have been studied in experimental models and have been shown to inhibit multiple inflammatory pathways associated with acute lung injury and ARDS at a molecular level. Because of the pleiotropic effects of these agents, many of them also activate antioxidant pathways through nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2, thereby targeting multiple pathways. Several of these agents are prescribed for treatment of inflammatory conditions in the Asian subcontinent and have shown to be relatively safe.

Expert Commentary

Here we review natural remedies shown to attenuate lung injury and inflammation in experimental models. Translational human studies in patients with ARDS may facilitate treatment of this devastating disease.

Garlic and Gaseous Mediators

Garlic (Allium sativum) and allied plant species are rich sources of sulfur compounds. Major roles for garlic and its sulfur constituents include the regulation of vascular homeostasis and the control of metabolic systems linked to nutrient metabolism. Recent studies have indicated that some of these sulfur compounds, such as diallyl trisulfide (DATS), alter the levels of gaseous signalling molecules including nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), and perhaps carbon monoxide (CO) in mammalian tissues. These gases are important in cellular processes associated with the cardiovascular system, inflammation, and neurological functions. Importantly, these studies build on the known biological effects of garlic and associated sulfur constituents. This review highlights our current understanding of the health benefits attributed to edible plants like garlic.

Artemisia argyi attenuates airway inflammation in lipopolysaccharide induced acute lung injury model

Artemisia argyi is used as a health supplement, tea, and food source in Korea. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of Artemisia argyi (AA) and its active compound, dehydromatricarin A (DA), on the attenuation of airway inflammation in a murine model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI). The C57BL/6 mice were administered AA (50 mg/kg or 100 mg/kg) and DA (10 mg/kg or 20 mg/kg) by oral gavage from day 0 to 7 days and LPS treated by intranasal instillation 48 hours before the sacrifice. The treatment of AA and DA markedly decreased inflammatory cells in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) compared with that in ALI-induced mice, which was accompanied by a significant reduction in the levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-6 in BALF. Furthermore, the administration of AA and DA clearly decreased inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) phosphorylation in comparison with that in the ALI-induced mice. The histological examination of the lung tissue revealed that the administration of AA and DA suppressed the inflammatory cell infiltration into the peribronchial and alveolar lesions induced by LPS instillation. Collectively, our results indicated that AA and DA effectively decreased the airway inflammatory response induced by LPS instillation. Therefore, AA and DA may offer a potential therapy for airway inflammatory disease.

Reduction of Asthmatic Parameters by Sea Hare Hydrolysates in a Mouse Model of Allergic Asthma

Sea hare has a variety of biological activities. However, little is known regarding the anti-asthmatic effects of sea hare. This study was performed to identify the effect of sea hare hydrolysates (SHH) on an ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic asthma model. The experimental asthma model was sensitized and challenged with OVA. We found that a high-dose of SHH (HSHH) significantly inhibited OVA-induced airway inflammation and mucus production around the airway in lung sections, while low- and medium-dose SHH showed an insignificant effect. In addition, HSHH highly reduced OVA-induced production of interleukin-4, -5, -13, leukotriene D4, E4, and histamine in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. HSHH decreased the histamine-induced increase in the intracellular Ca²⁺ level and contractions in asthmatic smooth muscle cells. Furthermore, HSHH did not affect the weights of the spleen nor thymus, whereas dexamethasone (DEX), a steroidal anti-inflammatory drug, reduced them. Taken together, these results showed that HSHH reduced asthmatic parameters in a mouse model of allergic asthma, and suggest that SHH could be used as a potential therapeutic agent for asthma.

Immune response mechanism of mouse monocytes/macrophages treated with κ-carrageenan polysaccharide

This study investigated the function of κ-carrageenan polysaccharide in immune regulation. The immune response of RAW 264.7 cells treated with κ-carrageenan polysaccharide was explored by MTT assay, general morphological observation, neutral red phagocytosis assay, Griess method, fluorescence method, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, TLR4 blocking experiment and double-fluorescence immunostaining were performed on cells to demonstrate their immune response mechanism. Results show that κ-carrageenan polysaccharide not only promotes cell proliferation but also activates RAW 264.7 cells, thereby improving the cells' phagocytic capability, NO production, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) secretion. In addition, the use of TLR4-specific inhibitors can significantly mediate the increased TNF-α secretion induced by κ-carrageenan polysaccharide. The RAW 264.7 cells treated with κ-carrageenan polysaccharide show upregulated TLR4 expression, and the main subunit of NF-κB (p65) is translocated. These results support the immunomodulatory function of κ-carrageenan polysaccharide in RAW 264.7 cells.

Effect of pecan phenolics on the release of nitric oxide from murine RAW 264.7 macrophage cells

Inflammation is linked to numerous chronic disease states. Phenolic compounds have attracted attention because a number of these compounds possess anti-inflammatory properties. A phenolic crude extract was prepared from pecans and separated by Sephadex LH-20 column chromatography into low- and high-molecular-weight (LMW/HMW) fractions. Anti-inflammatory properties of these fractions were assessed in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cells. NO and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was monitored after 3 different experimental protocols: (1) pre-treatment with Escherichia coli O111:B4 lipopolysaccharide (LPS); (2) pre-treatment with a pecan crude extract and its fractions; and (3) co-incubation of LPS with a pecan crude extract and its fractions. The LMW fraction displayed a dose-dependent decrease in NO production and a significant decrease from the LPS control in ROS production when cells were either co-incubated with or pre-treated with LPS. The phenolics were characterized by HPLC to help identify those responsible for the observed effect.

Comparison of Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects between Fresh and Aged Black Garlic Extracts

Numerous studies have demonstrated that aged black garlic (ABG) has strong anti-oxidant activity. Little is known however regarding the anti-inflammatory activity of ABG. This study was performed to identify and compare the anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of ABG extract (ABGE) with those of fresh raw garlic (FRG) extract (FRGE). In addition, we investigated which components are responsible for the observed effects. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were used as a pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory stressor, respectively. ABGE showed high ABTS and DPPH radical scavenging activities and low ROS generation in RAW264.7 cells compared with FRGE. However, inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 and 5-lipooxygenase activities by FRGE was stronger than that by ABGE. FRGE reduced PGE₂, NO, IL-6, IL-1β, LTD₄, and LTE₄ production in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells more than did ABGE. The combination of FRGE and sugar (galactose, glucose, fructose, or sucrose), which is more abundant in ABGE than in FRGE, decreased the anti-inflammatory activity compared with FRGE. FRGE-induced inhibition of NF-κB activation and pro-inflammatory gene expression was blocked by combination with sugars. The lower anti-inflammatory activity in ABGE than FRGE could result from the presence of sugars. Our results suggest that ABGE might be helpful for the treatment of diseases mediated predominantly by ROS.

Anti-septic effects of fisetin in vitro and in vivo

Sepsis is a state of disrupted inflammatory homeostasis that is initiated by infection. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein acting as a late mediator of severe vascular inflammatory conditions, such as sepsis and endothelial cell protein C receptor (EPCR), is involved in vascular inflammation. Fisetin, an active compound from the family Fabaceae, was reported to have antiviral, neuroprotective, and anti-inflammatory activities. Here, we determined the anti-septic effects of fisetin on HMGB1-mediated inflammatory responses and on the shedding of EPCR in vitro and in vivo, for the first time. First, we monitored the effects of post-treatment fisetin on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-mediated release of HMGB1 and HMGB1-mediated regulation of pro-inflammatory responses in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and septic mice. Post-treatment fisetin was found to suppress LPS-mediated release of HMGB1 and HMGB1-mediated cytoskeletal rearrangements. Fisetin also inhibited HMGB1-mediated hyperpermeability and leukocyte migration in septic mice. Fisetin induced potent inhibition of phorbol-12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and CLP-induced EPCR. Fisetin also inhibited the expression and activity of tumor necrosis factor-α converting enzyme, induced by PMA in endothelial cells. In addition, fisetin inhibited the production of tumor necrosis factor-α and the activation of AKT, nuclear factor-κB, and extracellular regulated kinases 1/2 by HMGB1 in HUVECs. Fisetin also down-regulated CLP-induced release of HMGB1, production of interleukin 1β, and reduced septic mortality. Collectively, these results suggest that fisetin may be a candidate therapeutic agent for the treatment of vascular inflammatory diseases via inhibition of the HMGB1 signaling pathway.

Aged red garlic extract suppresses nitric oxide production in lipopolysaccharide-treated RAW 264.7 macrophages through inhibition of NF-κB

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) activate nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), a transcription factor that is involved in inflammatory response. The pathways that activate NF-κB can be modulated by phytochemicals derived from garlic. We recently demonstrated that aged red garlic extract (ARGE), a new formulation of garlic, decreases nitric oxide (NO) generation by upregulating of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) in RAW 264.7 cells activated by LPS. However, the effects of ARGE on LPS-induced NF-κB activation are unknown. This study was performed to evaluate whether ARGE regulates LPS-induced NO production by modulation of NF-κB activation in macrophages. The inhibition of NF-κB by Bay 11-7085, an inhibitor of NF-κB, decreased LPS-induced NO production. ARGE treatment markedly reduced LPS-induced NO production and NF-κB nuclear translocation. ARGE downregulated expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and upregulated expression of HO-1, a cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory protein. However, Bay 11-7085 only reduced iNOS expression. The NO production and iNOS expressions upregulated by suppression of HO-1 were suppressed by treatment with ARGE and Bay 11-7085. These results show that ARGE reduces LPS-induced NO production in macrophages through inhibition of NF-κB nuclear translocation and HO-1 activation. Compared to Bay 11-7085, ARGE may enhance anti-inflammatory effects by controlling other anti-inflammatory signals as well as regulation of NF-κB.

Theranostic carbon dots derived from garlic with efficient anti-oxidative effects towards macrophages

Luminescent garlic carbon dots with superior photostability are synthesizedviamicrowave assisted heating.

Proteomic analysis of the effects of aged garlic extract and its FruArg component on lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammatory response in microglial cells

Aged garlic extract (AGE) is widely used as a dietary supplement, and is claimed to promote human health through anti-oxidant/anti-inflammatory activities with hypolipidemic, antiplatelet and neuroprotective effects. Prior studies of AGE have mainly focused on its organosulfur compounds, with little attention paid to its carbohydrate derivatives, such as N-α-(1-deoxy-D-fructos-1-yl)-L-arginine (FruArg). The goal of this study is to investigate actions of AGE and FruArg on antioxidative and neuroinflammatory responses in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated murine BV-2 microglial cells using a proteomic approach. Our data show that both AGE and FruArg can significantly inhibit LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in BV-2 cells. Quantitative proteomic analysis by combining two dimensional differential in-gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) with mass spectrometry revealed that expressions of 26 proteins were significantly altered upon LPS exposure, while levels of 20 and 21 proteins exhibited significant changes in response to AGE and FruArg treatments, respectively, in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells. Notably, approximate 78% of the proteins responding to AGE and FruArg treatments are in common, suggesting that FruArg is a major active component of AGE. MULTICOM-PDCN and Ingenuity Pathway Analyses indicate that the proteins differentially affected by treatment with AGE and FruArg are involved in inflammatory responses and the Nrf2-mediated oxidative stress response. Collectively, these results suggest that AGE and FruArg attenuate neuroinflammatory responses and promote resilience in LPS-activated BV-2 cells by suppressing NO production and by regulating expression of multiple protein targets associated with oxidative stress.

Anti-inflammatory effects of ethanolic extract from Sargassum horneri (Turner) C. Agardh on lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage activation via NF-κB pathway regulation

Inflammation is major symptom of the innate immune response by infection of microbes. Macrophages, one of immune response related cells, play a role in inflammatory response. Recent studies reported that various natural products can regulate the activation of immune cells such as macrophage. Sargassum horneri (Turner) C. Agardh is one of brown algae. Recently, various seaweeds including brown algae have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, anti-inflammatory effects of Sargassum horneri (Turner) C. Agardh are still unknown. In this study, we investigated anti-inflammatory effects of ethanolic extract of Sargassum horneri (Turner) C. Agardh (ESH) on RAW 264.7 murine macrophage cell line. The ESH was extracted from dried Sargassum horneri (Turner) C. Agardh with 70% ethanol and then lyophilized at -40 °C. ESH was not cytotoxic to RAW 264.7, and nitric oxide (NO) production induced by LPS-stimulated macrophage activation was significantly decreased by the addition of 200 μg/mL of ESH. Moreover, ESH treatment reduced mRNA level of cytokines, including IL-1β, and pro-inflammatory genes such as iNOS and COX-2 in LPS-stimulated macrophage activation in a dose-dependent manner. ESH was found to elicit anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting ERK, p-p38 and NF-κB phosphorylation. In addition, ESH inhibited the release of IL-1β in LPS-stimulated macrophages. These results suggest that ESH elicits anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-stimulated macrophage activation via the inhibition of ERK, p-p38, NF-κB, and pro-inflammatory gene expression.

Andrographolide inhibits HMGB1-induced inflammatory responses in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and in murine polymicrobial sepsis

AIM

Nuclear DNA-binding protein high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein acts as a late mediator of severe vascular inflammatory conditions, such as septic shock, upregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines. Andrographolide (AG) is isolated from the plant of Andrographis paniculata and used as a folk medicine for treatment of viral infection, diarrhoea, dysentery and fever. However, the effect of AG on HMGB1-induced inflammatory response has not been studied.

METHODS

Firstly, we accessed this question by monitoring the effects of post-treatment AG on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and caecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-mediated release of HMGB1 and HMGB1-mediated regulation of pro-inflammatory responses in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and septic mice.

RESULTS

Post-treatment AG was found to suppress LPS-mediated release of HMGB1 and HMGB1-mediated cytoskeletal rearrangements. AG also inhibited HMGB1-mediated hyperpermeability and leucocyte migration in septic mice. In addition, AG inhibited production of tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and activation of AKT, nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and extracellular-regulated kinases (ERK) 1/2 by HMGB1 in HUVECs. AG also induced downregulation of CLP-induced release of HMGB1, production of interleukin (IL) 1β/6/8 and mortality.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these results suggest that AG may be regarded as a candidate therapeutic agent for the treatment of vascular inflammatory diseases via inhibition of the HMGB1 signalling pathway.

Effects of aged garlic extract and endurance exercise on skeletal muscle FNDC-5 and circulating irisin in high-fat-diet rat models

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Irisin, a newly identified hormone, is associated with energy homeostasis. We investigated whether aged garlic extract (AGE) and exercise training intervention could improve body weight, insulin sensitivity, skeletal muscle fibronectin domain containing protein 5 (FNDC-5) levels, and plasma irisin in high-fat diet (HFD).

MATERIALS/METHODS

Male Sprague Dawley rats were fed a ND (normal diet, n = 5) or HFD (n = 28) for 6 weeks. After 6 weeks, all rats were divided into 5 groups for the next 4 weeks: ND, (normal diet, n = 5), HFD (high-fat diet, n = 7), HFDA (high-fat diet + aged garlic extract, n = 7), HFDE (high-fat diet + exercise, n = 7), and HFDEA (high-fat diet + exercise + aged garlic extract, n = 7). Exercise groups performed treadmill exercises for 15-60 min, 5 days/week, and AGE groups received AGE (2.86 g/kg, orally injected) for 4 weeks.

RESULTS

Significant decreases in body weight were observed in the ND, HFDE, and HFDEA groups, as compared with the HFD group. Neither intervention affected the masses of the gastrocnemius muscle or liver. There were no significant differences in glucose levels across the groups. The homeostatic model assessments of insulin resistance were significantly higher in the HFD group, as compared with the ND, HFDA, HFDE, and HFDEA groups. However, skeletal muscle FNDC-5 levels and plasma irisin concentrations were unaffected by AGE or exercise in obese rats. AGE supplementation and exercise training did not affect skeletal muscle FNDC-5 or plasma irisin, which are associated with insulin sensitivity in obese rats.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the protection against HFD-induced increases in body fat/weight and insulin resistance that are provided by AGE supplementation and exercise training may not be mediated by the regulation of FNDC-5 or irisin.

Desoxyrhapontigenin up-regulates Nrf2-mediated heme oxygenase-1 expression in macrophages and inflammatory lung injury

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an important anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and cytoprotective enzyme that is regulated by the activation of the major transcription factor, nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2). In the present study, six stilbene derivatives isolated from Rheum undulatum L. were assessed for their antioxidative potential. In the tert-butylhydroperoxide (t-BHP)-induced RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line, desoxyrhapontigenin was the most potent component that reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and peroxynitrite. In response to desoxyrhapontigenin, the mRNA expression levels of antioxidant enzymes were up-regulated. An electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) confirmed that desoxyrhapontigenin promoted the DNA binding of Nrf2 and increased the expression of antioxidant proteins and enzymes regulated by Nrf2. Further investigation utilizing specific inhibitors of Akt, p38, JNK and ERK demonstrated that the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway mediates HO-1 expression. Moreover, the increase in Nrf2 expression mediated by treatment with desoxyrhapontigenin was reversed by Nrf2 or Akt gene knock-down. In the LPS-induced in vivo lung inflammation model, pretreatment with desoxyrhapontigenin markedly ameliorated LPS-induced lung inflammation and histological changes. Immunohistochemical analysis of Nrf2, HO-1 and p65 was conducted and confirmed that treatment with desoxyrhapontigenin induced Nrf2 and HO-1 expression but reduced p65 expression. These findings suggest that desoxyrhapontigenin may be a potential therapeutic candidate as an antioxidant or an anti-inflammatory agent.

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Enhancement of the levels of antioxidant enzymes by desoxyrhapontigenin.

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Promotion of DNA binding affinity of Nrf2 in RAW 264.7 macrophages.

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Induction of HO-1 expression and inhibition of Keap1 by desoxyrhapontigenin via the Akt pathway.

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Amelioration of LPS-induced inflammatory lung injury in mice.

Protective effect of hypercapnic acidosis in ischemia-reperfusion lung injury is attributable to upregulation of heme oxygenase-1

Hypercapnic acidosis (HCA) has protective effects in animal models of acute lung injury, but the mechanism underlying the effect of HCA is unclear. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is an antioxidant enzyme that protects tissue from inflammation injury. We investigated whether HO-1 contributes to the protective effects of HCA in ischemia-reperfusion (IR)-induced lung injury. Typical acute lung injury in rats was successfully induced by 40 min of ischemia and 90 min of reperfusion in an isolated perfused lung model. The rat lungs were randomly assigned to the control group, IR group or IR + HCA group with or without zinc protoporphyrin IX (ZnPP), an HO-1 activity inhibitor. At the end of the experiment, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and lung tissues were collected to evaluate the degree of lung injury. In in vitro experiments, HO-1 siRNA transfected A549 cells were exposed to a normoxic or hypoxia-reoxygenation (H/R) environment in the presence or absence of HCA. IR caused significant increases in the pulmonary arterial pressure, lung weight to body weight and wet/dry ratios, lung weight gain, capillary filtration coefficient, lung injury scores, neutrophil infiltration, and concentrations of protein and TNF-α in the BALF. IR also induced degradation of inhibitor of nuclear factor (NF)-κB-α, increased IκB kinase (IKK)-β phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and up-regulated HO-1 expression and activity. Furthermore, IR decreased Bcl-2 protein expression and increased the number of active caspase-3 stained cells. HCA treatment enhanced HO-1 expression and activity, and accordingly reduced IKK-NF-κB signaling, inhibited apoptosis, and significantly attenuated IR-induced changes. Treatment with ZnPP partially blocked the protective effect of HCA. In addition, HO-1 siRNA significantly reversed HCA-mediated inhibition of NF-κB signaling in A549 cells subjected to H/R. In conclusion, the protective effect of HCA in IR lung injury in rats was mediated in part by the anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic action of HO-1.

Nutraceutical agents with anti-inflammatory properties prevent dietary saturated-fat induced disturbances in blood-brain barrier function in wild-type mice

Background

Emerging evidence suggests that disturbances in the blood–brain barrier (BBB) may be pivotal to the pathogenesis and pathology of vascular-based neurodegenerative disorders. Studies suggest that heightened systemic and central inflammations are associated with BBB dysfunction. This study investigated the effect of the anti-inflammatory nutraceuticals garlic extract-aged (GEA), alpha lipoic acid (ALA), niacin, and nicotinamide (NA) in a murine dietary-induced model of BBB dysfunction.

Methods

C57BL/6 mice were fed a diet enriched in saturated fatty acids (SFA, 40% fat of total energy) for nine months to induce systemic inflammation and BBB disturbances. Nutraceutical treatment groups included the provision of either GEA, ALA, niacin or NA in the positive control SFA-group and in low-fat fed controls. Brain parenchymal extravasation of plasma derived immunoglobulin G (IgG) and large macromolecules (apolipoprotein (apo) B lipoproteins) measured by quantitative immunofluorescent microscopy, were used as markers of disturbed BBB integrity. Parenchymal glial fibrillar acidic protein (GFAP) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) were considered in the context of surrogate markers of neurovascular inflammation and oxidative stress. Total anti-oxidant status and glutathione reductase activity were determined in plasma.

Results

Brain parenchymal abundance of IgG and apoB lipoproteins was markedly exaggerated in mice maintained on the SFA diet concomitant with significantly increased GFAP and COX-2, and reduced systemic anti-oxidative status. The nutraceutical GEA, ALA, niacin, and NA completely prevented the SFA-induced disturbances of BBB and normalized the measures of neurovascular inflammation and oxidative stress.

Conclusions

The anti-inflammatory nutraceutical agents GEA, ALA, niacin, or NA are potent inhibitors of dietary fat-induced disturbances of BBB induced by systemic inflammations.

Effects of simvastatin on pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension and exercise capacity in bleomycin-treated rats

AIM

Pulmonary fibrosis is often complicated by pulmonary hypertension. Statins reduce fibroblast activity in vitro and pulmonary hypertension in vivo. We investigated whether Simvastatin exerts beneficial effects on pulmonary fibrosis and pulmonary hypertension in Bleomycin-treated rats in vivo.

METHODS

Rats were randomly assigned to controls, Bleomycin, Bleomycin plus Simvastatin from day 1 to 28 and Bleomycin plus Simvastatin from day 13 to 28. 28 days after Bleomycin instillation, right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP), right ventricular mass (RV/(LV+S)), right ventricular and circulating brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) levels were determined to assess pulmonary hypertension. Pulmonary hydroxyproline content (HPC), pulmonary connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) transcription and lung compliance (LC) were analysed to characterize pulmonary fibrosis. Exercise capacity was determined by treadmill tests.

RESULTS

Compared with controls, Bleomycin increased RVSP, RV/(LV+S), BNP levels, HPC and CTGF transcription and decreased LC significantly. Simvastatin administered from day 1 to 28 normalized all these parameters. Simvastatin administered from day 13 to 28 had no effect on HPC and LC, but reduced RV/(LV+S) significantly and induced a strong trend to lower RVSP and BNP levels. Exercise capacity was reduced by Bleomycin. Simvastatin significantly improved exercise intolerance in both treatment groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Simvastatin prevents the development of pulmonary fibrosis, but fails to attenuate already established pulmonary fibrosis. In contrast, it ameliorates pulmonary hypertension and thereby exercise capacity in the prevention and the treatment group regardless of its effects on pulmonary fibrosis. Whether statins are a treatment option in humans with pulmonary fibrosis needs to be investigated by further study.

Andrographolide protects against cigarette smoke-induced lung inflammation through activation of heme oxygenase-1

This study was conducted to check whether andrographolide, a bioactive molecule isolated from Andrographis paniculata, could protect against cigarette smoke (CS)-induced lung injury through activation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Pretreatment with andrographolide (1 mg/kg body weight) markedly attenuated lung inflammation in CS-exposed mice, coupled with reduced numbers of total cells, neutrophils, and macrophages in bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and decreased production of cytokine/chemokine into BALF. Furthermore, andrographolide pretreatment increased the expression and activation of HO-1 in the lung of CS-exposed animals. Notably, these histological and biochemical changes induced by andrographolide were blocked by prior administration of zinc protoporphyrin IX (ZnPP; 20 mg/kg body weight), a potent heme oxygenase inhibitor. Moreover, andrographolide-induced phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) was attenuated by ZnPP treatment in CS-exposed animals. Our data collectively demonstrate that andrographolide confers protection against CS-induced lung inflammation, partially through activation of HO-1 and STAT3.

Short-term heating reduces the anti-inflammatory effects of fresh raw garlic extracts on the LPS-induced production of NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines by downregulating allicin activity in RAW 264.7 macrophages

Garlic has a variety of biologic activities, including anti-inflammatory properties. Although garlic has several biologic activities, some people dislike eating fresh raw garlic because of its strong taste and smell. Therefore, garlic formulations involving heating procedures have been developed. In this study, we investigated whether short-term heating affects the anti-inflammatory properties of garlic. Fresh and heated raw garlic extracts (FRGE and HRGE) were prepared with incubation at 25 °C and 95 °C, respectively, for 2 h. Treatment with FRGE and HRGE significantly reduced the LPS-induced increase in the pro-inflammatory cytokine concentration (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) and NO through HO-1 upregulation in RAW 264.7 macrophages. The anti-inflammatory effect was greater in FRGE than in HRGE. The allicin concentration was higher in FRGE than in HRGE. Allicin treatment showed reduced production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and NO and increased HO-1 activity. The results show that the decrease in LPS-induced NO and pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW 264.7 macrophages through HO-1 induction was greater for FRGE compared with HRGE. Additionally, the results indicate that allicin is responsible for the anti-inflammatory effect of FRGE. Our results suggest a potential therapeutic use of allicin in the treatment of chronic inflammatory disease.