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Siewert B. Does the chemistry of fungal pigments demand the existence of photoactivated defense strategies in basidiomycetes? Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 20:475-488. [PMID: 33738747 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00034-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The well-known photosensitizers hypericin, harmane, and emodin are typical pigments of certain mushroom species-is this a coincidence or an indication towards a photoactivated defense mechanism in the phylum Basidiomycota? This perspective article explores this hypothesis by cross-linking the chemistry of fungal pigments with structural requirements from known photosensitizers and insights from photoactivated strategies in the kingdom Plantae. Thereby, light is shed on a yet unexplored playground dealing with ecological questions, photopharmaceutical opportunities, and biotechnological potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianka Siewert
- Institute of Pharmacy/Pharmacognosy and Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Arciniegas A, Gómez-Vidales V, Pérez-Castorena AL, Nieto-Camacho A, Villaseñor JL, Romo de Vivar A. Recognition of antioxidants and photosensitizers in Dyssodia pinnata by EPR spectroscopy. PHYTOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS : PCA 2020; 31:252-261. [PMID: 31433543 DOI: 10.1002/pca.2889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Revised: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Previous studies report the isolation mainly of terthiophene derivatives and flavonoids from Dyssodia species. Terthiophenes are known as photosensitizers by their capacity to generate singlet oxygen (1 O2 ), and flavonoid antioxidant activity is recognized. These opposite properties could represent interesting options in photodynamic therapy. OBJECTIVE To determine the antioxidant and photosensitizer activities of extracts and isolates of Dyssodia pinnata by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). METHODOLOGY Extracts and isolates were evaluated as antioxidants by the interactions with copper ion (Cu2+ ) observed in EPR, and by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) and the thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS) methods. Their abilities as 1 O2 producers were also estimated by EPR. RESULTS Terthiophenes were obtained from hexane (DPH) and acetone (DPA) extracts, and flavonoids from DPA and methanol (DPM) extracts. The interaction with Cu2+ of extracts and isolated compounds of Dyssodia pinnata showed two effects in EPR: reduction and chelation; flavonoids exhibited both effects, while terthiophenes showed only reduction. DPA, DPM, and flavonoids were active in DPPH and TBARS assays. Quercetagetin-7-O-β-glucoside showed the highest antioxidant and chelating activities, 3-glycosidated flavonoids were less active. Upon irradiation extracts and terthiophenes induced 1 O2 formation. CONCLUSION Flavonoid reducing activity on Cu2+ and free radical scavenging capacity were related to the number of hydroxy groups and to the conjugation between the B and C rings. All tested flavonols showed a major complex with Cu2+ , with the most probable site of chelation between the 5-hydroxy and 4-oxo groups. Extracts and terthiophene derivatives showed photosensitizer activity. Thus, EPR is useful to evaluate free radical scavenging and pro-oxidant properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira Arciniegas
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Virginia Gómez-Vidales
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Ana-L Pérez-Castorena
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Antonio Nieto-Camacho
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - José L Villaseñor
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Alfonso Romo de Vivar
- Instituto de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior, Ciudad Universitaria, Coyoacán, 04510, Ciudad de México, México
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A. Ismail M, M. El-Sayed W, Shaaban S, A. Abdelwahab G, S. Hamama W. A Review of Cationic Arylfurans and Their Isosteres: Synthesis and Biological Importance. CURR ORG CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1385272823666191029114830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The present study provides an overview of the chemistry and biological importance
of the cationic chalcophene derivatives (furans, thiophenes and selenophenes). The
summarized literature survey includes synthetic methods, reactivity and biological activities
of aryl/hetarylchalcophenes that have been reported mainly from 2001 to 2019 focusing
on monochalcophenes. A discussion demonstrating the proposed mechanisms of some
interesting synthetic routes and linking structure features to biological activities is presented.
These classes of compounds including cationic chalcophenes possess antiproliferative,
antimicrobial and antiprotozoal activities. This review highlights recent advances
for arylchalcophene derivatives and may contribute to the design and structure optimization
of new chalcophene derivatives in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A. Ismail
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Wael M. El-Sayed
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Ain Shams, Abbassia 11566, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Saad Shaaban
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Ghada A. Abdelwahab
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Wafaa S. Hamama
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
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Ismail MA, Negm A, Arafa RK, Abdel-Latif E, El-Sayed WM. Anticancer activity, dual prooxidant/antioxidant effect and apoptosis induction profile of new bichalcophene-5-carboxamidines. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 169:76-88. [PMID: 30856408 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.02.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Ismail MA, Youssef MM, Arafa RK, Al-Shihry SS, El-Sayed WM. Synthesis and antiproliferative activity of monocationic arylthiophene derivatives. Eur J Med Chem 2017; 126:789-798. [PMID: 27951487 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Ismail MA, Arafa RK, Youssef MM, El-Sayed WM. Anticancer, antioxidant activities, and DNA affinity of novel monocationic bithiophenes and analogues. DRUG DESIGN DEVELOPMENT AND THERAPY 2014; 8:1659-72. [PMID: 25302019 PMCID: PMC4189708 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s68016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A series of 15 monocationic bithiophenes and isosteres were prepared and subjected to in vitro antiproliferative screening using the full National Cancer Institute (NCI)-60 cell line panel, representing nine types of cancer. Among the nine types of cancer involved in a five-dose screen, non-small cell lung and breast cancer cell lines were the most responsive to the antiproliferative effect of the tested compounds, especially cell lines A549/ATCC, NCI-H322M, and NCI-H460, whereas compounds 1a, 1c, 1d, and 7 exhibited potent activity, with GI50 values (drug concentration that causes 50% inhibition of cell growth) from less than 10 nM to 102 nM. In addition, compounds 1c and 1d gave GI50 values of 73 nM and 79 nM, respectively, against the MDA-MB-468 breast cancer cell line. Structure-activity relationship findings indicated that the mononitriles were far less active than their corresponding monoamidines and, within the amidines series, the bioisosteric replacement of a thiophene ring by a furan led to a reduction in antiproliferative activity. Also, molecular manipulations, involving substitution on the phenyl ring, or its replacement by a pyridyl, or alteration of the position of the amidine group, led to significant alteration in antiproliferative activity. On the other hand, DNA studies demonstrated that these monoamidine bichalcophenes have promising ability to cleave the genomic DNA. These monoamidines show a wide range of DNA affinities, as judged from their DNA cleavage effect, which are remarkably sensitive to all kinds of structural modifications. Finally, the novel bichalcophenes were tested for their antioxidant property by the ABTS (2,2'-azino- bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt) assay, as well as lipid and nitric oxide scavenging techniques, and were found to exhibit good-to-potent antioxidant abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A Ismail
- Departments of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, College of Science, King Faisal University, Hofuf, Saudi Arabia ; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Reem K Arafa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Magdy M Youssef
- Departments of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, College of Science, King Faisal University, Hofuf, Saudi Arabia ; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Wael M El-Sayed
- Departments of Chemistry and Biological Sciences, College of Science, King Faisal University, Hofuf, Saudi Arabia ; Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Ain Shams, Abbassia, Cairo, Egypt
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Xie Q, He L, Lai H, Zheng W, Chen T. Selenium substitution endows cystine with radiosensitization activity against cervical cancer cells. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra07031c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Selenium substitution could endow cystine the radiosensitization activity against cervical cancer HeLa cells through overproduction of ROS and activation of downstream signaling, which suggests this could be a novel strategy for design of cancer radiosensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Xie
- Department of Chemistry
- Jinan University
- Guangzhou 510632, China
- Wu Jing Zong Dui Hospital of Guangdong Province
- Guangzhou, China
| | - Lizhen He
- Department of Chemistry
- Jinan University
- Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Haoqiang Lai
- Department of Chemistry
- Jinan University
- Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Wenjie Zheng
- Department of Chemistry
- Jinan University
- Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Tianfeng Chen
- Department of Chemistry
- Jinan University
- Guangzhou 510632, China
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Bendrea AD, Cianga L, Hitruc EG, Cianga I. Synthesis and Characterization of Fluorescent, Nonionic, Water Self-Dispersible Oligothiophenes. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF POLYMER ANALYSIS AND CHARACTERIZATION 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/1023666x.2013.755598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Luo Y, Li X, Huang X, Wong YS, Chen T, Zhang Y, Zheng W. 1,4-Diselenophene-1,4-diketone Triggers Caspase-Dependent Apoptosis in Human Melanoma A375 Cells through Induction of Mitochondrial Dysfunction. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2011; 59:1227-32. [DOI: 10.1248/cpb.59.1227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Jinan University
| | - Xiaoling Li
- Department of Chemistry, Jinan University
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong
| | | | - Yum-Shing Wong
- School of Life Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong
| | | | - Yibo Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Jinan University
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Qiao X, Han J, He WN, Wu T, Wang BR, Ye M, Guo DA. Chemical fingerprint of commercial Radix Echinopsis
and quantitative analysis of α-terthienyl. J Sep Sci 2010; 33:530-8. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200900613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Saito T, Hartell NA, Muguruma H, Hotta S, Sasaki S, Ito M, Karube I. Light Dose and Time Dependency of Photodynamic Cell Membrane Damage. Photochem Photobiol 2008. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1998.tb02539.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Electronic spectroscopy study and molecular docking simulation of the interaction of terthiophene with DNA. J Mol Struct 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2006.10.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Wang Y, Li X, Meng DL, Li ZL, Zhang P, Xu J. Thiophenes from Echinops latifolius. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2006; 8:585-8. [PMID: 17135040 DOI: 10.1080/10286020500176724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Six thiophenes were isolated and purified from ethanol extract of the roots of Echinops latifolius Tausch. Their structures were identified on the basis of spectral data. Among them, 5-(3-hydroxmethyl-3-isovaleroyloxyprop-1-ynyl)-2,2'-bithiophene (6) is a new compound, and 5-(3-hydroxy-4-isovaleroyloxybut-1-ynyl)-2,2'-bithiophene (5) was isolated from this plant for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Wang
- Research Department of Natural Medicine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, China
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Saito TK, Takahashi M, Muguruma H, Niki E, Mabuchi K. Phototoxic process after rapid photosensitive membrane damage of 5,5"-bis(aminomethyl)-2,2':5',2"-terthiophene dihydrochloride. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 2001; 61:114-21. [PMID: 11535410 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(01)00167-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We report a new aspect of rapid (<30 s) light-induced cell membrane damage photosensitized by 5,5"-bis(aminomethyl)-2,2':5',2"-terthiophene dihydrochloride (BAT), which is a water-soluble alpha-terthienyl analogue, using a high-power laser (light intensity 1.6 W cm(-2)). In this paper, we will discuss the relationship between the exposure time of the cells to the photosensitizer and the phototoxic process. Three toxic processes can be identified: first, a non-light-mediated toxicity dependent on BAT-cell incubation; second, a phototoxicity independent of BAT exposure time when the BAT concentration is in the 2-10-microM range; third, a phototoxicity dependent on BAT exposure time when BAT concentration becomes 20 microM. The cytotoxicity decreases when alpha-tocopherol, an antioxidant, is added to a cell membrane. This pattern of phototoxicity is the typical of a phospholipid peroxidation chain reaction and oxidative damage of membrane proteins triggered by a reactive oxygen species generated by a triplet state of BAT. The BAT exposure time is clearly correlated with the partition of the photosensitizer in the cell membrane and inside the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- T K Saito
- Center for Collaborative Research, The University of Tokyo, 4-6-1 Komaba, Meguro, Tokyo 153-8904, Japan
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Rivera MI, Stinson SF, Vistica DT, Jorden JL, Kenney S, Sausville EA. Selective toxicity of the tricyclic thiophene NSC 652287 in renal carcinoma cell lines: differential accumulation and metabolism. Biochem Pharmacol 1999; 57:1283-95. [PMID: 10230772 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-2952(99)00046-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The tricyclic compound 2,5-bis(5-hydroxymethyl-2-thienyl)furan (NSC 652287) has shown a highly selective pattern of differential cytotoxic activity in the tumor cell lines comprising the National Cancer Institute (NCI) Anticancer Drug Screen. The mechanism underlying the selective cytotoxicity is unknown. We hypothesized that differential sensitivity to the compound observed in several renal tumor cell lines could be the result of selective accumulation or differential metabolism of this agent. We demonstrated here that the capacity of certain renal cell lines to accumulate and retain the compound, determined by accumulation of [14C]NSC 652287-derived radioactivity and by flow cytometric determination of unlabeled compound, paralleled the sensitivity of the renal cell lines to growth inhibition by NSC 652287: A-498 > TK-10 >> ACHN approximately/= to UO-31. The ability of the cell lines to metabolize [14C]NSC 652287 to a reactive species capable of binding covalently to cellular macromolecules also directly correlated with sensitivity to the compound. Different patterns of metabolites were generated by relatively more drug-sensitive cell lines in comparison with drug-resistant cell lines. The metabolizing capacity for NSC 652287 was localized primarily to the cytosolic (S100) fraction. The rate of metabolism in the cytosolic fraction from the most sensitive renal cell line, A-498, was faster than that observed in the cytosolic fractions from the other, less sensitive cell lines. The data support the hypothesis that both selective cellular accumulation and the capacity to metabolize NSC 652287 to a reactive species by certain renal carcinoma cell types are the basis for the differential cytotoxicity of this compound class.
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Affiliation(s)
- M I Rivera
- Laboratory of Drug Discovery Research and Development, Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute-Frederick Cancer Research and Development Center, MD 21702-1201, USA
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A new synthetic route to 2,2′:5′,2″-terthiophene-5-derivatives to conjugate with proteins and monoclonal antibodies. Tetrahedron 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/0040-4020(96)00654-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Boch R, Mehta B, Connolly T, Durst T, Arnason J, Redmond R, Scaiano J. Singlet oxygen photosensitizing properties of bithiophene and terthiophene derivatives. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 1996. [DOI: 10.1016/1010-6030(95)04144-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Applications of the photochemical reaction of iodoheterocyclic derivatives with aromatic compounds in the synthesis of new singlet oxygen sensitizers. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/1010-6030(95)04107-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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A theoretical study of 2,2′;5′,2″-terthiophene (α-T) and its analogs. Part 1. Correlation of electronic structure and energies with herbicidal phototoxicity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0166-1280(94)03930-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Chanh TC, Lewis DE, Judy MM, Sogandares-Bernal F, Michalek GR, Utecht RE, Skiles H, Chang SC, Matthews JL. Inhibition of retrovirus-induced syncytium formation by photoproducts of a brominated 1,8-naphthalimide compound. Antiviral Res 1994; 25:133-46. [PMID: 7847875 DOI: 10.1016/0166-3542(94)90102-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
A major disadvantage of conventional phototherapy is the requirement for the in situ delivery of stimulating photoenergy subsequent to the binding of photochemicals to target malignant cells, or virus-infected cells, or viruses. This drawback has resulted in considerable limitation in the use of photochemicals in photomedicine. To circumvent this problem, we have investigated the antiviral efficacy of a brominated 1,8-naphthalimide photocompound, termed LY66Br [3-bromo-4-(hexylamino)-N-hexyl-1,8-naphthalimide], which upon exposure to visible light at 420 nm generates independently of oxygen one or more stable antiviral molecular photoproducts (e.g., is 'preactivated'). Human cell lines infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), or with the human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-I) exposed to photochemical products of LY66Br (P-LY66Br) completely lost their ability to form syncytia in vitro. Photoproducts of P-LY66Br retain full antiviral activity for at least 3 and 6 weeks when stored at room temperature and at -80 degrees C, respectively. Concentrations of P-LY66Br, effective in inhibiting syncytium formation mediated by HIV-1 and HTLV-I, were nontoxic to normal red cell components of whole blood (red blood cell 2,3-diphosphoglyceric acid, adenosine triphosphate, osmotic fragility or blood type antigens). Additionally, no evidence of acute toxicity was demonstrated in mice following an intravenous bolus inoculation to achieve plasma concentration of 600 microM of P-LY66Br. These findings represent the first demonstration of inhibition of retrovirus-induced syncytium formation by a photochemical product, and justify further investigation of the preactivation process of photochemicals in the treatment of systemic viral infections such as the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), in cancer therapy, and in sterilization of banked blood products.
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Affiliation(s)
- T C Chanh
- Department of Virology and Immunology, Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, TX 78228
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