Evolutionary origins of invasive populations

Genome of the most noxious weed water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) provides insights into plant invasiveness and its translational potential

The invasive character of Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) is a major threat to global biodiversity and ecosystems. To investigate the genomic basis of invasiveness, we performed the genome and transcriptome sequencing of E. crassipes and reported the genome of 1.11 Gbp size with 63,299 coding genes and N50 of 1.98 Mb. We confirmed a recent whole genome duplication event in E. crassipes that resulted in high intraspecific collinearity and significant expansion in gene families. Further, the orthologs gene clustering analysis and comparative evolutionary analysis with 14 other aquatic invasive and non-invasive angiosperm species revealed adaptive evolution in genes associated with plant-pathogen interaction, hormone signaling, abiotic stress tolerance, heavy metals sequestration, photosynthesis, and cell wall biosynthesis with highly expanded gene families, which contributes toward invasive characteristics of the water hyacinth. However, these characteristics also make water hyacinth an excellent candidate for biofuel production, phytoremediation, and other translational applications.

Evolution of ion transporter Na+/K+-ATPase expression in the osmoregulatory maxillary glands of an invasive copepod

While many freshwater invaders originate from saline habitats, the physiological mechanisms involved are poorly understood. We investigated the evolution of ion transporter Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) protein expression between ancestral saline and freshwater invading populations of the copepod Eurytemora carolleae (Atlantic clade of the E. affinis complex). We compared in situ NKA expression between populations under common-garden conditions at three salinities in the maxillary glands. We found the evolution of reduced NKA expression in the freshwater population under freshwater conditions and reduced plasticity (canalization) across salinities, relative to the saline population. Our results support the hypothesis that maxillary glands are involved in ion reabsorption from excretory fluids at low-salinity conditions in the saline population. However, mechanisms of freshwater adaptation, such as increased ion uptake from the environment, might reduce the need for ion reabsorption in the freshwater population. These patterns of ion transporter expression contribute insights into the evolution of ionic regulation during habitat change.

Preliminary insights of the genetic diversity and invasion pathways of Cedrela odorata in the Galapagos Islands, Ecuador

Cedrela odorata is considered the second most invasive tree species of the Galapagos Islands. Although it is listed in CITES Appendix II and there are population losses in mainland Ecuador, in Galapagos it is paradoxically a species of concern due to its invasive potential. Genetic studies can shed light on the invasion history of introduced species causing effects on unique ecosystems like the Galapagos. We analyzed nine microsatellite markers in C. odorata individuals from Galapagos and mainland Ecuador to describe the genetic diversity and population structure of C. odorata in the Galapagos and to explore the origin and invasion history of this species. The genetic diversity found for C. odorata in Galapagos (H e = 0.55) was lower than reported in the mainland (H e = 0.81), but higher than other invasive insular plant species, which could indicate multiple introductions. Our results suggest that Ecuador's northern Coastal region is the most likely origin of the Galapagos C. odorata, although further genomic studies, like Whole Genome Sequencing, Rad-Seq, and/or Whole Genome SNP analyses, are needed to confirm this finding. Moreover, according to our proposed pathway scenarios, C. odorata was first introduced to San Cristobal and/or Santa Cruz from mainland Ecuador. After these initial introductions, C. odorata appears to have arrived to Isabela and Floreana from either San Cristobal or Santa Cruz. Here, we report the first genetic study of C. odorata in the Galapagos and the first attempt to unravel the invasion history of this species. The information obtained in this research could support management and control strategies to lessen the impact that C. odorata has on the islands' local flora and fauna.

Sublethal and Transgenerational Effects of Reduced-Risk Insecticides on Macrolophus basicornis (Hemiptera: Miridae)

Reduced-risk insecticides and mirid predators have been used to control Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in tomato crops. However, even when causing low mortality to the beneficial insects, these products might cause side effects. This study investigated the sublethal and transgenerational effects of buprofezin, cyantraniliprole, and spiromesifen on Macrolophus basicornis (Stal) (Hemiptera: Miridae). After 72 h of exposure of third-instar nymphs and adults to residues on tomato leaves, adult couples were formed and kept in cages with residue-free tomato leaves. The leaves were changed every 48 h and the offspring were assessed in 6 different periods. Body size was assessed by measuring the hind-tibia length of adults (F0) from exposed nymphs and in three different offspring groups. None of the insecticide residues caused a reduction on offspring populations or affected the body size of adults in generation F0. Regardless, buprofezin and spiromesifen reduced the tibia length of adults (F1) from exposed nymphs assayed in the third mating period. Cyantraniliprole did not affect any parameter and could be recommended for control of B. tabaci in association with M. basicornis releases. This study may contribute to future field assays of the compatibility of these insecticides with M. basicornis.

Demographic history and the efficacy of selection in the globally invasive mosquito Aedes aegypti

Aedes aegypti is the main vector species of yellow fever, dengue, zika and chikungunya. The species is originally from Africa but has experienced a spectacular expansion in its geographic range to a large swath of the world, the demographic effects of which have remained largely understudied. In this report, we examine whole-genome sequences from 6 countries in Africa, North America, and South America to investigate the demographic history of the spread of Ae. aegypti into the Americas its impact on genomic diversity. In the Americas, we observe patterns of strong population structure consistent with relatively low (but probably non-zero) levels of gene flow but occasional long-range dispersal and/or recolonization events. We also find evidence that the colonization of the Americas has resulted in introduction bottlenecks. However, while each sampling location shows evidence of a past population contraction and subsequent recovery, our results suggest that the bottlenecks in America have led to a reduction in genetic diversity of only ~35% relative to African populations, and the American samples have retained high levels of genetic diversity (expected heterozygosity of ~0.02 at synonymous sites) and have experienced only a minor reduction in the efficacy of selection. These results evoke the image of an invasive species that has expanded its range with remarkable genetic resilience in the face of strong eradication pressure.

Genome architecture underlying salinity adaptation in the invasive copepod Eurytemora affinis species complex: A review

With climate change, habitat salinity is shifting rapidly throughout the globe. In addition, many destructive freshwater invaders are recent immigrants from saline habitats. Recently, populations of the copepod Eurytemora affinis species complex have invaded freshwater habitats multiple times independently from saline estuaries on three continents. This review discusses features of this species complex that could enhance their evolutionary potential during rapid environmental change. Remarkably, across independent freshwater invasions, natural selection has repeatedly favored the same alleles far more than expected. This high degree of parallelism is surprising, given the expectation of nonparallel evolution for polygenic adaptation. Factors such as population structure and the genome architecture underlying critical traits under selection might help drive rapid adaptation and parallel evolution. Given the preponderance of saline-to-freshwater invasions and climate-induced salinity change, the principles found here could provide invaluable insights into mechanisms operating in other systems and the potential for adaptation in a changing planet.

High-performing plastic clones best explain the spread of yellow monkeyflower from lowland to higher elevation areas in New Zealand

The relative contribution of adaptation and phenotypic plasticity can vary between core and edge populations, with implications for invasive success. We investigated the spread of the invasive yellow monkeyflower, Erythranthe gutatta in New Zealand, where it is spreading from lowland agricultural land into high-elevation conservation areas. We investigated the extent of phenotypic variation among clones from across the South Island, looked for adaptation and compared degrees of plasticity among lowland core versus montane range-edge populations. We grew 34 clones and measured their vegetative and floral traits in two common gardens, one in the core range at 9 m a.s.l. and one near the range-edge at 560 m a.s.l. Observed trait variation was explained by a combination of genotypic diversity (as identified through common gardens) and high phenotypic plasticity. We found a subtle signature of local adaptation to lowland habitats but all clones were plastic and able to survive and reproduce in both gardens. In the range-edge garden, above-ground biomass was on average almost double and stolon length almost half that of the same clone in the core garden. Clones from low-elevation sites showed higher plasticity on average than those from higher elevation sites. The highest performing clones in the core garden were also top performers in the range-edge garden. These results suggest some highly fit general-purpose genotypes, possibly pre-adapted to New Zealand montane conditions, best explains the spread of E. gutatta from lowland to higher elevation areas.

Epigenetic regulations as drivers of insecticide resistance and resilience to climate change in arthropod pests

Arthropod pests are remarkably capable of rapidly adapting to novel forms of environmental stress, including insecticides and climate change. The dynamic interplay between epigenetics and genetics explains the largely unexplored reality underlying rapid climatic adaptation and the development of insecticide resistance in insects. Epigenetic regulation modulates gene expression by methylating DNA and acetylating histones that play an essential role in governing insecticide resistance and adaptation to climate change. This review summarises and discusses the significance of recent advances in epigenetic regulation that facilitate phenotypic plasticity in insects and their symbiotic microbes to cope with selection pressure implied by extensive insecticide applications and climate change. We also discuss how epigenetic changes are passed on to multiple generations through sexual recombination, which remains enigmatic. Finally, we explain how these epigenetic signatures can be utilized to manage insecticide resistance and pest resilience to climate change in Anthropocene.

Effect of Life-History Traits and Habitat Condition on Genetic Diversity between Invasive and Native Plant Populations

Plant invasions have a huge impact on the health of ecosystems and human well-being. The invasion risk varies with the introduction pathway, the propagule pressure, and the genetic diversity of the founding population. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis of 30 studies reporting the genetic diversity of 31 plant species in their invasive and native ranges. We evaluated if patterns of genetic diversity differ between ranges and whether these responses are influenced by life-history traits, hybridization, polyploidization, and habitat condition. We found that invasive populations had significantly lower genetic diversity and higher inbreeding than native populations. In fragmented and degraded habitats, the genetic diversity of invaders was lower, but inbreeding was not affected. Polyploid invaders with hybrid capacity also showed lower genetic diversity. Invasive herbs with vegetative propagation were more sensitive to the loss of genetic diversity and had higher levels of inbreeding. Our synthesis showed that the genetic response in the invaded range could result from historical processes, such as founder and bottleneck events. Traits such as selfing are more likely to preserve the signatures of founder events and influence the genetic diversity in invasive populations. Additionally, clonality seems to be the predominant reproduction system in the invaded range.

Patterns of species richness, abundance and individual-size distributions in native stream-fish assemblages invaded by exotic and translocated fishes

Predicting the impacts of species introductions long has attracted the attention of ecologists yet there still is limited insight into how impacts on native assemblages vary with the degree of shared evolutionary context. Here, we used data from 535 stream-fish surveys from 15 catchments in north-eastern Spain (99,700 km²) to explore whether the relative effects on native fishes differ between fish introductions from two different ecoregions (i.e., evolutionary contexts), namely, catchments within Iberian Peninsula (i.e., 'translocated species') and catchments beyond Iberian Peninsula (i.e., 'exotic fishes'). We used hierarchical Bayesian models to relate taxon richness, abundance, and the individual-size distributions (ISDs) of native fishes to the presence, abundance, and weighted trophic level (TL) of translocated and exotic fishes, conditional on geographic and habitat covariates. Environmental covariates dominated the percentage of explained variance (≥ 65%) for all responses. Translocated fishes accounted for more of the explained variance than did exotic fishes for ISDs and abundance, but not for native fish species richness. The presence of translocated fishes was associated with lower abundance and richness of native fishes, with individuals being smaller in the presence of translocated fishes of higher TL. The presence of exotic fishes was associated with a greater abundance and richness of native fishes, with individuals generally being larger in the presence of exotic fishes. Our study suggests that translocated fishes could be as problematic as exotic fishes when angling and water transfers among catchments to deal with climate change may increase the establishment of translocated fishes. We also discuss the difficulties of using fish body size as species-blind, transferable assemblage-level trait in fish monitoring.

Post-introduction evolution of a rapid life-history strategy in a newly invasive plant

A central question in invasion biology is whether adaptive trait evolution following species introduction promotes invasiveness. A growing number of common-garden experiments document phenotypic differences between native- and introduced-range plants, suggesting that adaptive evolution in the new range may indeed contribute to the success of invasive plants. Yet these studies are often subject to methodological pitfalls, resulting in weak evidence for post-introduction adaptive trait evolution and leaving uncertain its role in the invasion process. In a common-garden glasshouse study, we compared the growth, life-history, and reproductive traits of 35 native- and introduced-range Polygonum cespitosum populations. We used complementary approaches including climate-matching, standardizing parental conditions, selection analysis, and testing for trait-environment relationships to determine whether traits that increase invasiveness adaptively evolved in the species' new range. We found that the majority of introduced-range populations exhibited a novel trait syndrome consisting of a fast-paced life history and concomitant sparse, reduced growth form. Selection analysis confirmed that this trait syndrome led to markedly higher fitness (propagule production) over a limited growing season characteristic of regions within the introduced range. Additionally, several growth and reproductive traits showed temperature-based clines consistent with adaptive evolution in the new range. Combined, these results indicate that, subsequent to its introduction to North America over 100 generations ago, P. cespitosum has evolved key traits that maximize propagule production. These changes may in part explain the species' recent transition to invasiveness, illustrating how post-introduction evolution may contribute to the invasion process.

Recognizing salinity threats in the climate crisis

Climate change is causing habitat salinity to transform at unprecedented rates across the globe. While much of the research on climate change has focused on rapid shifts in temperature, far less attention has focused on the effects of changes in environmental salinity. Consequently, predictive studies on the physiological, evolutionary, and migratory responses of organisms and populations to the threats of salinity change are relatively lacking. This omission represents a major oversight, given that salinity is among the most important factors that define biogeographic boundaries in aquatic habitats. In this perspective, we briefly touch on responses of organisms and populations to rapid changes in salinity occurring on contemporary time scales. We then discuss factors that might confer resilience to certain taxa, enabling them to survive rapid salinity shifts. Next, we consider approaches for predicting how geographic distributions will shift in response to salinity change. Finally, we identify additional data that are needed to make better predictions in the future. Future studies on climate change should account for the multiple environmental factors that are rapidly changing, especially habitat salinity.

Diversity of Endophytes in the Botryosphaeriaceae Differs on Anacardiaceae in Disturbed and Undisturbed Ecosystems in South Africa

Botryosphaeriaceae represents a diverse family of fungi with a cosmopolitan distribution and a wide host range. We studied species diversity and overlap of Botryosphaeriaceae on selected tree species of Anacardiaceae in disturbed (farming or forestry) and undisturbed (isolated and/or protected) ecosystems in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, South Africa. The disturbed sites resided at Tshikundamalema and Tshipise in Limpopo and the undisturbed sites at Nwanedi and the Mapungubwe National Park in Limpopo and the Kruger National Park in Mpumalanga. Asymptomatic branches were collected from Mangifera indica, Sclerocarya birrea and Lannea schweinfurthii trees in 2017 and 2018. Eleven species were identified using a multi-gene sequencing approach, including Diplodia allocellula, Dothiorella brevicollis, Do. dulcispinae, Do. viticola, Lasiodiplodia crassispora, L. exigua, L. gonubiensis, L. mahajangana, Neofusicoccum parvum, Oblongocollomyces sp. 1 and Oblongocollomyces sp. 2. Ten of the 11 species were identified in undisturbed ecosystems (eight species being unique), while only three species were identified in disturbed ecosystems (one species being unique). Two species were generalists on trees in disturbed and undisturbed ecosystems. Lasiodiplodia mahajangana was the most dominant species as it occurred on the three tree species of Anacardiaceae. Isolates of N. parvum occurred on both S. birrea (a native species) and M. indica (a non-native species) that occurred adjacent to each other in disturbed ecosystems, confirming the ability of this invasive pathogen to cross-infect native and non-native hosts and its abundance in human-disturbed environments. The findings from this study confirm the lack of host specificity for most species of Botryosphaeriaceae. The results also indicate that disturbance through human activity, such as clear-cutting, selective cutting and land-use changes, negatively influences the diversity of the Botryosphaeriaceae.

No Support for the Neolithic Plant Invasion Hypothesis: Invasive Species From Eurasia Do Not Perform Better Under Agropastoral Disturbance in Early Life Stages Than Invaders From Other Continents

Pre-adaptation to disturbance is an important driver of biological invasions in human-altered ecosystems. Agropastoralism is one of the oldest forms of landscape management. It surged 12,000 years ago in Western Asia and it was then imported to Europe starting 8,000 years ago. The Neolithic Plant Invasion hypothesis suggests that Eurasian plants succeed at invading agroecosystems worldwide thanks to their adaptation to agropastoralism, which derives from these species' long co-evolution with such practice. Plant species from Western Asia are predicted to have the highest degree of adaptation to agropastoralism, since they have co-evolved with such practice for several millennia more than European plants, and non-Eurasian species should be poorly adapted due to their relatively short exposure. However, this Eurocentric perspective largely ignores that several other cultures around the world independently developed and implemented agropastoralism through history, which challenges this hypothesized superior adaptation of Eurasian species. Here, we tested whether the early-life performance of invasive plants under disturbance depends on their geographical origin and the associated assumed exposure time to agropastoralism. We selected 30 species divided into three groups: exposure long, native to Western Asia; exposure medium, native to Central Europe; exposure short, native to America. Three soil disturbance treatments (control/compaction/tilling) combined with two space occupancy levels (available/occupied) were applied to monospecific experimental units (n = 900), each containing 50 seeds. We predicted that Eurasian species would benefit more from disturbance in terms of germination and seedling performance than species with shorter assumed exposure to agropastoralism, and that this effect would be stronger when space is occupied. Contrary to these expectations, all species groups profited equally from disturbance, while non-Eurasian species were most hampered by space occupancy. For germination success and speed, exposure long species had higher values than exposure short species, regardless of the disturbance treatment. These results do not support that Eurasian species possess a higher adaptation to agropastoralism, but rather that non-Eurasian species can cope just as well with the associated disturbances. We discuss how future experiments that address the complex relationships between species interactions, plant life-phases and the quality of disturbance can help to understand the role of land-use history in plant invasion success.

Evolvability: A Quantitative-Genetics Perspective

The concept of evolvability emerged in the early 1990s and soon became fashionable as a label for different streams of research in evolutionary biology. In evolutionary quantitative genetics, evolvability is defined as the ability of a population to respond to directional selection. This differs from other fields by treating evolvability as a property of populations rather than organisms or lineages and in being focused on quantification and short-term prediction rather than on macroevolution. While the term evolvability is new to quantitative genetics, many of the associated ideas and research questions have been with the field from its inception as biometry. Recent research on evolvability is more than a relabeling of old questions, however. New operational measures of evolvability have opened possibilities for understanding adaptation to rapid environmental change, assessing genetic constraints, and linking micro- and macroevolution.

Ion Transporter Gene Families as Physiological Targets of Natural Selection During Salinity Transitions in a Copepod

Salinity is a key factor that structures biodiversity on the planet. With anthropogenic change, such as climate change and species invasions, many populations are facing rapid and dramatic changes in salinity throughout the globe. Studies on the copepod Eurytemora affinis species complex have implicated ion transporter gene families as major loci contributing to salinity adaptation during freshwater invasions. Laboratory experiments and population genomic surveys of wild populations have revealed evolutionary shifts in genome-wide gene expression and parallel genomic signatures of natural selection during independent salinity transitions. Our results suggest that balancing selection in the native range and epistatic interactions among specific ion transporter paralogs could contribute to parallel freshwater adaptation. Overall, these studies provide unprecedented insights into evolutionary mechanisms underlying physiological adaptation during rapid salinity change.

Origin and dispersion pathways of guava in the Galapagos Islands inferred through genetics and historical records

Guava (Psidium guajava) is an aggressive invasive plant in the Galapagos Islands. Determining its provenance and genetic diversity could explain its adaptability and spread, and how this relates to past human activities. With this purpose, we analyzed 11 SSR markers in guava individuals from Isabela, Santa Cruz, San Cristobal, and Floreana islands in the Galapagos, as well as from mainland Ecuador. The mainland guava population appeared genetically differentiated from the Galapagos populations, with higher genetic diversity levels found in the former. We consistently found that the Central Highlands region of mainland Ecuador is one of the most likely origins of the Galapagos populations. Moreover, the guavas from Isabela and Floreana show a potential genetic input from southern mainland Ecuador, while the population from San Cristobal would be linked to the coastal mainland regions. Interestingly, the proposed origins for the Galapagos guava coincide with the first human settlings of the archipelago. Through approximate Bayesian computation, we propose a model where San Cristobal was the first island to be colonized by guava from the mainland, and then, it would have spread to Floreana and finally to Santa Cruz; Isabela would have been seeded from Floreana. An independent trajectory could also have contributed to the invasion of Floreana and Isabela. The pathway shown in our model agrees with the human colonization history of the different islands in the Galapagos. Our model, in conjunction with the clustering patterns of the individuals (based on genetic distances), suggests that guava introduction history in the Galapagos archipelago was driven by either a single event or a series of introduction events in rapid succession. We thus show that genetic analyses supported by historical sources can be used to track the arrival and spread of invasive species in novel habitats and the potential role of human activities in such processes.

Comparative genomics suggests local adaptations in the invasive small hive beetle

Invasive species are a major driver of ecological and environmental changes that affect human health, food security, and natural biodiversity. The success and impact of biological invasions depend on adaptations to novel abiotic and biotic selective pressures. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying adaptations in invasive parasitic species are inadequately understood. Small hive beetles, Aethina tumida, are parasites of bee nests. Originally endemic to sub-Saharan Africa, they are now found nearly globally. Here, we investigated the molecular bases of the adaptations to novel environments underlying their invasion routes. Genomes of historic and recent adults A. tumida from both the endemic and introduced ranges were compared. Analysis of gene-environment association identified 3049 candidate loci located in 874 genes. Functional annotation showed a significant bias toward genes linked to growth and reproduction. One of the genes from the apoptosis pathway encodes an "ecdysone-related protein," which is a crucial regulator in controlling body size in response to environmental cues for holometabolous insects during cell death and renewal. Genes whose proteins regulate organ size, ovary activation, and oviposition were also detected. Functions of these enriched pathways parallel behavioral differences between introduced and native A. tumida populations, which may reflect patterns of local adaptation. The results considerably improve our understanding of the underlying mechanisms and ecological factors driving adaptations of invasive species. Deep functional investigation of these identified loci will help clarify the mechanisms of local adaptation in A. tumida.

Balanced polymorphism fuels rapid selection in an invasive crab despite high gene flow and low genetic diversity

Adaptation across environmental gradients has been demonstrated in numerous systems with extensive dispersal, despite high gene flow and consequently low genetic structure. The speed and mechanisms by which such adaptation occurs remain poorly resolved, but are critical to understanding species spread and persistence in a changing world. Here, we investigate these mechanisms in the European green crab Carcinus maenas, a globally distributed invader. We focus on a northwestern Pacific population that spread across >12 degrees of latitude in 10 years from a single source, following its introduction <35 years ago. Using six locations spanning >1500 km, we examine genetic structure using 9376 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We find high connectivity among five locations, with significant structure between these locations and an enclosed lagoon with limited connectivity to the coast. Among the five highly connected locations, the only structure observed was a cline driven by a handful of SNPs strongly associated with latitude and winter temperature. These SNPs are almost exclusively found in a large cluster of genes in strong linkage disequilibrium that was previously identified as a candidate for cold tolerance adaptation in this species. This region may represent a balanced polymorphism that evolved to promote rapid adaptation in variable environments despite high gene flow, and which now contributes to successful invasion and spread in a novel environment. This research suggests an answer to the paradox of genetically depauperate yet successful invaders: populations may be able to adapt via a few variants of large effect despite low overall diversity.

Genetic diversity and population structure of a global invader Mayweed chamomile (Anthemis cotula): management implications

Mayweed chamomile (Anthemis cotula) is a globally invasive, troublesome annual weed but knowledge of its genetic diversity, population structure in invaded regions and invasion patterns remains unstudied. Therefore, germplasm from 19 A. cotula populations (sites) from three geographically distinct invaded regions: the Walla Walla Basin (located in southern Washington) and the Palouse (located in both northern Idaho and eastern Washington), Pacific Northwest, USA and Kashmir Valley, India were grown in the greenhouse for DNA extraction and sequencing. A total of 18 829 single-nucleotide polymorphisms were called and filtered for each of 89 samples. Pairwise F ST, Nei's genetic distance, heterozygosity, Wright's inbreeding coefficient (F) and self-fertilization rates were estimated for populations within and among the three regions with a total of 19 populations comprised of 89 individuals. Overall measurements of genetic variation were low but significant among regions, populations and individuals. Despite the weak genetic structure, two main genetic clusters were evident, one comprised of populations from Palouse and Kashmir Valley, the other comprised of populations from the Walla Walla Basin. Significant selfing was observed in populations from the Walla Walla Basin and Palouse but not from Kashmir Valley, indicating that Mayweed chamomile in the Pacific Northwest, USA could persist with low pollinator or pollen donor densities. Although F ST values between the regions indicate Palouse populations are more closely related to Kashmir Valley than to Walla Walla Basin populations, based on Migrate-n analysis, panmixis was the most likely model, suggesting an unrestricted gene flow among all three regions. Our study indicated that Kashmir Valley populations either originated from or shared the origin with the Palouse populations, suggesting human-mediated migration of A. cotula between regions.

Invasion of the body snatchers: the role of parasite introduction in host distribution and response to salinity in invaded estuaries

In dynamic systems, organisms are faced with variable selective forces that may impose trade-offs. In estuaries, salinity is a strong driver of organismal diversity, while parasites shape species distributions and demography. We tested for trade-offs between low-salinity stress and parasitism in an invasive castrating parasite and its mud crab host along salinity gradients of two North Carolina rivers. We performed field surveys every six to eight weeks over 3 years to determine factors influencing parasite prevalence, host abundance, and associated taxa diversity. We also looked for signatures of low-salinity stress in the host by examining its response (time-to-right and gene expression) to salinity. We found salinity and temperature significantly affected parasite prevalence, with low-salinity sites (less than 10 practical salinity units (PSU)) lacking infection, and populations in moderate salinities at warmer temperatures reaching prevalence as high as 60%. Host abundance was negatively associated with parasite prevalence. Host gene expression was plastic to acclimation salinity, but several osmoregulatory and immune-related genes demonstrated source-dependent salinity response. We identified a genetic marker that was strongly associated with salinity against a backdrop of no neutral genetic structure, suggesting possible selection on standing variation. Our study illuminates how selective trade-offs in naturally dynamic systems may shape host evolutionary ecology.

Insights into invasive species from whole-genome resequencing

Studies of invasive species can simultaneously inform management strategies and quantify rapid evolution in the wild. The role of genomics in invasion science is increasingly recognised, and the growing availability of reference genomes for invasive species is paving the way for whole-genome resequencing studies in a wide range of systems. Here, we survey the literature to assess the application of whole-genome resequencing data in invasion biology. For some applications, such as the reconstruction of invasion routes in time and space, sequencing the whole genome of many individuals can increase the accuracy of existing methods. In other cases, population genomic approaches such as haplotype analysis can permit entirely new questions to be addressed and new technologies applied. To date whole-genome resequencing has only been used in a handful of invasive systems, but these studies have confirmed the importance of processes such as balancing selection and hybridization in allowing invasive species to reuse existing adaptations and rapidly overcome the challenges of a foreign ecosystem. The use of genomic data does not constitute a paradigm shift per se, but by leveraging new theory, tools, and technologies, population genomics can provide unprecedented insight into basic and applied aspects of invasion science.

Evolutionary rescue at different rates of environmental change is affected by trade-offs between short-term performance and long-term survival

As climate change accelerates and habitats free from anthropogenic impacts diminish, populations are forced to migrate or to adapt quickly. Evolutionary rescue (ER) is a phenomenon, in which a population is able to avoid extinction through adaptation. ER is considered to be more likely at slower rates of environmental change. However, the effects of correlated characters on evolutionary rescue are seldom explored yet correlated characters could play a major role in ER. We tested how evolutionary background in different fluctuating environments and the rate of environmental change affect the probability of ER by exposing populations of the bacteria Serratia marcescens to two different rates of steady temperature increase. As suggested by theory, slower environmental change allowed populations to grow more effectively even at extreme temperatures, but at the expense of long-term survival at extreme conditions due to correlated selection. Our results indicate important gap of knowledge on the effects of correlated selection during the environmental change and on evolutionary rescue at differently changing environments.

A Whole-Genome Scan for Association with Invasion Success in the Fruit Fly Drosophila suzukii Using Contrasts of Allele Frequencies Corrected for Population Structure

Evidence is accumulating that evolutionary changes are not only common during biological invasions but may also contribute directly to invasion success. The genomic basis of such changes is still largely unexplored. Yet, understanding the genomic response to invasion may help to predict the conditions under which invasiveness can be enhanced or suppressed. Here, we characterized the genome response of the spotted wing drosophila Drosophila suzukii during the worldwide invasion of this pest insect species, by conducting a genome-wide association study to identify genes involved in adaptive processes during invasion. Genomic data from 22 population samples were analyzed to detect genetic variants associated with the status (invasive versus native) of the sampled populations based on a newly developed statistic, we called C2, that contrasts allele frequencies corrected for population structure. We evaluated this new statistical framework using simulated data sets and implemented it in an upgraded version of the program BayPass. We identified a relatively small set of single-nucleotide polymorphisms that show a highly significant association with the invasive status of D. suzukii populations. In particular, two genes, RhoGEF64C and cpo, contained single-nucleotide polymorphisms significantly associated with the invasive status in the two separate main invasion routes of D. suzukii. Our methodological approaches can be applied to any other invasive species, and more generally to any evolutionary model for species characterized by nonequilibrium demographic conditions for which binary covariables of interest can be defined at the population level.

Progeny of Xenopus laevis from altitudinal extremes display adaptive physiological performance

Environmental temperature variation generates adaptive phenotypic differentiation in widespread populations. We used a common garden experiment to determine whether offspring with varying parental origins display adaptive phenotypic variation related to different thermal conditions experienced in parental environments. We compared burst swimming performance and critical thermal limits of African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) tadpoles bred from adults captured at high (∼2000 m above sea level) and low (∼ 5 m above sea level) altitudes. Maternal origin significantly affected swimming performance. Optimal swimming performance temperature (Topt) had a >9°C difference between tadpoles with low altitude maternal origins (pure- and cross-bred, 35.0°C) and high-altitude maternal origins (pure-bred, 25.5°C; cross-bred, 25.9°C). Parental origin significantly affected critical thermal (CT) limits. Pure-bred tadpoles with low-altitude parental origins had higher CTmax (37.8±0.8°C) than pure-bred tadpoles with high-altitude parental origins and all cross-bred tadpoles (37.0±0.8 and 37.1±0.8°C). Pure-bred tadpoles with low-altitude parental origins and all cross-bred tadpoles had higher CTmin (4.2±0.7 and 4.2±0.7°C) than pure-bred tadpoles with high-altitude parental origins (2.5±0.6°C). Our study shows that the varying thermal physiological traits of Xenopus laevis tadpoles are the result of adaptive responses to their parental thermal environments. This study is one of few demonstrating potential intraspecific evolution of critical thermal limits in a vertebrate species. Multi-generation common garden experiments and genetic analyses would be required to further tease apart the relative contribution of plastic and genetic effects to the adaptive phenotypic variation observed in these tadpoles.

Genetic Diversity and Thermal Performance in Invasive and Native Populations of African Fig Flies

During biological invasions, invasive populations can suffer losses of genetic diversity that are predicted to negatively impact their fitness/performance. Despite examples of invasive populations harboring lower diversity than conspecific populations in their native range, few studies have linked this lower diversity to a decrease in fitness. Using genome sequences, we show that invasive populations of the African fig fly, Zaprionus indianus, have less genetic diversity than conspecific populations in their native range and that diversity is proportionally lower in regions of the genome experiencing low recombination rates. This result suggests that selection may have played a role in lowering diversity in the invasive populations. We next use interspecific comparisons to show that genetic diversity remains relatively high in invasive populations of Z. indianus when compared with other closely related species. By comparing genetic diversity in orthologous gene regions, we also show that the genome-wide landscape of genetic diversity differs between invasive and native populations of Z. indianus indicating that invasion not only affects amounts of genetic diversity but also how that diversity is distributed across the genome. Finally, we use parameter estimates from thermal performance curves for 13 species of Zaprionus to show that Z. indianus has the broadest thermal niche of measured species, and that performance does not differ between invasive and native populations. These results illustrate how aspects of genetic diversity in invasive species can be decoupled from measures of fitness, and that a broad thermal niche may have helped facilitate Z. indianus's range expansion.

Rapid evolution of genome-wide gene expression and plasticity during saline to freshwater invasions by the copepod Eurytemora affinis species complex

Saline migrants into freshwater habitats constitute among the most destructive invaders in aquatic ecosystems throughout the globe. However, the evolutionary and physiological mechanisms underlying such habitat transitions remain poorly understood. To explore the mechanisms of freshwater adaptation and distinguish between adaptive (evolutionary) and acclimatory (plastic) responses to salinity change, we examined genome-wide patterns of gene expression between ancestral saline and derived freshwater populations of the Eurytemora affinis species complex, reared under two different common-garden conditions (0 versus 15 PSU). We found that evolutionary shifts in gene expression (between saline and freshwater inbred lines) showed far greater changes and were more widespread than acclimatory responses to salinity (0 versus 15 PSU). Most notably, 30-40 genes showing evolutionary shifts in gene expression across the salinity boundary were associated with ion transport function, with inorganic cation transmembrane transport forming the largest Gene Ontology category. Of particular interest was the sodium transporter, the Na⁺ /H⁺ antiporter (NHA) gene family, which was discovered in animals relatively recently. Thirty key ion regulatory genes, such as NHA paralogue #7, demonstrated concordant evolutionary and plastic shifts in gene expression, suggesting the evolution of ion transporter function and plasticity during rapid invasions into novel salinities. Moreover, freshwater invasions were associated with the evolution of reduced plasticity in the freshwater population, again for the same key ion transporters, consistent with the predicted evolution of canalization following adaptation to stressful conditions. Our results have important implications for understanding evolutionary and physiological mechanisms of range expansions by some of the most widespread invaders in aquatic habitats.

Earlier onset of flowering and increased reproductive allocation of an annual invasive plant in the north of its novel range

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

It remains unclear whether invasive species can maintain both high biomass and reproductive output across their invaded range. Along latitudinal gradients, allocation theory predicts that faster flowering onset at high latitudes results in maturation at smaller size and thus reduced reproductive output. For annual invasive plants, more favourable environmental conditions at low latitudes probably result in stronger competition of co-occurring species, potentially driving selection for higher investment in vegetative biomass, while harsher climatic conditions and associated reproductive uncertainty at higher latitudes could reduce selection for vegetative biomass and increased selection for high reproductive investment (stress-gradient hypothesis). Combined, these drivers could result in increased or constant reproductive allocation with increasing latitude.

METHODS

We quantified life-history traits in the invasive annual plant Impatiens glandulifera along a latitudinal gradient in Europe. By growing two successive glasshouse generations, we assessed genetic differentiation in vegetative growth and reproductive output across six populations, and tested whether onset of flowering drives this divergence.

KEY RESULTS

Trait variation was mainly caused by genetic differentiation. As expected, flowering onset was progressively earlier in populations from higher latitudes. Plant height and vegetative biomass also decreased in populations from higher latitudes, as predicted by allocation theory, but their variation was independent of the variation in flowering onset. Reproductive output remained constant across latitudes, resulting in increased reproductive allocation towards higher latitudes, supporting the stress-gradient hypothesis. We also observed trait genetic differentiation among populations that was independent of latitude.

CONCLUSIONS

We show that an annual invasive plant evolved several life-history traits across its invaded range in ~150 years. The evolution of vegetative and reproductive traits seems unconstrained by evolution of flowering onset. This genetic decoupling between vegetative and reproductive traits possibly contributes to the invasion success of this species.

Prior evolution in stochastic versus constant temperatures affects RNA virus evolvability at a thermal extreme

It is unclear how historical adaptation versus maladaptation in a prior environment affects population evolvability in a novel habitat. Prior work showed that vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) populations evolved at constant 37°C improved in cellular infection at both 29°C and 37°C; in contrast, those evolved under random changing temperatures between 29°C and 37°C failed to improve. Here, we tested whether prior evolution affected the rate of adaptation at the thermal-niche edge: 40°C. After 40 virus generations in the new environment, we observed that populations historically evolved at random temperatures showed greater adaptability. Deep sequencing revealed that most of the newly evolved mutations were de novo. Also, two novel evolved mutations in the VSV glycoprotein and replicase genes tended to co-occur in the populations previously evolved at constant 37°C, whereas this parallelism was not seen in populations with prior random temperature evolution. These results suggest that prior adaptation under constant versus random temperatures constrained the mutation landscape that could improve fitness in the novel 40°C environment, perhaps owing to differing epistatic effects of new mutations entering genetic architectures that earlier diverged. We concluded that RNA viruses maladapted to their previous environment could "leapfrog" over counterparts of higher fitness, to achieve faster adaptability in a novel environment.

Drosophila suzukii wing spot size is robust to developmental temperature

Phenotypic plasticity is an important mechanism allowing adaptation to new environments and as such it has been suggested to facilitate biological invasions. Under this assumption, invasive populations are predicted to exhibit stronger plastic responses than native populations. Drosophila suzukii is an invasive species whose males harbor a spot on the wing tip. In this study, by manipulating developmental temperature, we compare the phenotypic plasticity of wing spot size of two invasive populations with that of a native population. We then compare the results with data obtained from wild-caught flies from different natural populations. While both wing size and spot size are plastic to temperature, no difference in plasticity was detected between native and invasive populations, rejecting the hypothesis of a role of the wing-spot plasticity in the invasion success. In contrast, we observed a remarkable stability in the spot-to-wing ratio across temperatures, as well as among geographic populations. This stability suggests either that the spot relative size is under stabilizing selection, or that its variation might be constrained by a tight developmental correlation between spot size and wing size. Our data show that this correlation was lost at high temperature, leading to an increased variation in the relative spot size, particularly marked in the two invasive populations. This suggests: (a) that D. suzukii's development is impaired by hot temperatures, in agreement with the cold-adapted status of this species; (b) that the spot size can be decoupled from wing size, rejecting the hypothesis of an absolute constraint and suggesting that the wing color pattern might be under stabilizing (sexual) selection; and (c) that such sexual selection might be relaxed in the invasive populations. Finally, a subtle but consistent directional asymmetry in spot size was detected in favor of the right side in all populations and temperatures, possibly indicative of a lateralized sexual behavior.

What's ploidy got to do with it? Understanding the evolutionary ecology of macroalgal invasions necessitates incorporating life cycle complexity

Biological invasions represent grave threats to terrestrial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems, but our understanding of the role of evolution during invasions remains rudimentary. In marine environments, macroalgae account for a large percentage of invaders, but their complicated life cycles render it difficult to move methodologies and predictions wholesale from species with a single, free-living ploidy stage, such as plants or animals. In haplodiplontic macroalgae, meiosis and fertilization are spatiotemporally separated by long-lived, multicellular haploid and diploid stages, and gametes are produced by mitosis, not meiosis. As a consequence, there are unique eco-evolutionary constraints that are not typically considered in invasions. First, selfing can occur in both monoicious (i.e., hermaphroditic) and dioicious (i.e., separate sexes) haplodiplontic macroalgae. In the former, fertilization between gametes produced by the same haploid thallus results in instantaneous, genome-wide homozygosity. In the latter, cross-fertilization between separate male and female haploids that share the same diploid parent is analogous to selfing in plants or animals. Separate sexes, therefore, cannot be used as a proxy for outcrossing. Second, selfing likely facilitates invasions (i.e., Baker's law) and the long-lived haploid stage may enable purging of deleterious mutations, further contributing to invasion success. Third, asexual reproduction will result in the dominance of one ploidy and/or sex and the loss of the other(s). Whether or not sexual reproduction can be recovered depends on which stage is maintained. Finally, fourth, haplodiplontic life cycles are predicted to be maintained through niche differentiation in the haploid and diploid stages. Empirical tests are rare, but fundamental to our understanding of macroalgal invasion dynamics. By highlighting these four phenomena, we can build a framework with which to empirically and theoretically address important gaps in the literature on marine evolutionary ecology, of which biological invasions can serve as unnatural laboratories.

An evolutionary perspective on marine invasions

Species distributions are rapidly changing as human globalization increasingly moves organisms to novel environments. In marine systems, species introductions are the result of a number of anthropogenic mechanisms, notably shipping, aquaculture/mariculture, the pet and bait trades, and the creation of canals. Marine invasions are a global threat to human and non-human populations alike and are often listed as one of the top conservation concerns worldwide, having ecological, evolutionary, and social ramifications. Evolutionary investigations of marine invasions can provide crucial insight into an introduced species' potential impacts in its new range, including: physiological adaptation and behavioral changes to exploit new environments; changes in resident populations, community interactions, and ecosystems; and severe reductions in genetic diversity that may limit evolutionary potential in the introduced range. This special issue focuses on current research advances in the evolutionary biology of marine invasions and can be broadly classified into a few major avenues of research: the evolutionary history of invasive populations, post-invasion reproductive changes, and the role of evolution in parasite introductions. Together, they demonstrate the value of investigating marine invasions from an evolutionary perspective, with benefits to both fundamental and applied evolutionary biology at local and broad scales.

Diets of European polecat Mustela putorius in Great Britain during fifty years of population recovery

Following nineteenth-century declines, polecats Mustela putorius are recolonising Great Britain. Polecat diet relates to two potential risks to recovery. First, rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus, which are important prey for polecats, have experienced extreme population fluctuations, with near extirpation due to myxomatosis in the 1950s, recovery in 1960s–1990s and declines in 1990s–2010s. Second, polecats are secondarily exposed to anticoagulant rodenticides by eating contaminated rodents, and the frequency of polecat exposure to rodenticides is increasing. We analysed stomach contents from 99 polecats collected in 2012–2016 and compared results with earlier studies. Lagomorphs were the most abundant prey (66% frequency of occurrence, 95% confidence interval 53–74%), followed by other mammals (12%, 4–18%), amphibians (10%, 3–16%) and birds (7%, 1–13%). Diet varied seasonally; lagomorph occurrence was highest in spring and summer and lowest in autumn. Dietary niche breadth was greater in the 1960s, when rabbits were scarce, than in other decades, but did not differ between the 1990s and 2010s, indicating that diets have not diversified with recent rabbit declines. This may be because rabbit abundance is not yet low enough to cause dietary diversification or because polecats were collected in areas where rabbits were still abundant. Rodents did not increase in diet between the 1990s and 2010s and still occur with < 10% frequency, indicating that rodents need not contribute much to diet to expose polecats to rodenticides. This potentially limits the effectiveness of management actions designed to minimise polecat exposure to contaminated rodent prey.

Limited thermal plasticity and geographical divergence in the ovipositor of Drosophila suzukii

Phenotypic plasticity has been repeatedly suggested to facilitate adaptation to new environmental conditions, as in invasions. Here, we investigate this possibility by focusing on the worldwide invasion of Drosophila suzukii: an invasive species that has rapidly colonized all continents over the last decade. This species is characterized by a highly developed ovipositor, allowing females to lay eggs through the skin of ripe fruits. Using a novel approach based on the combined use of scanning electron microscopy and photogrammetry, we quantified the ovipositor size and three-dimensional shape, contrasting invasive and native populations raised at three different developmental temperatures. We found a small but significant effect of temperature and geographical origin on the ovipositor shape, showing the occurrence of both geographical differentiation and plasticity to temperature. The shape reaction norms are in turn strikingly similar among populations, suggesting very little difference in shape plasticity among invasive and native populations, and therefore rejecting the hypothesis of a particular role for the plasticity of the ovipositor in the invasion success. Overall, the ovipositor shape seems to be a fairly robust trait, indicative of stabilizing selection. The large performance spectrum rather than the flexibility of the ovipositor would thus contribute to the success of D. suzukii worldwide invasion.

Sublethal Pyrethroid Insecticide Exposure Carries Positive Fitness Effects Over Generations in a Pest Insect

Stress tolerance and adaptation to stress are known to facilitate species invasions. Many invasive species are also pests and insecticides are used to control them, which could shape their overall tolerance to stress. It is well-known that heavy insecticide usage leads to selection of resistant genotypes but less is known about potential effects of mild sublethal insecticide usage. We studied whether stressful, sublethal pyrethroid insecticide exposure has within-generational and/or maternal transgenerational effects on fitness-related traits in the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) and whether maternal insecticide exposure affects insecticide tolerance of offspring. Sublethal insecticide stress exposure had positive within-and transgenerational effects. Insecticide-stressed larvae had higher adult survival and higher adult body mass than those not exposed to stress. Furthermore, offspring whose mothers were exposed to insecticide stress had higher larval and pupal survival and were heavier as adults (only females) than those descending from control mothers. Maternal insecticide stress did not explain differences in lipid content of the offspring. To conclude, stressful insecticide exposure has positive transgenerational fitness effects in the offspring. Therefore, unsuccessful insecticide control of invasive pest species may lead to undesired side effects since survival and higher body mass are known to facilitate population growth and invasion success.

Phylogeography of the highly invasive sugar beet nematode, Heterodera schachtii (Schmidt, 1871), based on microsatellites

Plant-parasitic nematodes (PPNs) threaten crop production worldwide. Yet few studies have examined their intraspecific genetic diversity or patterns of invasion, critical data for managing the spread of these cryptic pests. The sugar beet nematode Heterodera schachtii, a global invader that parasitizes over 200 plant species, represents a model for addressing important questions about the invasion genetics of PPNs. Here, a phylogeographic study using 15 microsatellite markers was conducted on 231 H. schachtii individuals sampled from four continents, and invasion history was reconstructed through an approximate Bayesian computation approach, with emphasis on the origin of newly discovered populations in Korea. Multiple analyses confirmed the existence of cryptic lineages within this species, with the Korean populations comprising one group (group 1) and the populations from Europe, Australia, North America, and western Asia comprising another (group 2). No multilocus genotypes were shared between the two groups, and large genetic distance was inferred between them. Population subdivision was also revealed among the populations of group 2 in both population comparison and STRUCTURE analyses, mostly due to different divergent times between invasive and source populations. The Korean populations showed substantial genetic homogeneity and likely originated from a single invasion event. However, none of the other studied populations were implicated as the source. Further studies with additional populations are needed to better describe the distribution of the potential source population for the East Asian lineage.

Invasion triple trouble: environmental fluctuations, fluctuation-adapted invaders and fluctuation-mal-adapted communities all govern invasion success

BACKGROUND

It has been suggested that climate change will lead to increased environmental fluctuations, which will undoubtedly have evolutionary consequences for all biota. For instance, fluctuations can directly increase the risk of invasions of alien species into new areas, as these species have repeatedly been proposed to benefit from disturbances. At the same time increased environmental fluctuations may also select for better invaders. However, selection by fluctuations may also influence the resistance of communities to invasions, which has rarely been tested. We tested eco-evolutionary dynamics of invasion with bacterial clones, evolved either in constant or fluctuating temperatures, and conducted experimental invasions in both conditions.

RESULTS

We found clear evidence that ecological fluctuations, as well as adaptation to fluctuations by both the invader and community, all affected invasions, but played different roles at different stages of invasion. Ecological fluctuations clearly promoted invasions, especially into fluctuation mal-adapted communities. The evolutionary background of the invader played a smaller role.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that climate change associated disturbances can directly increase the risk of invasions by altering ecological conditions during invasions, as well as via the evolution of both the invader and communities. Our experiment provides novel information on the complex consequences of climate change on invasions in general, and also charts risk factors associated with the spread of environmentally growing opportunistic pathogens.

Potential limits to the benefits of admixture during biological invasion

Species introductions often bring together genetically divergent source populations, resulting in genetic admixture. This geographic reshuffling of diversity has the potential to generate favourable new genetic combinations, facilitating the establishment and invasive spread of introduced populations. Observational support for the superior performance of admixed introductions has been mixed, however, and the broad importance of admixture to invasion questioned. Under most underlying mechanisms, admixture's benefits should be expected to increase with greater divergence among and lower genetic diversity within source populations, though these effects have not been quantified in invaders. We experimentally crossed source populations differing in divergence in the invasive plant Centaurea solstitialis. Crosses resulted in many positive (heterotic) interactions, but fitness benefits declined and were ultimately negative at high source divergence, with patterns suggesting cytonuclear epistasis. We explored the literature to assess whether such negative epistatic interactions might be impeding admixture at high source population divergence. Admixed introductions reported for plants came from sources with a wide range of genetic variation, but were disproportionately absent where there was high genetic divergence among native populations. We conclude that while admixture is common in species introductions and often happens under conditions expected to be beneficial to invaders, these conditions may be constrained by predictable negative genetic interactions, potentially explaining conflicting evidence for admixture's benefits to invasion.

The impact of transposable elements in adaptive evolution

The growing knowledge about the influence of transposable elements (TEs) on (a) long-term genome and transcriptome evolution; (b) genomic, transcriptomic and epigenetic variation within populations; and (c) patterns of somatic genetic differences in individuals continues to spur the interest of evolutionary biologists in the role of TEs in adaptive evolution. As TEs can trigger a broad range of molecular variation in a population with potentially severe fitness and phenotypic consequences for individuals, different mechanisms evolved to keep TE activity in check, allowing for a dynamic interplay between the host, its TEs and the environment in evolution. Here, we review evidence for adaptive phenotypic changes associated with TEs and the basic molecular mechanisms by which the underlying genetic changes arise: (a) domestication, (b) exaptation, (c) host gene regulation, (d) TE-mediated formation of intronless gene copies-so-called retrogenes and (e) overall increased genome plasticity. Furthermore, we review and discuss how the stress-dependent incapacitation of defence mechanisms against the activity of TEs might facilitate adaptive responses to environmental challenges and how such mechanisms might be particularly relevant in species frequently facing novel environments, such as invasive, pathogenic or parasitic species.