Hemotrophic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas): a review and new insights into pathogenic potential

Hemoplasmas in wild rodents and marsupials from the Caatinga Biome, Brazil

A total of 231 blood samples from wild mammals belonging to the orders Rodentia (n = 142) and Didelphimorphia (n = 89) were screened by real-time PCR assay (qPCR), being six Rhipidomys sp., 118 Thrichomys laurentius, nine Rattus rattus, four Kerodon rupestris, five Necromys lasiurus, 42 Didelphis albiventris and 47 Monodelphis domestica. Results using qPCR showed that 32 of the total 231 (13.85 %) samples were positive for hemoplasma sequences of the 16S rRNA gene. Sequences from two D. albiventris showed 99.77-99.89 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemoalbiventris' and 99.09 % with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemodidelphidis', respectively. Furthermore, one M. domestica and five T. laurentius showed 99.72-99.77 % identity with Mycoplasma sp., and one K. rupestris showed 98.13 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochaerus'; and from two Rattus rattus showed 99.65-99.89 % identity with Mycoplasma sp. and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris'. The 23S rRNA gene sequences obtained from the two D. albiventris showed 100 % identity with 'Ca. M. haemoalbiventris' whereas the sequences from the R. rattus showed only 85.31 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochaerus'. Two T. laurentius and one K. rupestris showed 84.66-92.97 % identity with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosphiggurus'. Based on phylogenetic and Neighbor-Net network analyses of the 16S and 23S rRNA genes, potential novel species are described. In addition, 'Ca. M. haemoalbiventris' was detected in Didelphis albiventris, and Mycoplasma sp. was detected in Rattus sp. rodents from the Caatinga biome, Brazil.

The measurement of plasma fructosamine as a diagnostic tool to improve the interpretation of plasma glucose and proteins in alpacas (Vicugna pacos)

This study assesses the use of fructosamine as a diagnostic tool for hyperglycemia in alpacas in view of their sensitivity to stress and susceptibility to conditions like lipid mobilization syndrome. Plasma fructosamine, like in diagnosing diabetes in cats and dogs, can reveal long-term blood glucose trends, differentiating stress-induced spikes from persistent diabetic hyperglycemia. In 125 alpacas presented as patients of a veterinary clinic, plasma glucose and fructosamine concentrations were compared for correlations with findings of the general clinical examination, laboratory parameters, demographic data, and a behavioral stress assessment processed by using principal component analysis. Hyperglycemia was observed on admission of 71% (89/125) of the animals. This was significantly associated with a higher concentration of serum cortisol and a higher behavioral stress scoring. Fructosamine above the reference limit was detected in only 15% (13/89) of the hyperglycemic individuals. In addition to a positive correlation of fructosamine to glucose concentration, positive relationships with different plasma proteins were detected. A relationship to stress parameters was not observed. These findings underscore stress as a significant trigger for hyperglycemia in alpacas and suggest fructosamine as a valuable parameter for distinguishing between stress-induced and diabetic hyperglycemia. However, the dependence of fructosamine formation on total plasma protein concentration should be considered to avoid misinterpretation.

Unravelling the main genomic features of Mycoplasma equirhinis

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasma spp. are wall-less bacteria with small genomes (usually 0.5-1.5 Mb). Many Mycoplasma (M.) species are known to colonize the respiratory tract of both humans and livestock animals, where they act as primary pathogens or opportunists. M. equirhinis was described for the first time in 1975 in horses but has been poorly studied since, despite regular reports of around 14% prevalence in equine respiratory disorders. We recently showed that M. equirhinis is not a primary pathogen but could play a role in co-infections of the respiratory tract. This study was a set up to propose the first genomic characterization to better our understanding of the M. equirhinis species.

RESULTS

Four circularized genomes, two of which were generated here, were compared in terms of synteny, gene content, and specific features associated with virulence or genome plasticity. An additional 20 scaffold-level genomes were used to analyse intra-species diversity through a pangenome phylogenetic approach. The M. equirhinis species showed consistent genomic homogeneity, pointing to potential clonality of isolates despite their varied geographical origins (UK, Japan and various places in France). Three different classes of mobile genetic elements have been detected: insertion sequences related to the IS1634 family, a putative prophage related to M. arthritidis and integrative conjugative elements related to M. arginini. The core genome harbours the typical putative virulence-associated genes of mycoplasmas mainly involved in cytoadherence and immune escape.

CONCLUSION

M. equirhinis is a highly syntenic, homogeneous species with a limited repertoire of mobile genetic elements and putative virulence genes.

Clinical and hematological findings in alpacas (Vicugna pacos) with and without Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae infection

Anemia is a common problem in South American camelids (SACs). Infections with Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae (CMh), a cell-wall free, hemotropic bacterium, are often suspected to be an important cause of anemia, as the pathogen infects the erythrocytes and is found in the blood of up to 30% of SACs. The information on the clinical signs of animals infected with this pathogen vary widely. Most infections are clinically inapparent. Treatment is usually carried out with oxytetracycline. A detailed overview of the clinical and hematological findings in 13 alpacas infected with Candidatus M. haemolamae (CMh+), based on patients from our university clinic and comparing those findings with the results of 22 negative alpacas (CMh-) is provided. Assignment to both groups was based on the PCR result. No relevant clinical or hematological differences between CMh+ and CMh- were found, the clinical signs in CMh+ were usually due to comorbidities. The examination of a blood smear alone proved to be insufficient; a PCR test should be carried out to confirm or rule out an infection. A critical review of the need for antibiotic treatment on the basis of a positive test result alone is recommended.

Detection and characterization of hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) of Cantabria, Spain

Hemoplasmas (hemotropic mycoplasmas) are uncultivable wall-less bacteria able to infect mammalian erythrocytes. Hemoplasmas can cause anemia, especially in immunocompromised hosts, predisposing to secondary infections and even leading to death. Between 2017 and 2023, spleen samples of 131 wild Iberian wolves (Canis lupus signatus) of Cantabria (Spain) were screened for Mycoplasma spp. using a real-time PCR able to amplify a 360 bp fragment of the 16S rRNA gene and confirmed by direct Sanger sequencing. Additional conventional PCRs were performed to screen for coinfections by different Mycoplasma species and to discriminate between Mycoplasma haemocanis/haemofelis (Mhc/Mhf). Overall, 24/131 (18.3%) animals were PCR-positive. Biological and environmental factors potentially promoting hemoplasma infection in this species were analyzed. Two different hemoplasma species were detected: Mhc/Mhf (18/131; 13.7%) and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp) (3/131; 2.3%), each with one nucleotide sequence type (ntST); three other sequences were not classified. No Mhc/Mhf and CMhp coinfection were observed. The 12 Mhc/Mhf suitable for ribonuclease P RNA sequencing were confirmed as Mhc. Mhc ntST was 100% identical to a Mhc sequence previously obtained in domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), and in wild Iberian wolves of northwestern Spain (Asturias and Galicia) at a similar prevalence to the one found herein, suggesting a high Mhc genetic homogeneity in this wild population. CMhp ntST was 100% identical to CMhp sequences from domestic dogs. To our knowledge, this is the first description of CMhp in the Iberian wolf. The high genetic similarity observed in Mhc and CMhp sequences, as well as their high similarity with domestic dog sequences, suggest its recent introduction, a high level of intraspecific transmission within the wild wolf population, and likely, interspecific transmission between wolves and domestic dogs.

Apparent prevalence of hemotropic mycoplasma in dairy calves and replacement heifers on Michigan farms

The bovine hemoplasmas include Mycoplasma wenyonii and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, which are increasingly recognized as infecting cattle throughout the world. Infection with hemotropic mycoplasma has been reported to be widespread in mature dairy cows, but little is known about its prevalence in calves and heifers. The objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence and dynamics of infection with M. wenyonii and C. M. haemobos in calves and replacement heifers on Michigan dairy farms and assess the potential associations between infection status and hematological values. The study was designed as a prospective cross-sectional study with a longitudinal component. A convenience sample of 11 farms agreed to participate and were visited twice between March and September 2022. During the first farm visit, researchers collected blood samples from up to 94 animals per farm distributed among newborn and preweaning calves (n ≤ 31), weaned calves (n = 21), pre-breeding heifers (n = 21), and pregnant heifers (n = 21). During the first visit, blood samples (n = 174) were also collected from a convenience sample of mature cows to confirm the herd infection status. The same calves and heifers were sampled again ∼95 d (±3.0) later. During the first visit, blood samples were collected from 797 calves and replacement heifers, whereas 675 samples were collected during the second visit due to the inability to locate some animals. Detection of M. wenyonii and C. M. haemobos was based on results of real-time PCR. The hematocrit was determined using microcentrifugation, and the concentration of leukocytes using an automated cell counter. In all herds, most mature cows that were sampled tested positive for infection. The within-herd apparent prevalence of hemoplasma in calves and replacement heifers was 100% for both M. wenyonii and C. M. haemobos. The apparent prevalence of hemoplasma in youngstock was associated with age. In calves that were 1 to 6 mo old, the prevalence of infection was 6% to 8% but sharply increased to 31% by 8 mo of age. In older animals, the prevalence remained high, and was almost 100% in animals greater than 17 mo of age. Based on calves and heifers sampled twice, the cumulative incidence varied widely among herds, ranging from 3.7% to 96.0%, and increased with the age of the animals. We found no difference in hematocrit or number of lymphocytes, monocytes, neutrophils, or total leukocytes based on infection status. The number of eosinophils was greater in infected animals. This is the first study to report the prevalence of hemoplasmas in calves and replacement heifers in the United States. It indicates that young calves can be infected with hemoplasmas, but the rate of infection is low. The likelihood of infection increases as animals age, with a notable rise in the proportion of infected heifers occurring by 8 mo old, and the prevalence eventually reaching nearly 100% in older animals. Once infected, heifers appear to remain chronic carriers. Hemoplasma infection alone does not usually lead to the development of clinical signs, and most of the animals remain apparently healthy.

Haemotrophic Mycoplasmas Infecting Pigs: A Review of the Current Knowledge

Haemotrophic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) are a group of highly specific and adapted bacteria. Three different haemoplasma species in pigs are known to date: Mycoplasma (M.) suis, M. parvum and 'Candidatus (Ca.) M. haemosuis'. Even though these bacteria have been known in pig farming for a long time, it is difficult to draw general conclusions about the relevance of their infections in pigs. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the three porcine haemoplasma species with regards to clinical and pathological descriptions, pathobiology, epidemiology and diagnostics as well as prevention and therapy. Overall, it is clear that considerably more data are available for M. suis than for the other two species, but generally, porcine haemoplasmas were found to be highly prevalent all over the world. Mycoplasma suis is the most virulent species, causing acute infectious anaemia in pigs (IAP), whereas M. parvum usually results in chronic and subclinical infections associated with performance losses. Little is known about the clinical significance of the recently discovered third porcine species 'Ca. M. haemosuis'. So far, the described pathogenic mechanisms mainly include direct destruction of erythrocytes via adhesion, invasion, eryptosis and nutrient scavenging, indirect erythrocyte lysis due to immune-mediated events and immune dysregulation processes. A review of published diagnostic data confirms PCR assays as the current standard method, with various cross-species and species-specific protocols. Overall, there is a need for further examination to obtain valuable insights for practical application, specifically regarding the importance of subclinical infections in naturally infected animals. An essential requirement for this will be to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms operating between the host and the pathogen.

Molecular prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in cats in different regions of Iran

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic Mycoplasma species (hemoplasmas) cause hemolytic anemia in cats worldwide and are recognized as emerging zoonotic pathogens. There is no comprehensive study on the prevalence and species diversity of hemoplasmas in domestic cat populations in different regions in Iran. Thus, the aims of the present study were to provide data on the prevalence and molecular characterization of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in apparently healthy cats from six Iranian provinces with different climates. In addition, potential risk factors associated with hemoplasmosis in cats were assessed.

RESULTS

Mycoplasma spp. DNA was detected in the blood of 56 / 361 cats (15.5%) using genus-specific PCR. Further examinations with species-specific PCR and Sanger sequencing showed that 38 cats (10.5%) tested positive for Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (CMhm), 8 cats (2.2%) tested positive for Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), and 2 cats (0.6%) tested positive for Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis (CMt). Co-infection with CMhm, and Mhf was observed in 7 cats (1.9%). One cat (0.3%) showed mixed infection with CMhm, Mhf, and CMt. There were statistically significant relationships between Mycoplasma positivity and being female, living in shelter (cattery), and being over 3 years old (P < 0.05). No significant association was observed for the cat breed and sampling localities.

CONCLUSIONS

Current study findings revealed that hemoplasma infections are common among Iran cat populations. Considering the impact of such emerging zoonotic pathogens on the One Health, routine screenings, increasing public awareness, effective control, and prophylactic strategies for minimizing infection in cats and subsequently in human are strongly recommended.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Hemotropic Mycoplasma in Assamese Macaques (Macaca assamensis) of Northern Thailand

Hemotropic mycoplasmas, also known as hemoplasmas, are parasitic bacteria that infect red blood cells, potentially leading to varying degrees of anemia across numerous mammalian species, including nonhuman primates. The present study aims to investigate the prevalence of hemoplasma infection and identify the species involved among free-ranging Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) inhabiting northern Thailand. A total of 133 blood samples were collected from Assamese macaques in Chiang Rai province, Thailand, and subjected to screening for hemoplasma infection utilizing nested PCR amplification targeting the 16S rRNA gene. Positive samples were subsequently analyzed through nucleotide sequencing and phylogenetic analysis for putative species identification. Current study results revealed that 17.3% (23/133; 95% CI 11.29-24.81) of Assamese macaques tested positive for hemoplasma infection using the nested PCR assay. Partial 16S rRNA sequences derived from hemoplasma isolates in Assamese macaques exhibited 99% homology, forming a cluster within the same phylogenetic clade as "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae," previously identified in long-tailed macaques, rhesus macaques, and Japanese macaques. These findings suggest the presence of "Ca. M. haematomacacae" not only in long-tailed macaques and rhesus macaques but also in Assamese macaques in Thailand. To our knowledge, this marks the first molecular detection of "Ca. M. haematomacacae" in Assamese macaques in Thailand. These results hold significance as they enhance our understanding of hemoplasma infection distribution among macaque populations in Thailand.

Graduate Student Literature Review: Hemotropic mycoplasmas in cattle

The objective of this narrative literature review is to better understand bovine hemoplasmosis, an emerging disease that threatens dairy animal health. Several species of hemotropic mycoplasma are known to infect both animals and humans, and Mycoplasma wenyonii and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos are the species that infect red blood cells of cattle. These microorganisms are associated with clinical signs in dairy cattle, but the effects of infection on health and productivity of dairy cows are poorly understood. In this paper, we review information about the epidemiology of bovine hemoplasmosis in different countries, including clinical signs associated with hemoplasmosis in cattle, methods of diagnosis, treatment, possible routes of transmission, risk factors for infection, and disease progression. Although hemoplasmas have been reported to infect cattle in many countries, and methods used to detect these organisms have improved, numerous gaps in knowledge were identified. The pathogenesis of the disease and potential effect on animal health and productivity remain unclear. With this review, we seek to contribute to the understanding of hemoplasmosis in cattle and provide insights for further research to improve disease management strategies and overall animal health in the dairy industry.

Anaemia in South American camelids - an overview of clinical and laboratory diagnostics

South American camelids (SACs) play an increasing role in veterinary care in Europe. Many alpacas or llamas presented to veterinarians suffer from anaemia, regularly with a packed cell volume (PCV) below 0.10 l/l, which is a life-threatening condition for the animals. This review article presents clinical and laboratory diagnostic tools for the diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. Clinical identification of anaemic animals can be performed by assessing the FAMACHA© score and the Body Condition Score (BCS), since anaemia in alpacas and llamas correlates with pale mucous membranes and a lowered BCS. Haematological examination of a blood sample can provide a more differentiated diagnosis of anaemia in SACs. A common finding is regenerative anaemia with an increased number of reticulocytes that is often caused by blood loss due to Haemonchus contortus. Changes in a blood smear from an alpaca or llama with regenerative anaemia may include normoblasts (nucleated red blood cells), anisocytosis, poikilocytosis, polychromasia, Howell-Jolly bodies or basophilic stippling. Furthermore, non-regenerative anaemia, often caused by trace element deficiency or cachexia, can also occur.

Multi-locus sequence analysis of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae' in free-ranging macaques from Thailand suggestive of a closer relationship to hemotropic mycoplasmas in capuchins and potential origin from bats

Although 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae' (formerly known as 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomacaque') has been reported on extensively in macaques from Thailand, the USA, Japan, and Brazil, its genetic characterization has primarily been restricted to the 16S rRNA sequences with no exploration on multi-locus sequence analysis. The primary goal of this study was to characterize 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' among Thai macaques based on multiple genetic markers. Between April 2018 and November 2021, blood samples were taken from 580 free-ranging macaques (560 Macaca fascicularis and 20 Macaca nemestrina) in 15 locations encompassing 10 provinces throughout Thailand. Using the conventional PCR assay targeting the 16S ribosomal RNA (16S rRNA) gene, 338 out of 580 macaques (58.27 %) tested hemoplasma-positive. Of these, 40 positive samples were further subjected to DNA sequencing, and all were identified as 'Ca. M. haematomacacae'. Subsequently, the partial nucleotide sequences of 23S ribosomal RNA (23S rRNA) and RNase P RNA (rnpB) genes of this particular hemoplasma species were amplified through nested PCR assay. The analysis of multi-locus genetic markers revealed that the 23S rRNA and rnpB sequences exhibited higher levels of genetic diversity than the 16S rRNA sequences. Furthermore, the 16S rRNA analyses demonstrated that 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' infecting Old World monkeys (Macaca spp.) was most closely related to hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in black-capped capuchins (Sapajus apella) and Marcgrave's capuchins (Sapajus flavius) from Brazil, as well as establishing a common ancestor clade with hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. from the Neotropical bats in Belize and Peru and an Old World bat in Spain. The 23S rRNA analyses likewise evidenced that 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' formed a sister clade with hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in Neotropical bats from Belize and Panama. Thus, the present findings, based on multi-locus sequence analysis, suggest a potential origin of 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' from Neotropical and Old World bats. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this study provided the largest dataset so far of multi-locus genetic sequences of 'Ca. M. haematomacacae' isolated from Thai macaques and enhanced the accuracy of phylogenetic analyses, providing insights into their origins among hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. discovered worldwide.

Hemotropic Mycoplasmas (Hemoplasmas) in Free-Ranging Azara's Agoutis (Dasyprocta azarae) from an Urban Area of Southern Brazil

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) are opportunistic bacteria that attach to the erythrocyte surface, causing infectious anemia in several mammalian species, including rodents. Studies surveying native Azara's agoutis (Dasyprocta azarae) in Brazil are lacking. Accordingly, the present study aimed to assess hemoplasmas infection in free-ranging agoutis from an urban environmental conservation area in Curitiba, southern Brazil. Overall, 11/35 (31.43%) agoutis were positive to hemoplasmas by quantitative PCR (cycle threshold≤34.4). Sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene indicated Mycoplasma haemomuris infection, closely related to M. haemomuris subsp. ratti, suggesting hemoplasma transmission from urban rats to agoutis. Because the main route of M. haemomuris transmission has been direct rodent-to-rodent infection, the relatively lower positivity that we detected may be the result of low intraspecies contact due to the smaller social units of agoutis, generally consisting of two to four individuals, and low interspecies contact due to only sporadic agouti-rat interactions in urban settings, compared with other rodent species interactions. Further studies should be conducted to determine whether the hemoplasma infection that we found can cause clinical onset and life-threatening anemia in agoutis.

Molecular survey of hemoplasmas and Coxiella burnetii in vampire bats from northern Brazil

In addition to zoonotic viral pathogens, bats can also harbor bacterial pathogens, including hemoplasmas (hemotropic mycoplasmas) and Coxiella burnetii. The present study aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the presence of hemoplasmas and C. burnetii in spleen samples from vampire bats in northern Brazil. For this purpose, between 2017 and 2019, spleen samples were collected from Desmodus rotundus (n = 228) and Diaemus youngii (n = 1) captured in the states of Pará (n = 207), Amazonas (n = 1), Roraima (n = 18) and Amapá (n = 3). DNA samples extracted from the bat spleen and positive in PCR for the endogenous gapdh gene were subjected to conventional PCR assays for the 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA and RNAse P genes from hemoplasmas and to qPCR based on the IS1111 gene element for C. burnetii. All spleen samples from vampire bats were negative in the qPCR for C. burnetii. Hemoplasmas were detected in 10 % (23/229) of spleen samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. Of these, 21.73 % (5/23) were positive for the 23S rRNA gene and none for the RNAseP gene. The seven hemoplasma 16S rRNA sequences obtained were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The 23S rRNA sequence obtained revealed genetic proximity to hemoplasmas from non-hematophagous bats from Brazil and Belize. The analysis revealed different circulating genotypes among Brazilian vampire bats, in addition to a trend towards genera-specific hemoplasma genotypes. The present study contributes to the knowledge of the wide diversity of hemoplasmas in vampire bats.

Prevalence and Diversity of Haemotropic Mycoplasma Species in Cats and Their Ectoparasites (Fleas and Ticks)

Mycoplasma spp. pathogens frequently cause chronic and acute diseases in cats. The aim of the present study was to investigate the presence and genetic diversity of Mycoplasma spp. in cats and their ectoparasites using PCR and sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene. Blood samples were collected from 541 domestic and stray cats in Lithuania. Ectoparasites (153 fleas and 321 ticks) were collected from owned domestic cats that live both outdoors and indoors. Mycoplasma spp. were detected in 7.2% of cat blood samples and 4.4% of Ctenocephalides felis fleas. The sequence analysis revealed the presence of Mycoplasma haemofelis in 1.1% of cats and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematominutum' in 4.8% of cats. Ct. felis fleas harboured M. haemofelis. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report on the prevalence and molecular characterisation of Mycoplasma bacteria in cats in Lithuania and cat fleas in the Baltic States.

Bat cellular immunity varies by year and dietary habit amidst land conversion

Monitoring the health of wildlife populations is essential in the face of increased agricultural expansion and forest fragmentation. Loss of habitat and habitat degradation can negatively affect an animal's physiological state, possibly resulting in immunosuppression and increased morbidity or mortality. We sought to determine how land conversion may differentially impact cellular immunity and infection risk in Neotropical bats species regularly infected with bloodborne pathogens, and to evaluate how effects may vary over time and by dietary habit. We studied common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus), northern yellow-shouldered bats (Sturnira parvidens) and Mesoamerican mustached bats (Pteronotus mesoamericanus), representing the dietary habits of sanguivory, frugivory and insectivory respectively, in northern Belize. We compared estimated total white blood cell count, leukocyte differentials, neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio and infection status with two bloodborne bacterial pathogens (Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas) of 118 bats captured in a broadleaf, secondary forest over three years (2017-2019). During this period, tree cover decreased by 14.5% while rangeland expanded by 14.3%, indicating increasing habitat loss and fragmentation. We found evidence for bat species-specific responses of cellular immunity between years, with neutrophil counts significantly decreasing in S. parvidens from 2017 to 2018, but marginally increasing in D. rotundus. However, the odds of infection with Bartonella spp. and hemoplasmas between 2017 and 2019 did not differ between bat species, contrary to our prediction that pathogen prevalence may increase with land conversion. We conclude that each bat species invested differently in cellular immunity in ways that changed over years of increasing habitat loss and fragmentation. We recommend further research on the interactions between land conversion, immunity and infection across dietary habits of Neotropical bats for informed management and conservation.

Molecular detection and identification of hemotropic Mycoplasma species in dogs and their ectoparasites in Iran

Hemotropic Mycoplasma species are vector-borne bacteria that attach and grow on the surface of erythrocytes in various mammals, yet reports of canine hemoplasmosis in Iran are scarce. The aim of this study was molecular detection and identification of hemoplasmas in the blood of dogs (n = 370) from five provinces of Iran and ectoparasites infesting them including Ctenocephalides canis and Pulex irritans fleas, Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato ticks, Heterodoxus spiniger lice and Hippobosca longipennis keds. Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. pathogens were detected using genus-specific conventional PCRs, and subsequently identified using species-specific PCRs for Mycoplasma haemocanis (Mhc), and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (CMhp). Sanger sequencing was then performed to confirm the species. Correlation of infection and risk factors (geographical area, keeping condition, body condition, sex, age, ectoparasite infestation) were analyzed. In total, 210 dogs (56.7%) were tested PCR-positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. Species-specific PCR and sequencing revealed infection with Mhc in 17.8%, with CMhp in 7.02% and co-infection in 31.9% of dogs. Flea infestation, poor body condition, and being older than 3-years-old correlated with hemoplasmosis. In ectoparasites, DNA of hemoplasmas were detected only in fleas i.e. Mhc in P. irritans, CMhp in P. irritans and C. canis, and co-infection in C. canis. To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale molecular epidemiology study of canine hemoplasmosis in Iran. Considering the high prevalence of canine hemoplasmosis all over the country including potentially zoonotic CMhp, effective ectoparasite control strategies, regular examination of dogs, successful chemoprophylaxis and public awareness strategies are advocated.

Hematologic parameters in female alpacas during age progression: a retrospective study

Alpacas, like all camelids, have elliptical red blood cells (RBCs) in contrast to other mammals. This particular shape is important for increased osmotic resistance and stability. Age-related changes in the RBC count are known in other species, with alterations in both red and white blood cells being described. In alpacas, there are few data on age-related changes, and only a comparison of crias with adult animals. We characterized age-related hematologic changes in a study of 21 female alpacas from a research herd. A total of 87 records of clinically healthy alpacas of different ages were statistically analyzed retrospectively from the hematologic records over a nine-year period. Significant positive correlations of age with hemoglobin (Hb), HCT, MCV, MCH, neutrophils, platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR), and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) were found as well as significant negative correlations of age with lymphocytes in addition to lymphocyte-to-monocyte ratio (LMR). A paired comparison of eight older animals in the herd at three different ages also showed significant differences in the parameters Hb, HCT, MCV, MCH, MCHC, lymphocytes, eosinophils and neutrophils. Similar changes in hematologic parameters have been reported in other species and should be taken into account when interpreting hematologic results in alpacas.

Molecular survey on vector-borne pathogens in clinically healthy stray cats in Zaragoza (Spain)

BACKGROUND

In Europe, feline vector-borne infections are gaining importance because of the changing climate, expanding habitats of potential vectors and expanding pathogen reservoirs. The main objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) in stray cats in Zaragoza, Spain, and to investigate potential risk factors for infection, including feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV).

METHODS

Blood samples from stray cats presented to the veterinary faculty in Zaragoza between February 2020 and 2022 were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma platys, Bartonella henselae, Ehrlichia canis, Rickettsia spp., haemotropic Mycoplasma spp., Hepatozoon spp., Leishmania infantum, piroplasms and microfilariae at the LABOKLIN laboratory. The cats were also tested for FeLV and FIV by PCR.

RESULTS

Nearly half of the cats (158/332, 47.6%) were positive for at least one VBP. Hepatozoon spp. were detected in 25.6%, haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in 22.9%, B. henselae in 9.3% and L. infantum in 2.1% of the cats. Male sex had a statistically significant association with test results for haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (odds ratio 1.38 [1.21;1.57]); regionality with Hepatozoon spp., B. henseale and FIV; and seasonality with Hepatozoon spp., haemotropic Mycoplasma spp., L. infantum and FeLV (P ≤ 0.05 each). A strong positive correlation was reported for the amount of rainfall and the number of cats that tested positive for Hepatozoon spp. (ρ = 753, P = 0.05). None of the cats tested positive for A. phagocytophilum, A. platys, E. canis, Rickettsia spp., piroplasms, or microfilariae. Co-infections with multiple VBPs were detected in 56 out of 332 cats (16.9%). Thirty-one of the 332 cats included in the study (9.3%) tested positive for FeLV (6.9%) and for FIV (3.6%). In 20/31 cats (64.5%) that tested positive for FeLV/FIV, coinfections with VBP were detected (P = 0.048, OR 2.15 [0.99; 4.64]).

CONCLUSIONS

VBPs were frequently detected in stray cats in Zaragoza. In particular, regionality and seasonality had a statistically significant association with PCR results for most VBPs included in the study.

Molecular detection of blood-borne agents in vampire bats from Brazil, with the first molecular evidence of Neorickettsia sp. in Desmodus rotundus and Diphylla ecaudata

Bats (Mammalia, Chiroptera) represent the second largest group of mammals. Due to their ability to fly and adapt and colonize different niches, bats act as reservoirs of several potentially zoonotic pathogens. In this context, the present work aimed to investigate, using molecular techniques, the occurrence of blood-borne agents (Anaplasmataceae, Coxiella burnetii, hemoplasmas, hemosporidians and piroplasmids) in 198 vampire bats sampled in different regions of Brazil and belonging to the species Desmodus rotundus (n=159), Diphylla ecaudata (n=31) and Diaemus youngii (n=8). All vampire bats liver samples were negative in PCR assays for Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., piroplasmids, hemosporidians and Coxiella burnetii. However, Neorickettsia sp. was detected in liver samples of 1.51% (3/198) through nested PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene in D. rotundus and D. ecaudata. This is the first study to report Neorickettsia sp. in vampire bats. Hemoplasmas were detected in 6.06% (12/198) of the liver samples using a PCR based on the 16S rRNA gene. The two 16S rRNA sequences obtained from hemoplasmas were closely related to sequences previously identified in vampire and non-hematophagous bats from Belize, Peru and Brazil. The genotypic analysis identified a high diversity of bat-associated hemoplasma genotypes from different regions of the world, emphasizing the need for studies on this subject, in order to better understand the mechanisms of co-evolution between this group of bacteria and their vertebrate hosts. The role of neotropical bat-associated Neorickettsia sp. and bats from Brazilian in the biological cycle of such agent warrant further investigation.

Viability of erythrocytes in canine packed red blood cells stored in CPDA-1 is related to the presence of Mycoplasma haemocanis

Hemotropic mycoplasmas are associated with subclinical disease in dogs and should be identified in blood donors. The objective was to investigate the presence and effect of M. haemocanis in units of packed red blood cells (pRBC) during storage. Canine donors (n = 10) were screened for M. haemocanis by quantitative real-time PCR. pRBCs were obtained from 5 hemoplasma negative dogs and 5 hemoplasma positive dogs. Each pRBC was aliquoted into two 100 mL transfer bags and stored at 4 °C. M. haemocanis loads and biochemical variables (pH, bicarbonate, potassium, sodium, chlorite, glucose, lactate, ammonia, PCV, and % hemolysis) were evaluated on days 1, 7, 18, and 29. M. haemocanis loads increased in pRBC from day 1-29 of storage. Glucose decreased and lactate increase faster in pRBC with M. haemocanis. This study contributes to understand hemoplasma metabolism and reinforces that dog donors should be tested for hemoplasmas.

Prevalence of Bartonella spp., haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and others vector-borne pathogens in private-owned dogs and cats, Egypt

Vector-borne pathogens have been increasingly investigated for their impact on dog and cat health and their zoonotic potential. The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence estimates of selected vector-borne pathogens in client-owned pets from the Giza and Cairo governorates, Egypt.  Out of 200 dogs and 100 cats, 94 (47%) and 23 (23%) were positive for at least one of the tested pathogens (P<0.0001). In particular, 84 (42%) dogs and 3 (3%) cats tested PCR-positive for Bartonella spp. (P<0.0001). A significantly higher prevalence of Bartonella spp. was detected in dogs from the rural areas of the Giza governorate (60/77, 79.2%, P<0.0001) compared to those from Cairo governorate. Bartonella henselae was the dominant species infecting dogs (81/200, 40.5%) followed by Candidatus Bartonella merieuxii (3/200, 1.5%), while B. henselae (2/100, 2%) and B. clarridgeiae were rare in cats. Haemoplasma DNA was detected in 17% (34/200) of dogs and 20% (20/100) of cats with increased risk in dogs from Giza rural areas (21/77, 27.27%, P=0.002) and from both dogs (16/63, 25.40%, P=0.03) and cats (7/14, 50%, P<0.002) with anemia. Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum (30/200, 15%) and Mycoplasma haemocanis (4/200, 2%) in dogs and Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (18/100, 18%) and M. haemofelis (2/100, 2%) in cats were detected. Additionally, 2 dogs were positive for C. burnetii DNA. Coinfections were detected in dogs, with the majority (23/200, 11.5%) including B. henselae and C.M. haematoparvum, followed by Mycoplasma haemocanis and C.M. haematoparvum (2/200, 1%) and B. henselae, CMhp and C. burnetii (2/200, 1%). Haemoplasma infection was high in Egyptian dogs and cats with a high prevalence for zoonotic Bartonella spp. in dogs with anemia, highlighting the need to investigate these agents in the diagnostic algorithm of anemia and to adopt preventive measures to protect both animal and human health.

Molecular Survey of Hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. and Bartonella spp. in Coatis (Nasua nasua) from Central-Western Brazil

Even though previous works showed molecular evidence of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (hemoplasmas) in ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua) from Brazil, Bartonella sp. has not been reported in these mammals so far. The present study aimed to detect the above-mentioned agents in coatis’ blood and associated ectoparasites, assessing the association between these infections and red blood parameters. Between March 2018 and January 2019, coati (n = 97) blood samples, Amblyomma sp. ticks (2242 individual ticks, resulting in 265 pools), and Neotrichodectes pallidus louse (n = 59) were collected in forested urban areas from midwestern Brazil. DNA extracted from coatis’ blood, and ectoparasite samples were submitted to quantitative PCR (qPCR) (16S rRNA) and conventional PCR (cPCR) (16S rRNA and 23S rRNA) for hemoplasmas and qPCR (nuoG gene) and culturing (only blood) for Bartonella spp. Two different hemoplasma genotypes were detected in blood samples: 71% coatis positive for myc1 and 17% positive for myc2. While 10% of ticks were positive for hemoplasmas (myc1), no louse was positive. The estimated bacterial load of hemoplasmas showed no association with anemia indicators. All coatis were negative for Bartonella sp. in qPCR assay and culturing, albeit two Amblyomma sp. larvae pools, and 2 A. dubitatum nymph pools were positive in the qPCR. The present work showed a high occurrence of hemoplasmas, with two distinct hemoplasma genotypes, in coatis from forested urban areas in midwestern Brazil.

High prevalence and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in bats and bat ectoparasites from China

Hemoplasmas can cause severe hemolytic anemia in humans. To explore the genetic diversity and the potential transmission routes of hemoplasmas among bat population, bats and bat-ectoparasites including bat-flies, bat-mites, and bat-ticks were collected in Eastern and Central China from 2015 to 2021, and tested with PCR for hemoplasmas 16S rRNA gene. Based on 16S rRNA PCR, 18.0% (103/572) adult bats were positive for hemoplasmas, but none of 11 fetuses from hemoplasmas-positive pregnant bats was positive for hemoplasmas. These results indicated that adult bats had a high prevalence of hemoplasma, but vertical transmission of hemoplasmas did not occurr in the bats. Based on the 16S rRNA gene PCR, the minimum infection rate of bat-ectoparasite for hemoplasmas was 4.0% (27/676), suggesting that bat-ectoparasite also had a high prevalence for hemoplasmas. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that bat hemoplasmas from this study clustered into 4 genotypes (I-IV). Genotype I clustered together with hemoplasmas identified in bats from America. Genotype II shared high similarity with a human-pathogenic hemoplasma Candidatus Mycoplasma haemohominis. Genotype III and IV were unique, representing 2 new hemoplasma genotypes. Only genotype I was identified in both bats and all bat-ectoparasites including bat-flies, bat-mites, and bat-ticks. In conclusion, bats and bat-ectoparasites from China harbored abundant genetically diverse hemoplasmas including potential human-pathogenic hemoplasmas, indicating bats and bat-ectoparasites may play important roles in the maintenance and transmission of hemoplasmas in the natural foci.

Mycoplasma haemofelis infection and its correlation with feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) in cats in Southern Brazil

A cross-sectional study was conducted on 274 cats in Southern Brazil to estimate the prevalence of Mycoplasma haemofelis PCR, associated factors, and its correlation with ELISA for FeLV and FIV. The apparent prevalence of M. haemofelis was 6.6% (18/274) (95% CI: 3.6-9.5%), of which 33.3% (6/18) had co-infection with FeLV, 5.6% (1/18) with FIV, and 5.6% (1/18) with both. Male cats were more likely to be positive for M. haemofelis [OR: 7.07 (1.97-25.34)]. Only three M. haemofelis-positive cats showed related clinical changes, such as mucosal pallor. A statistically significant difference was observed between M. haemofelis-positive cats and the negative control group for age, hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume, and rod neutrophil counts. Mycoplasma haemofelis is prevalent in southern Brazil, with a higher risk in male cats. Most cats could be classified as asymptomatic carriers since they were healthy.

Co-infection by multiple vector-borne agents in wild ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua) from Iguaçu National Park, southern Brazil

The present study aimed to detect molecularly the presence of co-infections by vector-borne agents (VBA) in ring-tailed coatis' (Nasua nasua) blood samples from Iguaçu National Park (INP), southern Brazil, and assess the phylogenetic positioning of the detected agents. DNA blood samples were submitted to molecular screening and characterization for Anaplasmataceae agents, Piroplasmids, Hepatozoon sp., hemotropic mycoplasmas, and Bartonella spp. In total, 42 (85.7%) coatis were positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma sp., 12 (24.5%) for Bartonella machadoae, 7 (14.3%) for Anaplasma sp. closely related to 'Candidatus Anaplasma brasiliensis', and 3 (6%) for Hepatozoon procyonis. The most prevalent co-infections observed was from bacterial VBA: while 18.3% were co-infected by hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. and Bartonella sp., 12.2% were co-infected by Anaplasma sp. and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. Only two animals (4%) presented co-infections by three VBA (Bartonella sp., Anaplasma sp. and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp.). The coati is a wild carnivore found in INP, mainly in areas visited by tourists. These animals are frequently seen searching for food in garbage dumps or in tourists' belongings. The present study expands the host specificity range of B. machadoae, which has been isolated only from rodents until the present moment. Since the zoonotic potential and transmission routes of the detected VBA are not yet known, surveillance in this area is much needed.

Intraerythrocytic Mycoplasma-like organism diagnosed ultrastructurally as an agent of anaemia in laboratory-reared cyprinid hybrids

A study targeting the etiology of severe anaemia that sporadically occurred in laboratory-bred cyprinid hybrids resulted in a diagnosis of a Mycoplasma-like organism selectively invading the cytoplasm of erythrocytes. Despite the fact that there was a concurrent yeast infection in moribund anaemic hybrids, the primary role in the development of anaemia was assigned to the Mycoplasma-like organism due to its regular occurrence in erythrocytes of both the moribund hybrids and hybrids that were free of yeast infection yet showed early to advanced symptoms of the disease. Novel data on the Mycoplasma-like organism's cytoskeleton were obtained from ultrathin sections of affected erythrocytes. An ultrastructural study of the concurrent yeast infection in moribund hybrids manifesting the most advanced anaemia revealed the presence of Titan cells in ascitic fluid. The original findings presented in this study underline the diagnostic relevance of transmission electron microscopy in the research of similar infections.

Occurrence of Mycoplasma parvum in German Pigs of Different Age Groups Using a Novel Quantitative Real-Time PCR Assay

Mycoplasma (M.) parvum is a hemotrophic bacterium circulating in the blood of pigs but is not considered a primary pathogen. Only a handful of studies dealing with this agent have been published since its first description in 1951, and many issues, including epidemiology and the impact of subclinical infections, are yet to be elucidated. This study aimed to establish a M. parvum specific real-time PCR for its detection and quantification in porcine blood and the application of this assay to obtain insights into the occurrence of M. parvum in German pigs. Furthermore, 16S rDNA amplicons of M. parvum positive blood samples were phylogenetically analyzed using MEGA 11 software. The established qPCR targeting the M. parvum glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase encoding gene (gap) showed a lower detection limit of 10 gene copies per reaction and no cross-reactivity within the specificity test. A total of 36.0% (n = 72) of the sampled fattening pigs, 25.0% (n = 15) of the sows, and 4.37% (n = 8) of the boars tested M. parvum positive. The dendrogram showed the typical allocation of the M. parvum isolates into the "haemominutum group" subgroup within the hemotrophic Mycoplasma species. Both the novel established qPCR and the obtained epidemiological data can serve as an important basis for future studies dealing with M. parvum.

An Update of Bovine Hemoplasmas Based on Phylogenetic and Genomics Analysis

Mycoplasma wenyonii and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos' are bacteria that have been described as significant hemoplasmas that infect cattle worldwide. Currently, three bovine hemoplasma genomes are known. This work aimed to describe the main genomic characteristics and the evolutionary relationships between hemoplasmas, and provide a list of epitopes predicted by immunoinformatics as diagnostic candidates for bovine hemoplasmosis. Thus far, there is no vaccine to prevent this disease that economically impacts cattle production worldwide. Additionally, there is a lack of vaccines against bovine hemoplasmosis. In this work, we performed a genomic characterization of hemoplasmas, including two Mexican strains reported in bovines in the last few years. The generated information is a new scenario about the phylogeny of hemoplasmas. Also, we show genomic features among hemoplasmas that strengthen their characteristic genome plasticity of intracellular lifestyles. Finally, the elucidation of antigenic proteins in Mexican strains represents an opportunity to develop molecular detection methods and diagnoses.

First molecular detection of Mycoplasma ovis in horses from Brazil

This study aimed to determine the occurrence of hemoplasmas and tick-borne pathogens (TBP) (Theileria equi, Babesia caballi, and Ehrlichia sp.) in horses and ticks' salivary glands, and determine the factors associated with exposure/infection in a rural settlement in southern Brazil. Blood samples from 22 horses were screened for anti-T. equi and anti-Ehrlichia sp. antibodies by an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) assays. Samples were also tested by PCR assays for T. equi and B. caballi (18S rRNA and rap-1 genes, respectively), hemoplasmas (16S rRNA gene), and Ehrlichia sp. (dsb gene). Ticks were removed from the animals (inspection) and the environment (flannel trawling and dry ice traps), and morphologically identified. Additionally, salivary glands DNA was extracted from 28 adult ticks infesting the animals and four nymphs from the environment, and further screened for Ehrlichia sp. and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. Anti-T. equi and anti-Ehrlichia sp. antibodies were detected in 40.91% (nine/22; 95% CI: 23.26-61.27) and 31.81% (seven/22; 95% CI: 16.36-52.68) horses, respectively. Theileria equi, B. caballi, and hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. DNA was detected in 59.09% (13/22), 4.55% (one/22), and 50% (11/22) horses, respectively. All horses tested negative in the PCR for Ehrlichia sp. All sequences showed ≥99% identity with multiple T. equi, B. caballi, and Mycoplasma ovis sequences deposited in GenBank database. Adult ticks were identified as Dermacentor nitens (44/47; 93.62%) and Rhipicephalus microplus (three/47; 6.38%). Ticks' salivary glands were negative for Ehrlichia sp., while 39.29% from adults (11/28) and 50% from nymphs (two/four) from the environment were positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. This is the first report of M. ovis infection in horses from Brazil and the first detection of hemoplasma DNA in salivary glands of D. nitens and R. microplus ticks. Further studies are needed to elucidate the vector competence of ticks to transmit hemoplasmas.

First Report of ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae’ in Laboratory-Kept Rhesus Monkeys (Macaca mulatta) Maintained in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Simple Summary

Health assessment in animals used in research studies are essential, since only animals that present no diseases are considered suitable for these purposes. In laboratory kept animals, a bacterium that infects red blood cells, named hemotropic Mycoplasma (also called hemoplasmas), has been described as problem for research studies. Different hemoplasma species have been detected infecting monkeys from Brazil. However, the occurrence of these bacteria in monkeys maintained in laboratory in Brazil have never been described. Accordingly, this study aimed: (1) to screen laboratory-kept rhesus monkeys for hemoplasmas; (2) to verify if any of the hemoplasma-positive animals demonstrate a decrease in their red blood cells counts; and (3) to investigate the genetic diversity of hemoplasma species in monkeys from Brazil. Five out of eight (62.5%) rhesus monkeys tested positive for hemoplasmas using a technique that detects DNA from these bacteria in monkey’s blood. Further analysis demonstrated that rhesus monkeys were infected by a species named ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae’ that had already been described occurring in monkeys from Japan and USA. Although no decreases on red blood cells count were perceived in rhesus monkeys evaluated herein, future studies are needed to elucidate if ‘Ca. M. haematomacacae’ is a problem for research studies that use rhesus monkeys.

Abstract

Health monitoring programs in animals used as experimental models are essential, since only disease-free subjects are considered suitable for research purposes. In laboratory-kept animals, hemoplasmas have been described as an important confounding variable. Different hemoplasma species have been detected infecting non-human primates (NHP) from Brazil. However, the occurrence of hemoplasma species in laboratory-kept NHP in Brazil has not-yet been assessed. Accordingly, this study aimed (i) to screen laboratory-kept rhesus monkeys for hemoplasmas, (ii) to verify if any of the hemoplasma-positive animals demonstrate hematological abnormalities, and (iii) to assess the genotype diversity of hemoplasma species in NHP from Brazil. Five out of eight (62.5%; 95% CI: 3.05–8.63) rhesus monkeys tested positive for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. by PCR. Sequencing, phylogenetic, distance, and genotype diversity analyses of partial 16S rRNA gene demonstrate that rhesus monkeys were infected by ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haematomacacae’ (formerly ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomacaque’). Assessments of partial 16S rRNA diversity of hemoplasma species in NHP suggest that at least four genetically diverse groups may occur in Brazil. Although no hematological abnormalities were demonstrated in rhesus monkeys evaluated herein, future studies are needed to elucidate the influence of ‘Ca. M. haematomacacae’ as a confounding variable on research studies.

Molecular detection of haemophilic pathogens reveals evidence of Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos in dogs and parasitic ticks in central China

Background

In addition to Mycoplasma haemocanis and Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum, a few hemoplasma species that mainly infect other livestock have been detected in dogs. ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos’ (Ca. M. haemobos) has been found in a variety of animals in China. The present study was aimed to investigate the occurrence of ‘Ca. M. haemobos’ infections in dogs and ticks collected from the Henan province, China.

Results

Overall, 55 dog blood samples and 378 ticks on skins were collected from anemic and healthy dogs, and these samples were subjected to PCR, sequence analysis, and identification. The results showed that Haemaphysalis longicornis (266) and Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (112) were the only two parasitic ticks on dogs. Molecular detection revealed that 163 M. haemocanis, 88 ‘Ca. M. haemobos’ and 32 Anaplasma platys positive amplicons could be amplified from dogs, H. longicornis and R. (B.) microplus. In addition, co-infections (M. haemocanis + A. platys and ‘Ca. M. haemobos’+ A. platys) could be also detected.

Conclusions

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first molecular evidence of ‘Ca. M. haemobos’ natural infection in dogs and tick species identified as H. longicornis and R. (B.) microplus from China.

Occurrence and bacterial loads of Bartonella and haemotropic Mycoplasma species in privately owned cats and dogs and their fleas from East and Southeast Asia

Bartonella spp. and haemoplasmas are pathogens of veterinary and medical interest with ectoparasites mainly involved in their transmission. This study aimed at molecular detection of Bartonella spp. and haemoplasmas in cats (n = 93) and dogs (n = 96), and their related fleas (n = 189) from countries in East and Southeast Asia. Ctenocephalides felis was the dominant flea species infesting both cats (97.85%) and dogs (75%) followed by Ctenocephalides orientis in dogs (18.75%) and rarely in cats (5.2%). Bartonella spp. DNA was only detected in blood samples of flea‐infested cats (21.51%) (p < .0001, OR = 27.70) with Bartonella henselae more frequently detected than Bartonella clarridgeiae in cat hosts (15.05%, 6.45%) and their associated fleas (17.24%, 13.79%). Out of three Bartonella‐positive fleas from dogs, two Ct. orientis fleas carried Bartonella vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii and Bartonella clarridgeiae, while the 3rd flea (Ct. felis) carried Candidatus Bartonella merieuxii. Felines represented a risk factor for Bartonella spp. infections, where fleas collected from cats (32.25%) presented an increased likelihood for Bartonella spp. occurrence (p < .0001, OR = 14.76) than those from dogs (3.13%). Moreover, when analysing infectious status, higher Bartonella spp. DNA loads were detected in fleas from bacteraemic cats compared to those from non‐bacteraemic ones (p < .05). The haemoplasma occurrence was 16.13% (15/93) and 4.17% (4/96) in cat and dog blood samples from different countries (i.e. Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan and Thailand), with cats more at risk of infection (p < .01, OR = 5.96) than dogs. Unlike Bartonella spp., there was no evidence for flea involvement in the hemoplasmas' transmission cycle, thus supporting the hypothesis of non‐vectorial transmission for these pathogens. In conclusion, client‐owned cats and dogs living in East and Southeast Asia countries are exposed to vector‐borne pathogens with fleas from cats playing a key role in Bartonella spp. transmission, thus posing a high risk of infection for humans sharing the same environment.

First molecular evidence of Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' infections and its association with epidemiological factors in dogs from Cuba

Haemotrophic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) are unculturable, epicellular, cell wall-less gram-negative bacteria distributed worldwide, which infect several mammalian species. In dogs, Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' have been reported as causative agents of infectious anaemia, especially in splenectomised or immunocompromised animals. The present cross-sectional study aims to assess the prevalence, risk factors, and molecular characterization of canine haemoplasmas in Cuba. A total of 391 dog blood samples and 247 tick samples were tested for the presence of canine haemoplasmas by species-specific quantitative TaqMan® real-time PCR assays. Overall, 17.9% (70/391; 95% CI: 14.1-21.7) blood samples were PCR-positive for at least one canine haemoplasmas species, where 15.1% (59/391; 95% CI: 11.5-18.7) for Mycoplasma haemocanis, 4.4% (17/391; 95% CI: 2.3-6.4) for 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum', and 1.5% (6/391; 95% CI: 0.3-2.8) were co-infected. All collected ticks were identified morphologically as Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato, and none of the tested tick samples was found PCR-positive for the presence of Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum'. Risk factors for canine haemoplasmas species infection included the presence of tick infestation, crossbreeding and living in kennels, while no association was found with the occurrence of anaemia. Phylogenetic analyses based on the 16S rRNA gene sequences of Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' revealed >99% identity to other isolates distributed worldwide, indicating low genetic variability amongst these canine haemoplasmas species. To the best of the authors´ knowledge, this is the first molecular evidence of Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' infections in dogs from Cuba.

Expanding the Universe of Hemoplasmas: Multi-Locus Sequencing Reveals Putative Novel Hemoplasmas in Lowland Tapirs (Tapirus terrestris), the Largest Land Mammals in Brazil

The lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is the largest land mammal in Brazil and classified as a vulnerable species, according to the assessment of the risk of extinction. The present study aimed at investigating the occurrence and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in free-ranging T. terrestris from the Brazilian Pantanal and Cerrado biomes. Blood samples were collected from 94 living and eight road-killed tapirs, totalizing 125 samples Conventional PCR targeting four different genes (16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, RNAse P, and dnaK) were performed, and the obtained sequences were submitted for phylogenetic, genotype diversity, and distance analyses. The association between hemoplasma positivity and possible risk variables (age, gender, and origin) was assessed. Out of 122 analyzed samples, 41 (41/122; 33.61% CI: 25.84-42.38%) were positive in the 16S rRNA-based PCR assay for hemoplasmas. Positivity for hemoplasmas did not differ between tapirs' gender and age. Tapirs from Pantanal were 5.64 times more likely to present positive results for hemoplasmas when compared to tapirs sampled in Cerrado. BLASTn, phylogenetic, genotype diversity, and distance analyses performed herein showed that the sampled lowland tapirs might be infected by two genetically distinct hemoplasmas, namely 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoterrestris' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematotapirus'. While the former was positioned into "Mycoplasma haemofelis group" and closely related to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum, the latter was positioned into "Mycoplasma suis group" and closely related to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematobos'. The impact of both putative novel species on tapir health status should be investigated.

Occurrence of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis' in fattening pigs, sows and piglets in Germany using a novel gap-based quantitative real-time PCR assay

Background

The appearance of the novel porcine haemotrophic mycoplasma (HM) species ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis’ was reported in apparently healthy but also in clinically sick animals in China, Korea and in a case report from Germany. Outside of Asia, however, nothing further is known about the frequency of ‘Ca. M. haemosuis’ in pigs to date. To investigate the distribution of this novel HM species in Germany, fattening pigs, sows and pre-suckling piglets were examined using a herein developed quantitative real-time PCR assay (qPCR). Because the piglets were sampled before the first colostrum uptake, additional information on a possible vertical transmission from dams to their offspring was obtained.

Results

Our novel qPCR assay successfully detected ‘Ca. M. haemosuis’ in all blood samples from the ‘Ca. M. haemosuis’-infected pigs. No cross-reactivity was detected when DNA from non-target Mycoplasma spp. and other bacterial species representing 10⁵ bacteria/reaction were used as a template. The lower limit of detection of the qPCR was thus 10 gap gene copies per reaction and 2.5 x 10³ genome equivalents (GE) per mL blood.

‘Candidatus M. haemosuis’ was detected by this qPCR in blood samples from a total out of 6.25% sows (13/208), 4.50% pre-suckling piglets (28/622) and 17.50% fattening pigs (35/200). On farm level, 3 out of 21 piglet producing farms (14.28%) and 9 out of 20 fattening farms (45.00%) were positive for ‘Ca. M. haemosuis’. Co-infections with M. suis were evident in all age groups.

Conclusion

‘Candidatus M. haemosuis’ infection is present in German pig farms and the detection of the novel porcine HM species in piglets immediately after birth before colostrum intake indicates vertical transmission. The novel qPCR assay specific for ‘Ca. M. haemosuis’ described herein will be a prerequisite for future studies on the prevalence, epidemiology as well as the clinical and economic impact of ‘Ca. M. haemosuis’ infections.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03147-1.

Molecular detection and genotype diversity of hemoplasmas in non-hematophagous bats and associated ectoparasites sampled in peri-urban areas from Brazil

Hemoplasmas have already been detected in bats in the United States of America, Spain, Australia, Chile, Brazil, Peru, Belize, Nigeria, Costa Rica, Germany, Switzerland and New Caledonia. The recent detection of hemoplasmas closely related to Mycoplasma haematohominis, an agent causing disease in humans, emphasizes the need for additional studies on the diversity of hemoplasmas in bats. The present work aimed to investigate the occurrence and assess the phylogenetic positioning and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas in bats and associated ectoparasites sampled in central-western Brazil. Overall, 43% (58/135) sampled bats and 1.56% (1/64) bat flies (Megistopoda aranea) were positive for hemoplasmas, however, twenty-four and two hemoplasma sequences were obtained from PCR assays targeting 16S and 23S rRNA genes, respectively, since the majority of the obtained amplicons showed faint bands in agarose gel electrophoresis. The obtained 16S rRNA sequences showed to be broadly distributed along the phylogenetic tree, albeit positioned within the 'Haemofelis group' and clustering with other bat-associated hemoplasmas. Twelve 16S rRNA hemoplasma genotypes were found among the 24 obtained sequences. When compared to other bat-related hemoplasmas sequences retrieved from the Genbank, 52 genotypes were found. The two 23S rRNA sequences obtained were positioned as a sister clade to "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochaerus", M. haemofelis and M. haemocanis. High genetic diversity was found among 16S rRNA hemoplasma sequences detected in non-hematophagous bats from central-western Brazil and previously detected in other regions of the world. Even though the genotype analysis showed that hemoplasmas from the same genus tend to group together, the results from the unipartite and bipartite analyses did not robustly support the hypothesis. Further studies addressing the specificity of hemoplasma genotypes according to bat species and genera should be performed.

Mycoplasma suis Alpha-Enolase Subunit Vaccine Induces an Immune Response in Experimental Animals

Recombinant protein technology has emerged as an excellent option for vaccine development. However, prior to our study, the immune induction ability of recombinant Mycoplasma suis alpha-enolase (rMseno) in animals remained unclear. The purpose of this study was to develop a rMseno protein subunit vaccine and to determine its ability to elicit an immunological response. To accomplish this, we cloned the gene into pET-15b, expressed it in BL21 cells, and purified it. Following the establishment of immunity, the immunogenicity and potential for protection of rMseno were evaluated in mice and piglets. The results demonstrate that anti-M. suis serum recognized the pure rMseno protein in both mice and piglets as evidenced by high levels of specific anti-rMseno antibodies, significantly increased levels of IFN-γ and IL-4 cytokines, and significantly increased T lymphocyte proliferation index. Piglets also had significantly increased levels of specific IgG₁, IgG_2a, CD4⁺, and CD8⁺ cells. The rMseno findings demonstrated a robust immunological response in mice and piglets, affording partial clinical protective efficacy in piglets.

Evaluating the Genetic Capacity of Mycoplasmas for Coenzyme A Biosynthesis in a Search for New Anti-mycoplasma Targets

Mycoplasmas are responsible for a wide range of disease states in both humans and animals, in which their parasitic lifestyle has allowed them to reduce their genome sizes and curtail their biosynthetic capabilities. The subsequent dependence on their host offers a unique opportunity to explore pathways for obtaining and producing cofactors - such as coenzyme A (CoA) - as possible targets for the development of new anti-mycoplasma agents. CoA plays an essential role in energy and fatty acid metabolism and is required for membrane synthesis. However, our current lack of knowledge of the relevance and importance of the CoA biosynthesis pathway in mycoplasmas, and whether it could be bypassed within their pathogenic context, prevents further exploration of the potential of this pathway. In the universal, canonical CoA biosynthesis pathway, five enzymes are responsible for the production of CoA. Given the inconsistent presence of the genes that code for these enzymes across Mycoplasma genomes, this study set out to establish the genetic capacity of mycoplasmas to synthesize their own CoA de novo. Existing functional annotations and sequence, family, motif, and domain analysis of protein products were used to determine the existence of relevant genes in Mycoplasma genomes. We found that most Mycoplasma species do have the genetic capacity to synthesize CoA, but there was a differentiated prevalence of these genes across species. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the phylogenetic position of a species could not be used to predict its enzyme-encoding gene combinations. Despite this, the final enzyme in the biosynthesis pathway - dephospho-coenzyme A kinase (DPCK) - was found to be the most common among the studied species, suggesting that it has the most potential as a target in the search for new broad-spectrum anti-mycoplasma agents.

Molecular Detection and Characterization of Hemoplasmas in the Pudu (Pudu puda), a Native Cervid from Chile

Hemotropic mycoplasmas cause hemolytic anemia in a variety of wild and domestic mammals. Despite growing evidence about their widespread presence and genetic diversity in wildlife, their presence has never been investigated in Chilean artiodactyls. We aimed to describe the presence and diversity of hemoplasmas in pudus (Pudu puda), a small cervid native to Chile. Hemoplasma infection was assessed in blood samples from 43 wild and 33 captive pudus from central and southern Chile by direct sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. We detected hemoplasmas in 13%, with no statistical differences between wild (19%) and captive animals (6%). A sequence closely related to Mycoplasma ovis was present both in wild (14%) and captive (6%) pudus. Two previously undescribed sequences, classified in a clade including hemoplasmas from carnivores, were found in one wild pudu each. This study presents the first evidence of the presence of M. ovis-like organisms in Chile and of the susceptibility of pudus to infection with hemoplasmas. Further research is needed to understand the pathologic consequences of this pathogen for pudus, its effects at the population level, and their potential impact on the health small ruminants and other wildlife species in Chile.

Integrating the Human and Animal Sides of Mycoplasmas Resistance to Antimicrobials

Mycoplasma infections are frequent in humans, as well as in a broad range of animals. However, antimicrobial treatment options are limited, partly due to the lack of a cell wall in these peculiar bacteria. Both veterinary and human medicines are facing increasing resistance prevalence for the most commonly used drugs, despite different usage practices. To date, very few reviews have integrated knowledge on resistance to antimicrobials in humans and animals, the latest dating back to 2014. To fill this gap, we examined, in parallel, antimicrobial usage, resistance mechanisms and either phenotype or genotype-based methods for antimicrobial susceptibility testing, as well as epidemiology of resistance of the most clinically relevant human and animal mycoplasma species. This review unveiled common features and differences that need to be taken into consideration in a "One Health" perspective. Lastly, two examples of critical cases of multiple drug resistance are highlighted, namely, the human M. genitalium and the animal M. bovis species, both of which can lead to the threat of untreatable infections.

Molecular survey and genetic characterization of 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' in llamas (Lama glama) and alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from Southern Chile

This study aimed to perform a molecular survey and identification of hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. in domestic South American Camelids from Southern Chile. Conventional PCR (cPCR) for hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. based on 16S rRNA gene (620bp fragment) was performed in 87 EDTA-blood samples taken from 48 llamas (Lama glama) and 39 and alpacas (Vicugna pacos) from to Temuco, La Araucanía region and Valdivia, Los Rios region, Southern Chile. 16S rRNA hemotropic Mycoplasma PCR-positive were sequenced for species identification, phylogenetic and haplotype analyses, and further tested by cPCR targeting a fragment (160-210 bp) of the RNaseP (rnpB) gene. Based upon 16S rRNA cPCR results, the overall hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. occurrence in Southern camelids was 9.2% (8/87 [95% CI (4.0-17.3%)]), with five positive alpacas (12.8%; 5/39 [95% CI (4.3-27.4%)]) and three llamas (6.3%; 3/48 [95% CI (1.7-17.2%)]). All 16S rRNA PCR-positive samples were negative for the rnpB gene. Obtained 16S sequences presented high identity (99-100%) by BLASTn analysis to 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemolamae' from an alpaca in the United Kingdom. Phylogenetic and haplotype analyses of the 16s rRNA gene showed high similarity among 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' sequences of this study and the ones from North America, Europe, and Asia evidencing a low diversity of Chilean samples, with only one haplotype detected (#1). Haplotype #1 from South American Camelids in Chile was worldwide distributed and observed in North America, Europe, and Asia. 'Candidatus M. haemolamae' detected for the first time in South American camelids in Southern Chile had low diversity and was worldwide spread.

'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematonasua' and tick-borne pathogens in ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua Linnaeus, 1976) from the Iguaçu National Park, Paraná State, southern Brazil

The Iguaçu National Park (INP) is the largest remnant of Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil, representing an ecological continuum with Argentina. The INP harbours a diverse fauna, with ring-tailed coatis (Nasua nasua Linnaeus, 1976, Carnivora: Procyonidae) in close contact with tourists either begging and/or snatching food from visitors. A potentially novel haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. has been previously detected in the ring-tailed coatis from central-western and southern Brazil. Therefore, the aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. and tick-borne pathogens in wild ring-tailed coatis from the INP, Foz do Iguaçu municipality, Paraná State, southern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 18 wild ring-tailed coatis and evaluated by conventional PCR (cPCR) assays for haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. (16S and 23S rRNA), Theileria/Babesia spp. (18S rRNA) and Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. (16S rRNA, sodB, dsb and groEL). Eight out of 18 (44.44%; 95% CI: 24.56%-66.28%) animals were positive for haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. All ring-tailed coatis tested negative for Theileria/Babesia spp. and only one out of 18 (5.56%; 95% CI: 0.99%-25.76%) animals tested positive for Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. by the 16S rRNA cPCR. Unfortunately, multiple attempts to sequence the 16S rRNA gene of the Ehrlichia/Anaplasma-positive sample have failed. Phylogenetic and network analysis of the hemoplasma 16S and 23S rRNA gene fragments confirmed that animals were infected by a potentially novel haemotropic Mycoplasma sp. previously reported in ring-tailed coatis from Brazil. The name 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematonasua' is proposed for this novel organism.

'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochoerus', a novel hemoplasma species in capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) from Brazil

Three different species of hemoplasmas have been described in rodents, Mycoplasma coccoides, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemomuris' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosphiggurus'. Additionally, potentially novel hemoplasma species have been detected in wild rodents from Brazil, including capybaras (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris). Capybaras are the largest rodent in the world and are well adapted to live within close proximity to humans, which increases the risk to spread of zoonotic pathogens. Herein, we investigate the occurrence and genetic diversity of hemoplasmas infecting free-ranging capybaras from southern Brazil. Blood samples and ticks from 17 capybaras were collected. Packed cell volume and total plasma protein were measured, DNA was extracted, and further screened by species-specific and pan-hemoplasma PCR assays targeting the 16S rRNA gene of hemoplasmas. Sixteen out of 17 (94.12%; 95% CI: 73.02-98.95%) were anemic. Only one young female was hypoproteinemic. All capybaras were infested by adults and nymphs of Amblyomma dubitatum ticks. Using the PCR assay targeting the 16S rRNA gene of M. coccoides, 13/17 (76.47%; 95% CI: 52.74-90.44%) capybaras were positive for hemoplasmas. When DNA samples were tested by the pan-hemoplasma PCR, 16/17 (94.12%; 95% CI: 73.02-98.95%) animals were positive. One out of 11 (9.09%) adult ticks salivary glands tested positive for hemoplasma by the pan-hemoplasma PCR assay. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 16S and 23S rRNA gene fragments confirmed that animals were infected by a novel hemotropic Mycoplasma sp. previously reported in capybaras from Brazil. Additionally, sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 23S rRNA gene from three hemoplasma-positive capybaras samples from a previous study performed in midwestern Brazil also confirm our findings. Based on phylogenetic and Neighbor-Net network analysis of the 16S rRNA and 23S rRNA genes, the name 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohydrochoerus' is proposed for this novel organism.

Update on shedding and transmission routes of porcine haemotrophic mycoplasmas in naturally and experimentally infected pigs

Horizontal transmission of Mycoplasma suis via parenteral exposure during standard practices or through bites during fightings have been identified as key epidemiological routes. However, as knowledge gaps on other potential shedding and transmission routes exist, the present study combines both laboratory experiments and field surveys to gain new insights into the epidemiology of porcine haemotrophic mycoplasmas. Splenectomised pigs were orally inoculated with a M. suis field strain and investigated for clinical signs related to infectious anaemia of pigs (IAP) and the presence of M. suis in blood, urine and saliva samples by qPCR. All blood samples were negative for M. suis and animals did not show obvious clinical signs of IAP throughout the entire study period. Additionally, urine, nasal and saliva samples from sows of conventional piglet producing farms and semen samples from a boar stud revealed no detection of M. suis and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemosuis’ by qPCR. Thus, the results indicate that blood-independent transmission routes might be of minor relevance under field conditions.

Molecular detection of Theileria species, Anaplasma species, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, Trypanosoma evansi and first evidence of Theileria sinensis-associated bovine anaemia in crossbred Kedah-Kelantan x Brahman cattle

BACKGROUND

Serious disease outbreaks in cattle are usually associated with blood pathogens. This study aims to detect blood pathogens namely Theileria species, Anaplasma species, Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos and Trypanosoma evansi, and determine their phylogenetic relationships and haemato-biochemical abnormalities in naturally infected cattle.

METHODS

Molecular analysis was achieved by PCR amplification and sequencing of PCR amplicons of 18SrRNA gene of Theileria species, 16SrRNA genes of Anaplasma and Mycoplasma species, MPSP genes of T. orientalis and T. sinensis, MSP4 gene of A. marginale, 16SrRNA gene of Candidatus Mycoplasma haemobos, and RoTat1.2 VSG gene of Trypanosoma evansi, in sixty-one (61) clinically ill Kedah-Kelantan x Brahman cattle in Pahang, Malaysia.

RESULTS

A total of 44 (72.13%) cattle were infected with more than one blood pathogen. Theileria species was the blood pathogen with the highest molecular detection rate (72.13, 95% CI 59.83-81.81%). Nucleotide blast analyses of all sequences demonstrated high degree of molecular similarity (98-100%) in comparison with their respective reference sequences. Analysis of 18SrRNA gene sequences of Theileria species and 16SrRNA gene sequences of Anaplasma species revealed Theileria sinensis and Anaplasma platys respectively as additional species detected in these cattle. MPSP-PCR analysis was conducted for further confirmation of T. sinensis. The blood picture of eight infected cattle groups revealed poikilocytosis, anisocytosis, rouleaux formation and degenerative left shift. High mean erythrocyte fragility values were common in infected cattle groups. Anaemia of the macrocytic normochromic type and spherocytes were observed in the T. evansi and Anaplasma platys + Theileria sinensis double species co-infected cattle group. Normocytic normochromic anaemia was observed in the T. sinensis infected cattle group. Significant (p < 0.05) increases in serum liver and kidney parameters, total protein, globulin, total and unconjugated bilirubin and decreased albumin values were observed in the T. evansi infected cattle when compared to clinically healthy cattle.

CONCLUSION

We present the first evidence of Theileria sinensis-associated bovine anaemia (TSABA) in Malaysian cattle. Because of the high occurrence of bovine theileriosis and detection of A. platys, there is an urgent need for appropriate preventive and control measures against these blood pathogens.

Infections of cats with blood mycoplasmas in various contexts

Haemotropic microorganisms are the most common bacteria that infect erythrocytes and are associated with anaemia of varying severity. The aim of this study was to focus on the occurrence of Mycoplasma haemofelis, Mycoplasma haemominutum, and Mycoplasma turicensis in cats. We followed infected individuals’ breeding conditions, age, sex, basic haematological indices, and co-infection with one of the feline retroviruses. A total of 73 cats were investigated. Haemoplasmas were detected by PCR and verified by sequencing. Haematology examination was performed focusing on the number of erythrocytes, haemoglobin concentrations and haematocrit. A subset of 40 cat blood samples was examined by a rapid immunochromatography test to detect retroviruses. The following was found in our study group: M. haemofelis in 12.3% of individuals, M. haemominutum in 35.6% of individuals and M. turicensis in 17.8% of individuals. A highly significant difference was found between positive evidence of blood mycoplasmas in cats living only at home (15%) and in cats with access to the outside (69.8%). There was also a highly significant difference in the incidence of mycoplasma in cats over 3 years of age compared to 1–3 years of age and up to 1 year of age. There was no difference in the frequency of infections between the sexes. Blood mycoplasma infection in our group was not accompanied by fundamental changes in the haematological indices and was only reflected by a decrease in haemoglobin values in three cases. In a subset of cats that were also examined for the presence of retroviral infection, mycoplasma infection in blood was confirmed in all five positive cases.

Hemotropic Mycoplasma and Bartonella Species Diversity in Free-Roaming Canine and Feline from Luanda, Angola

Free-roaming dogs and cats represent potential reservoirs for zoonotic vector-borne pathogens shedding to the human population. Given the health impact of these pathogens, we searched free-roaming dogs and cats included in an animal population control program from Luanda, Angola, for Bartonella and hemotropic mycoplasma infection. We report the detection of Bartonella henselae (2/66; 3%), Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (5/66; 7.5%) and Mycoplasma haemofelis (1/66; 1.5%) in cats. One dog was found positive for Mycoplasma haemocanis (1/20; 5%). This is the first report of Bartonella henselae infections in stray cats and of hemotropic mycoplasmas in cats and dogs from Angola. Despite the relatively small sample size, our results sustain the hypothesis of uncontrolled circulation of these agents in highly mobile synanthropic animal populations of Luanda. Population and vector control could contribute to reducing the likelihood for animal-to-animal and animal-to-human transmission.

Clinical, haematological and pathomorphological findings in Mycoplasma suis infected pigs

BACKGROUND

Mycoplasma suis (M. suis) belongs to the group of haemotrophic mycoplasmas and is known as the causative agent of infectious anaemia in pigs. In the last few years valuable insights into the mechanism of adhesion and invasion, shedding patterns and cell tropism of M. suis were gained by the use of new molecular techniques. However, details on M. suis induced lesions as well as the distribution of M. suis in different organs are still lacking. Therefore, seven splenectomised pigs were experimentally infected and clinical and laboratory investigations as well as a detailed histopathological examination were performed. Detection and quantification of M. suis DNA in blood and various tissue samples was done using a quantitative real-time PCR.

RESULTS

During the course of experimental infection, periodically occurring signs of infectious anaemia of pigs including severe icteroanaemia, fever, apathy and anorexia were observed. In addition, dermatological manifestations such as haemorrhagic diathesis presenting as petechiae occurred. The most important haematological alterations were normochromic, normocytic anaemia, hypoglycaemia as well as increased bilirubin and urea concentrations. Necropsy revealed predominant evidence of haemolysis with consecutive anaemia, as well as disseminated intravascular coagulation. M. suis was found in all investigated tissues with the highest copy numbers found in the kidneys. In Giemsa stained sections M. suis was only detected red blood cell (RBC)-associated.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, no RBC independent sequestration of M. suis was detected in organs of experimentally infected pigs. Pathological findings are most likely resulting from haemolysis, consecutive anaemia as well as from disseminated intravascular coagulation and subsequent organ impairments.