Occludin degradation makes brain microvascular endothelial cells more vulnerable to reperfusion injury in vitro

Propofol Suppresses LPS-induced BBB Damage by Regulating miR-130a-5p/ZO-1 Axis

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semi-permeable barrier that separates circulating blood from the extracellular fluid of the brain and central nervous system, which is crucial for maintaining brain homeostasis. This study aimed to explore the role of propofol in BBB damage and further evaluate the underlying molecular mechanism. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was administered to mice to create an in vivo BBB damage mice model. Additionally, hCMEC/D3 cells as brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were treated with LPS to establish the in vitro BBB damage cell model. Subsequently, propofol was used for the BBB damage model. Evans blue staining and fluorescein sodium were utilized in the in vivo experiments to demonstrate BBB leakage and BBB permeability. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay was used to assess cell viability and the trans-endothelial electrical resistance (TEER) value was measured using an epithelial voltmeter. Furthermore, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was performed to measure the levels of the inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). The levels of miR-130a-5p and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) in brain tissues and cells were detected using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blot, or immunofluorescence staining. Furthermore, a dual-luciferase reporter assay was used to demonstrate the association between miR-130a-5p and ZO-1. Propofol treatment suppressed BBB leakage, the amount of fluorescein sodium, and the levels of IL-1β and TNF-α in the LPS-induced BBB damage mice model. Meanwhile, propofol treatment increased the TEER value in the LPS-induced hCMEC/D3 cells. Additionally, propofol treatment significantly down-regulated miR-130a-5p and up-regulated ZO-1. More importantly, miR-130a-5p directly targeted ZO-1 and negatively regulated ZO-1 expression in hCMEC/D3 cells. Furthermore, miR-130a-5p mimic partially reversed the effect of propofol on the TEER value and the levels of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and TNF-α in the LPS-induced hCMEC/D3 cells. Propofol suppressed LPS-induced BBB damage by regulating miR-130a-5p/ZO-1 axis. These findings suggested a potentially effective treatment approach for BBB damage.

MITOCHONDRIAL ANTIVIRAL PATHWAYS CONTROL ANTI-HIV RESPONSES AND ISCHEMIC STROKE OUTCOMES VIA THE RIG-1 SIGNALING AND INNATE IMMUNITY MECHANISMS

Occludin (ocln) is one of the main regulatory cells of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Ocln silencing resulted in alterations of the gene expression signatures of a variety of genes of the innate immunity system, including IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) and the antiviral retinoic acid-inducible gene-1 (RIG-1) signaling pathway, which functions as a regulator of the cytoplasmic sensors upstream of the mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS). Indeed, we observed dysfunctional mitochondrial bioenergetics, dynamics, and autophagy in our system. Alterations of mitochondrial bioenergetics and innate immune protection translated into worsened ischemic stroke outcomes in EcoHIV-infected ocln deficient mice. Overall, these results allow for a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms of viral infection in the brain and describe a previously unrecognized role of ocln as a key factor in the control of innate immune responses and mitochondrial dynamics, which affect cerebral vascular diseases such as ischemic stroke.

Inhibition of Cyclophilin A-Metalloproteinase-9 Pathway Alleviates the Development of Neuropathic Pain by Promoting Repair of the Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier

BACKGROUND

Dysfunction of the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) contributes to the occurrence and development of neuropathic pain (NP). Previous studies revealed that the activation of cyclophilin A (CypA)-metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) signaling pathway can disrupt the integrity of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and aggravate neuroinflammatory responses. However, the roles of CypA-MMP9 signaling pathway on BSCB in NP have not been studied. This study aimed to investigate the effect of CypA on the structure and function of the BSCB and pain behaviors in mice with NP.

METHODS

We first created the mouse chronic constriction injury (CCI) model, and they were then intraperitoneally injected with the CypA inhibitor cyclosporine A (CsA) or vehicle. Pain behaviors, the structure and function of the BSCB, the involvement of the CypA-MMP9 signaling pathway, microglia activation, and expression levels of proinflammatory factors in mice were examined.

RESULTS

CCI mice presented mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, impaired permeability of the BSCB, downregulated tight junction proteins, activated CypA-MMP9 signaling pathway, microglia activation, and upregulated proinflammatory factors, which were significantly alleviated by inhibition of CypA.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, the CypA-MMP9 signaling pathway is responsible for CCI-induced NP in mice by impairing the structure and function of the BSCB, and activating microglia and inflammatory responses.

Role of pyroptosis in the pathogenesis of various neurological diseases

Pyroptosis, an inflammatory programmed cell death process, has recently garnered significant attention due to its pivotal role in various neurological diseases. This review delves into the intricate molecular signaling pathways governing pyroptosis, encompassing both caspase-1 dependent and caspase-1 independent routes, while emphasizing the critical role played by the inflammasome machinery in initiating cell death. Notably, we explore the Nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat (NLR) containing protein family, the Absent in melanoma 2-like receptor family, and the Pyrin receptor family as essential activators of pyroptosis. Additionally, we comprehensively examine the Gasdermin family, renowned for their role as executioner proteins in pyroptosis. Central to our review is the interplay between pyroptosis and various central nervous system (CNS) cell types, including astrocytes, microglia, neurons, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Pyroptosis emerges as a significant factor in the pathophysiology of each cell type, highlighting its far-reaching impact on neurological diseases. This review also thoroughly addresses the involvement of pyroptosis in specific neurological conditions, such as HIV infection, drug abuse-mediated pathologies, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. These discussions illuminate the intricate connections between pyroptosis, chronic inflammation, and cell death in the development of these disorders. We also conducted a comparative analysis, contrasting pyroptosis with other cell death mechanisms, thereby shedding light on their unique aspects. This approach helps clarify the distinct contributions of pyroptosis to neuroinflammatory processes. In conclusion, this review offers a comprehensive exploration of the role of pyroptosis in various neurological diseases, emphasizing its multifaceted molecular mechanisms within various CNS cell types. By elucidating the link between pyroptosis and chronic inflammation in the context of neurodegenerative disorders and infections, it provides valuable insights into potential therapeutic targets for mitigating these conditions.

Netrin-1 protects blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity after cerebral ischemia-reperfusion by activating the Kruppel-like factor 2 (KLF2)/occludin pathway

Ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced neural damage and neuroinflammation have been associated with pathological progression during stroke. Netrin-1 is an important member of the family of laminin-related secreted proteins, which plays an important role in governing axon elongation. However, it is unknown whether Netrin-1 possesses a beneficial role in stroke. Here, we employed the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model to study the function of Netrin-1 in alleviating brain injuries. Our results demonstrate that Netrin-1 rescued poststroke neurological deficits and inhibited production of the inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin 6 (IL-6) and endothelial chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 1 (Cxcl1). Importantly, Netrin-1 protected against MCAO-induced dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in mice and a reduction in the expression of the tight junction (TJ) protein occludin. Additionally, we report that Netrin-1 could ameliorate oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced injury and prevent aggravation in endothelial monolayer permeability in bEnd.3 human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMVECs). Mechanistically, Netrin-1 ameliorated OGD/R-induced decrease in occludin and Kruppel-like factor 2 (KLF2) in HBMVECs. Notably, silencing of KLF2 abolished the beneficial effects of Netrin-1 in protecting endothelial permeability and occludin expression, suggesting that these effects are mediated by KLF2. In conclusion, our findings suggest that Netrin-1 could constitute a novel therapeutic strategy for ischemic stroke.

MMP-2-mediated Scube2 degradation promotes blood-brain barrier disruption by blocking the interaction between astrocytes and endothelial cells via inhibiting Sonic hedgehog pathway during early cerebral ischemia

We have previously demonstrated a rapid secretion of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in the ischemic brain. Since Scube2 can interact with Sonic hedgehog (Shh) to maintain blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity via regulating the interaction between brain capillary endothelial cells (ECs) and perivascular astrocytes, and it is also a substrate of MMP-2, we hypothesized that the secreted MMP-2 could degrade Scube2 and contribute to ischemic BBB disruption. Using an in vitro ischemic model of 90-min oxygen-glucose deprivation/3-h reoxygenation (OGD/R) and an in vivo mouse stroke model of 90-min middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) with 3-h reperfusion, we established an important role of MMP-2-mediated Scube2 degradation in early ischemic BBB disruption. Exposure of C8-D1A cells and bEnd.3 cells to OGD/R increased MMP secretion in both cells, and C8-D1A cells appeared to secrete more MMPs than bEnd.3 cells. Co-IP and double-immunostaining revealed that Scube2 co-localized well with MMP-2 in C8-D1A cells and could be pulled down by MMP-2 antibodies. In MCAO mice, Scube2 protein showed a drastic reduction in ischemic brain tissue, which was accompanied by suppressed expression of Shh and its downstream molecules. Of note, specific knockdown of astrocytic Scube2 with AAV-shScube2 augmented MCAO-induced Shh suppression and exacerbated BBB leakage and inflammatory reactions in the ischemic brain. Last, incubation of bEnd.3 cells with conditioned medium derived from OGD-treated C8-D1A cells led to a significant inhibition of the Shh pathway in bEnd.3 cells and degradation of VE-cadherin and ZO-1. Inhibition of MMP-2 with SB-3CT or over-expression of Scube2 with plasmids in C8-D1A cells alleviated the above effect of C8-D1A cells-derived conditioned medium. Taken together, our data indicate that ischemia-induced secretion of MMP-2 may contribute to early BBB disruption in ischemic stroke via interrupting the shared Scube2-Shh pathway between brain capillary ECs and perivascular astrocytes.

Research Progress in Skin Aging, Metabolism, and Related Products

In recent years, skin aging has received increasing attention. Many factors affect skin aging, and research has shown that metabolism plays a vital role in skin aging, but there needs to be a more systematic review. This article reviews the interaction between skin metabolism and aging from the perspectives of glucose, protein, and lipid metabolism and explores relevant strategies for skin metabolism regulation. We found that skin aging affects the metabolism of three major substances, which are glucose, protein, and lipids, and the metabolism of the three major substances in the skin also affects the process of skin aging. Some drugs or compounds can regulate the metabolic disorders mentioned above to exert anti-aging effects. Currently, there are a variety of products, but most of them focus on improving skin collagen levels. Skin aging is closely related to metabolism, and they interact with each other. Regulating specific metabolic disorders in the skin is an important anti-aging strategy. Research and development have focused on improving collagen levels, while the regulation of other skin glycosylation and lipid disorders including key membrane or cytoskeleton proteins is relatively rare. Further research and development are expected.

The protective effects of EGCG was associated with HO-1 active and microglia pyroptosis inhibition in experimental intracerebral hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), which has high mortality and disability rate is associated with microglial pyroptosis and neuroinflammation, and the effective treatment methods are limited Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) has been found to play a cytoprotective role by regulating the anti-inflammatory response to pyroptosis in other systemic diseases. However, the role of EGCG in microglial pyroptosis and neuroinflammation after ICH remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the effects of EGCG pretreatment on neuroinflammation-mediated neuronal pyroptosis and the underlying neuroprotective mechanisms in experimental ICH. EGCG pretreatment was found to remarkably improved neurobehavioral performance, and decreased the hematoma volume and cerebral edema in mice. We found that EGCG pretreatment attenuated the release of hemin-induced inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-18, and TNF-α). EGCG significantly upregulated the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), and downregulated the levels of pyroptotic molecules and inflammatory cytokines including Caspase-1, GSDMD, NLRP3, mature IL-1β, and IL-18. EGCG pretreatment also decreased the number of Caspase-1-positive microglia and GSDMD along with NLRP3-positive microglia after ICH. Conversely, an HO-1-specific inhibitor (ZnPP), significantly inhibited the anti-pyroptosis and anti-neuroinflammation effects of EGCG. Therefore, EGCG pretreatment alleviated microglial pyroptosis and neuroinflammation, at least in part through the Caspase-1/GSDMD/NLRP3 pathway by upregulating HO-1 expression after ICH. In addition, EGCG pretreatment promoted the polarization of microglia from the M1 phenotype to M2 phenotype after ICH. The results suggest that EGCG is a potential agent to attenuate neuroinflammation via its anti-pyroptosis effect after ICH.

Targeting pyroptosis as a preventive and therapeutic approach for stroke

Stroke has caused tremendous social stress worldwide, yet despite decades of research and development of new stroke drugs, most have failed and rt-PA (Recombinant tissue plasminogen activator) is still the accepted treatment for ischemic stroke. the complexity of the stroke mechanism has led to unsatisfactory efficacy of most drugs in clinical trials, indicating that there are still many gaps in our understanding of stroke. Pyroptosis is a programmed cell death (PCD) with inflammatory properties and are thought to be closely associated with stroke. Pyroptosis is regulated by the GSDMD of the gasdermin family, which when cleaved by Caspase-1/Caspase-11 into N-GSDMD with pore-forming activity can bind to the plasma membrane to form small 10-20 nm pores, which would allow the release of inflammatory factors IL-18 and IL-1β before cell rupture, greatly exacerbating the inflammatory response. The pyroptosis occurs mainly in the border zone of cerebral infarction, and glial cells, neuronal cells and brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) all undergo pyroptosis after stroke, which largely exacerbates the breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and thus aggravates brain injury. Therefore, pyroptosis may be a good direction for the treatment of stroke. In this review, we focus on the latest mechanisms of action of pyroptosis and the process by which pyroptosis regulates stroke development. We also suggest potential therapeutic stroke drugs that target the pyroptosis pathway, providing additional therapeutic strategies for the clinical management of stroke. The role of pyroptosis after stroke. After stroke, microglia first rush to the damaged area and polarize into M1 and M2 types. Under the influence of various stimuli, microglia undergo pyroptosis, release pro-inflammatory factors, and are converted to the M1 type; astrocytes and neuronal cells also undergo pyroptosis under the stimulation of various pro-inflammatory factors, leading to astrocyte death due to increased osmotic pressure in the membrane, resulting in water absorption and swelling until rupture. BMECs, the main structural component of the BBB, also undergo pyroptosis when stimulated by pro-inflammatory factors released from microglia and astrocytes, leading to the destruction of the structural integrity of the BBB, ultimately causing more severe brain damage. In addition, GSDMD in neutrophils mainly mediate the release of NETs rather than pyroptosis, which also aggravates brain injury. IL-10=interleukin-10; TGF-β = transforming growth factor-β; IL-18=interleukin-18; IL-1β = interleukin-1β; TNF-α = tumor necrosis factor-α; iNOS=induced nitrogen monoxide synthase; MMPs=Matrix metalloproteinases; GSDMD = gasdermin D; BMECs=brain microvascular endothelial cells; BBB = blood-brain barrier.

Electroacupuncture reverses endothelial cell death and promotes angiogenesis through the VEGF/Notch signaling pathway after focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Angiogenesis is an important mechanism of recovery from ischemic stroke. Recent studies have found that there is a close relationship between the VEGF/Notch pathway and angiogenesis. It is unknown whether EA can exert a brain protection effect and promote angiogenesis by acting on the VEGF/Notch signaling pathway after focal cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (CIRI).

METHODS

The Middle Cerebral Artery occlusion/Reperfusion (MCAo/R) model was established, in which rats were subjected to occlusion with ischemic intervention for 30 min, followed by reperfusion for 8 h, 1 day, 3 days, and 7 days. The first EA treatment was performed 90 min after the animal model was successfully established, and then EA treatments were performed once a day for 7 days. The 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining and neurological deficit examination were performed to assess the level of CIRI and neuroprotection by EA. Expression levels of VEGFA, Notch1, and Hes1 proteins were measured via western blotting, while the morphological changes of ECs and microvasculature in the cortex were determined using an ultrastructural observation method.

RESULTS

EA treatment of PC6, GV26, and SP6 can significantly improve the neurological function of MCAO/R rats, reduce the volume of cerebral infarction, and modulate the ultrastructure of ECs and microvessels in pathological states. Western blotting revealed that EA increased VEGFA protein expression at 8 h and 3 days after CIRI, as well as Notch1 protein expression at 1 and 7 days. Subsequently, EA activated the VEGF/Notch pathway, increasing the expression of the downstream target protein Hes1, reversing EC death, and promoting angiogenesis.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that EA plays a role in promoting angiogenesis following focal CIRI, and we hypothesized that this was due to the regulation of ECs by the EA-activated VEGF/Notch signaling pathway.

Relationship between blood-brain barrier changes and drug metabolism under high-altitude hypoxia: obstacle or opportunity for drug transport?

The blood-brain barrier is essential for maintaining the stability of the central nervous system and is also crucial for regulating drug metabolism, changes of blood-brain barrier's structure and function can influence how drugs are delivered to the brain. In high-altitude hypoxia, the central nervous system's function is drastically altered, which can cause disease and modify the metabolism of drugs in vivo. Changes in the structure and function of the blood-brain barrier and the transport of the drug across the blood-brain barrier under high-altitude hypoxia, are regulated by changes in brain microvascular endothelial cells, astrocytes, and pericytes, either regulated by drug metabolism factors such as drug transporters and drug-metabolizing enzymes. This article aims to review the effects of high-altitude hypoxia on the structure and function of the blood-brain barrier as well as the effects of changes in the blood-brain barrier on drug metabolism. We also hypothesized and explore the regulation and potential mechanisms of the blood-brain barrier and associated pathways, such as transcription factors, inflammatory factors, and nuclear receptors, in regulating drug transport under high-altitude hypoxia.

The tight junction protein occludin modulates blood-brain barrier integrity and neurological function after ischemic stroke in mice

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption contributes to brain injury and neurological impairment. Tight junctions (TJs) and cell-cell adhesion complexes develop between endothelial cells in the brain to establish and maintain the BBB. Occludin, the first transmembrane protein identified in TJs, has received intense research interest because numerous in vitro studies have suggested its importance in maintaining BBB integrity. However, its role in maintaining BBB integrity after ischemic stroke is less clear owing to the lack of in vivo evidence. This study aimed to investigate the dynamics and function of occludin across the acute and chronic phases after stroke using occludin-deficient mice. By photochemically induced thrombosis model, the expression of occludin was decreased in brain endothelial cells from ischemic lesions. The neurological function of occludin-deficient mice was continuously impaired compared to that of wild-type mice. BBB integrity evaluated by Evans blue and 0.5-kDa fluorescein in the acute phase and by 10-kDa fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled dextran in the chronic phase was decreased to a greater extent after stroke in occludin-deficient mice. Furthermore, occludin-deficient mice showed decreased claudin-5 and neovascularization after stroke. Our study reveals that occludin plays an important role from the acute to the chronic phase after ischemic stroke in vivo.

Exploring the synergic mechanism of Ligusticum striatum DC. and borneol in attenuating BMECs injury and maintaining tight junctions against cerebral ischaemia based on the HIF-1α/VEGF signalling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ligusticum striatum DC., also known as Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort. (LCH), is widely used in China for its excellent effect in ischaemic stroke (IS) patients, and borneol (BO) has been confirmed to maintain the blood‒brain barrier (BBB) after stroke. They are often used as a combination in the prescriptions of IS patients. Although the advantage of their combined treatment in improving brain ischaemia has been verified, their synergistic mechanism on BBB maintenance is still unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was designed to evaluate the synergistic effect of maintaining the BBB between LCH and BO against IS and to further explore the potential mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

After primary mouse brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) were extracted and identified, the duration of oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) and the doses of LCH and BO were optimized. Then, the cells were divided into five groups: control, model, LCH, BO, and LCH + BO. Cell viability, injury degree, proliferation and migration were detected by CCK-8, LDH, EdU and wound-healing assays, respectively. Hoechst 33342 staining was adopted to detect the apoptosis rate, and western blotting was employed to observe the expressions of Bax, Bcl-2, caspase-3 and cleaved caspase-3. The TEER value and NaF permeability were measured to assess tight junction (TJ) function, while ZO-1, occludin and claudin-5 were also probed by western blotting. Moreover, the HIF-1α/VEGF pathway was observed to explore the underlying mechanism of BBB maintenance. In vivo, global cerebral ischaemia/reperfusion (GCIR) surgery was performed to establish an IS model. After treatment with LCH (200 mg/kg) and/or BO (160 mg/kg), histopathological structure and BMECs repair were observed by HE staining and immunohistochemistry of vWF. Meanwhile, TJ-associated proteins in vivo were also detected by western blotting.

RESULTS

Basically, LCH and BO had different emphases. LCH significantly attenuated the vacuolar structure, nuclear pyknosis and neuronal loss of GCIR mice, while BO focused on promoting BMECs proliferation and angiogenesis and inhibiting the degradation of TJ-associated proteins in vivo after IS. Interestingly, their combination further enhanced these effects. OGD injury markedly reduced the viability, proliferation and migration of primary BMECs; decreased the ratio of Bcl-2/Bax, TEER value, and the expressions of ZO-1, occludin and claudin-5; induced LDH release and apoptosis; and increased the cleaved caspase-3/caspase-3 ratio and NaF permeability. Meanwhile, BO might be the main contributor to the combinative treatment in ameliorating OGD-induced damage of BMECs and degradation of TJ-related proteins, and the potential mechanism might be involved in upregulating the HIF-1α/VEGF signalling pathway. Although LCH showed no obvious improvement, it could enhance the therapeutic effect of BO. Interestingly, their combination even produced some new improvements, including the reduction of cleaved caspase-3 and increase in TEER value, none of which were exhibited in their monotherapies.

CONCLUSIONS

LCH and BO exhibited complementary therapeutic features in alleviating cerebral ischaemic injury by inhibiting BMECs apoptosis, maintaining the BBB and attenuating the loss of neurons. LCH preferred to protect ischaemic neurons, while BO played a key role in protecting BMECs, maintaining the BBB and TJs by activating the HIF-1α/VEGF signalling pathway.

The NLRP3 Inflammasome in Age-Related Cerebral Small Vessel Disease Manifestations: Untying the Innate Immune Response Connection

In this narrative review, we present the evidence on nucleotide-binding and oligomerization (NOD) domain-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain (PYD)-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation for its putative roles in the elusive pathomechanism of aging-related cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD). Although NLRP3 inflammasome-interleukin (IL)-1β has been implicated in the pathophysiology of coronary artery disease, its roles in cerebral arteriothrombotic micro-circulation disease such as CSVD remains unexplored. Here, we elaborate on the current manifestations of CSVD and its' complex pathogenesis and relate the array of activators and aberrant activation involving NLRP3 inflammasome with this condition. These neuroinflammatory insights would expand on our current understanding of CSVD clinical (and subclinical) heterogenous manifestations whilst highlighting plausible NLRP3-linked therapeutic targets.

The role of pyroptosis in endothelial dysfunction induced by diseases

Most organs in the body rely on blood flow, and vesicular damage is the leading cause of injury in multiple organs. The endothelium, as the barriers of vessels, play a critical role in ensuring vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis. The rapid development of risk factors in endothelial injuries has been seen in the past decade, such as smoking, infectious, and diabetes mellites. Pyroptotic endothelium is an inflammatory mode of governed endothelial cell death that depend on the metabolic disorder and severe infectious such as atherosclerosis, and sepsis-related acute lung injury, respectively. Pyroptotic endothelial cells need GSDMD cleaved into N- and C-terminal by caspase1, and the cytokines are released by a pore constructed by the N-terminal of GSDMD in the membrane of ECs, finally resulting in severe inflammation and pyroptotic cell death. This review will focus on the patho-physiological and pharmacological pathways of pyroptotic endothelial metabolism in diseases. Overall, this review indicates that pyroptosis is a significant risk factor in diseases and a potential drug target in related diseases.

The role of pyroptosis in endothelial dysfunction induced by diseases

Most organs in the body rely on blood flow, and vesicular damage is the leading cause of injury in multiple organs. The endothelium, as the barriers of vessels, play a critical role in ensuring vascular homeostasis and angiogenesis. The rapid development of risk factors in endothelial injuries has been seen in the past decade, such as smoking, infectious, and diabetes mellites. Pyroptotic endothelium is an inflammatory mode of governed endothelial cell death that depend on the metabolic disorder and severe infectious such as atherosclerosis, and sepsis-related acute lung injury, respectively. Pyroptotic endothelial cells need GSDMD cleaved into N- and C-terminal by caspase1, and the cytokines are released by a pore constructed by the N-terminal of GSDMD in the membrane of ECs, finally resulting in severe inflammation and pyroptotic cell death. This review will focus on the patho-physiological and pharmacological pathways of pyroptotic endothelial metabolism in diseases. Overall, this review indicates that pyroptosis is a significant risk factor in diseases and a potential drug target in related diseases.

[Biomarkers of neuroinflammation in patients with chronic cerebral ischemia during the therapy with vinpocetine (study INFLAMARK)]

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of vinpocetine therapy on clinical manifestations of chronic cerebral ischemia (CCI) and the blood concentrations of neuroinflammation markers (S100B, IL-1β).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study included 30 patients (mean age 61.6 [56.9; 67.9] years) with CCI that received vinpocetine (30 mg/day) for 3 months. Brain changes according to magnetic resonance imaging data were assessed using the STRIVE protocol. We analyzed the dynamics of changes in the clinical questionnaires: Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale (MoCA), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Asthenic State Scale (ASS), Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS), general impressions of treatment (Global Rating of Change Scale, GRC).

RESULTS

In 3 months after vinpocetine therapy there was a significant improvement in cognitive status (MoCA: 25.1±2.1 vs 26.6±1.4 p<0.05), emotional state (HADS: 8.4±1.4 vs 7.1±1.8 (p<0.05)), daytime sleep parameters (ESS 8.4±2.1 vs 6.2±2.3 p<0.05) and reduction in asthenia (ASS: 72.2±18.1 vs 52.3±9.3, p<0.05). A significantly larger proportion of patients assessed the improvement from therapy as «moderate» and «pronounced» (GRC, n=22, 73.3%). Concentrations of S100B and IL-1β decreased significantly by the time therapy was completed. The overall severity of cerebrovascular changes according to MRI was significantly associated with blood levels of S100β, but not IL-1β: β=0.504, p=0.026, 95% CI 0.149-0.901, mainly due to periventricular changes in white matter (β=0.562, p=0.035, 95% CI (-0.024-0.820). Blood levels of S100β correlated with MoCA test results (r=0.6795), and IL-1β correlated with ESS scores (r=0. 6657).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of vinpocetine can significantly reduce the severity of cognitive and affective disorders, asthenia, normalize the circadian rhythm of sleep, suppress the expression S100β and IL-1β in patients with CCI. One of the vinpocetine's mechanisms of action may be the inhibition of neuroinflammation.

Protective effect of phytogenic plus short and medium-chain fatty acids-based additives in enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli challenged piglets

Post Weaning Diarrhea (PWD) is the most important multifactorial gastroenteric disease of the weaning in pig livestock. Phytogenic (PHY) natural extracts are largely studied as alternatives to antibiotic treatments in combating the global concern of the antimicrobial resistance. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protective effect of innovative phytogenic premix with or without short and medium chain fatty acids (SCFA and MCFA) in O138 Escherichia coli challenged piglets. Twenty-seven weaned piglets were allotted into four groups fed different diets according to the following dietary treatments: CTRL (n = 13) group fed basal diet, PHY1 (n = 7) fed the basal diet supplemented with 0.2% of phytogenic premix, PHY2 (n = 7) fed the basal diet supplemented with 0.2% of phytogenic premix added with 2000 ppm of SCFA and MCFA. After 6 days of experimental diet feeding, animals were challenged (day 0) with 2 × 10⁹ CFU of E. coli and CTRL group was divided at day 0 into positive (challenged CTRL + ; n = 6) and negative control group (unchallenged CTRL-; n = 7). Body weights were recorded at -14, -6, 0, 4 and 7 days and the feed intake was recorded daily. E. coli shedding was monitored for 4 days post-challenge by plate counting. Fecal consistency was registered daily by a four-point scale (0-3; diarrhea > 1) during the post-challenge period. Tissue samples were obtained for gene expression and histological evaluations at day 7 from four animals per group. Lower average feed intake was observed in CTRL + compared to PHY2 and CTRL during the post-challenge period. Infected groups showed higher E. coli shedding compared to CTRL- during the 4 days post-challenge (p < 0.01). PHY2 showed lower frequency of diarrhea compared to PHY1 and CTRL + from 5 to 7 days post-challenge. No significant alterations among groups were observed in histopathological evaluation. Duodenum expression of occludin tended to be lower in challenged groups compared to CTRL- at 7 days post-challenge (p = 0.066). In conclusion, dietary supplementation of PHY plus SCFA and MCFA revealed encouraging results for diarrhea prevention and growth performance in weaned piglets.

Research progress on pyroptosis-mediated immune-inflammatory response in ischemic stroke and the role of natural plant components as regulator of pyroptosis: A review

Ischemic stroke (IS) is one of the leading causes of death and disability. Its pathogenesis is not completely clear, and inflammatory cascade is one of its main pathological processes. The current clinical practice of IS is to restore the blood supply to the ischemic area after IS as soon as possible through thrombolytic therapy to protect the vitality and function of neurons. However, blood reperfusion further accelerates ischemic damage and cause ischemia-reperfusion injury. The pathological process of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury involves multiple mechanisms, and the exact mechanism has not been fully elucidated. Pyroptosis, a newly discovered form of inflammatory programmed cell death, plays an important role in the initiation and progression of inflammation. It is a pro-inflammatory programmed death mediated by caspase Caspase-1/4/5/11, which can lead to cell swelling and rupture, release inflammatory factors IL-1β and IL-18, and induce an inflammatory cascade. Recent studies have shown that pyroptosis and its mediated inflammatory response are important factors in aggravating ischemic brain injury, and inhibition of pyroptosis may alleviate the ischemic brain injury. Furthermore, studies have found that natural plant components may have a regulatory effect on pyroptosis. Therefore, this review not only summarizes the molecular mechanism of pyroptosis and its role in ischemic stroke, but also the role of natural plant components as regulator of pyroptosis, in order to provide reference information on pyroptosis for the treatment of IS in the future.

Sevoflurane postconditioning ameliorates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats via TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 signaling pathway

To determine whether sevoflurane postconditioning protects against cerebral ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury and its potential mechanism, we employed bioinformatic analysis, neurological assessments, and western blot analysis, as well as triphenyl tetrazolium chloride, hematoxylin and eosin, Nissl, and immunofluorescence staining. We identified 103 differentially expressed genes induced by cerebral I/R, including 75 upregulated genes and 28 downregulated genes enriched for certain biological processes (involving regulation of inflammatory responses, cellular responses to interleukin 1, and chemokine activity) and signaling pathways (such as transcriptional misregulation in cancer, interleukin-17 signaling, rheumatoid arthritis, MAPK signaling, and Toll-like receptor signaling). As a typical path in Toll-like receptor signaling pathway, in the current study, we investigated the protective effect of sevoflurane postconditioning in cerebral I/R rats and further explore the role of TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 signaling pathway in it. The results showed cerebral I/R-induced neurological deficits were comparatively less severe following sevoflurane postconditioning. In addition, TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 signaling pathway-related proteins and neuropathic damage were ameliorated in aged rats following sevoflurane postconditioning, while the TLR4 agonist lipopolysaccharide aggravated these changes. Together, these findings suggest that sevoflurane postconditioning ameliorates cerebral I/R injury by a mechanism involving inhibition of the TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 signaling pathway to suppress neuroinflammatory responses.

Physiological and Pathological Remodeling of Cerebral Microvessels

There is growing evidence that the remodeling of cerebral microvessels plays an important role in plastic changes in the brain associated with development, experience, learning, and memory consolidation. At the same time, abnormal neoangiogenesis, and deregulated regulation of microvascular regression, or pruning, could contribute to the pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental diseases, stroke, and neurodegeneration. Aberrant remodeling of microvesselsis associated with blood-brain barrier breakdown, development of neuroinflammation, inadequate microcirculation in active brain regions, and leads to the dysfunction of the neurovascular unit and progressive neurological deficits. In this review, we summarize current data on the mechanisms of blood vessel regression and pruning in brain plasticity and in Alzheimer's-type neurodegeneration. We discuss some novel approaches to modulating cerebral remodeling and preventing degeneration-coupled aberrant microvascular activity in chronic neurodegeneration.

URB597 and Andrographolide Improve Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cell Permeability and Apoptosis by Reducing Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Associated with Activation of Nrf2 Signaling in Oxygen-Glucose Deprivation

Ischemic stroke, a cerebrovascular disease worldwide, triggers a cascade of pathophysiological events, including blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) play a vital role in maintaining BBB function. The injury of BMECs may worsen neurovascular dysfunction and patients' prognosis. Therefore, uncover the principal molecular mechanisms involved in BBB disruption in stroke becomes pressing. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been implicated in increasingly physiological functions, both in neurometabolism and cerebrovascular regulation. Modulating its activities by the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) shows anti-inflammatory characteristics. Andrographolide (AG), one Chinese herbal ingredient, has also attracted attention for its role in immunomodulatory and as a therapeutic target in BBB disorders. Recently, the FAAH inhibitor URB597 and AG have important regulatory effects on neuronal and vascular cells in ischemia. However, the effects of URB597 and AG on BMEC permeability and apoptosis in oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To address these issues, cultured BMECs (bEnd.3 cells) were exposed to OGD. The cell viability, permeability, tube formation, and apoptosis were assessed following treatment with URB597, AG, and cotreatment. Mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), reactive oxygen species (ROS), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), malondialdehyde (MDA), proinflammatory factors, tight junction (TJ) proteins, and oxidative stress-mediated Nrf2 signaling were also investigated. Results revealed that OGD broke the endothelial barrier, cell viability, MMP, and tube formation, which was reversed by URB597 and AG. OGD-induced enhancement of ROS, MDA, and apoptosis was reduced after drug interventions. URB597 and AG exhibited antioxidant/anti-inflammatory and mitochondrial protective effects by activating Nrf2 signaling. These findings indicated that URB597 and AG protect BMECs against OGD-induced endothelial permeability impairment and apoptosis by reducing mitochondrial oxidative stress and inflammation associated with activation of Nrf2 signaling. URB597 and AG showing the vascular protection may have therapeutic potential for the BBB damage in ischemic cerebrovascular diseases.

Circular RNA PUM1 performs as a competing endogenous RNA of microRNA-340-5p to mediate DEAD-box helicase 5 to mitigate cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion damages local brain tissue and impairs brain function, but its specific pathogenesis is still uncertain. Recent studies have clarified circPUM1 is aberrantly elevated in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury; however, circPUM1ʹs function in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced neuronal injury remains ambiguous. The results illustrated circPUM1 and DEAD-box helicase 5 were decreased, but microRNA-340-5p was elevated in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion mice and oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Knockdown of circPUM1 aggravated the neuronal injury in transient middle cerebral artery occlusion mice and motivated glial cell activation, neuronal apoptosis and inflammation. Enhancing circPUM1 restrained oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced SH-SY5Y cell apoptosis, the release of lactate dehydrogenase and inflammatory factors, and activation of nuclear factor-kappaB pathway, while elevating microRNA-340-5p aggravated oxygen glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced cell damage. Functional rescue experiments exhibited that the impacts of knockdown or enhancement of circPUM1 were turned around by microRNA-340-5p downregulation and DEAD-box helicase 5 silencing, respectively. Moreover, it was demonstrated that circPUM1 competitively adsorbed microRNA-340-5p to mediate DEAD-box helicase 5. All in all, this study clarifies that circPUM1 mitigates cerebral ischemia-reperfusion-induced neuronal injury by targeting the microRNA-340-5p/DEAD-box helicase 5 axis.

The Role of Pericytes in Ischemic Stroke: Fom Cellular Functions to Therapeutic Targets

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a cerebrovascular disease causing high rates of disability and fatality. In recent years, the concept of the neurovascular unit (NVU) has been accepted by an increasing number of researchers and is expected to become a new paradigm for exploring the pathogenesis and treatment of IS. NVUs are composed of neurons, endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, microglia, and the extracellular matrix. As an important part of the NVU, pericytes provide support for other cellular components and perform a variety of functions, including participating in the maintenance of the normal physiological function of the blood–brain barrier, regulating blood flow, and playing a role in inflammation, angiogenesis, and neurogenesis. Therefore, treatment strategies targeting pericyte functions, regulating pericyte epigenetics, and transplanting pericytes warrant exploration. In this review, we describe the reactions of pericytes after IS, summarize the potential therapeutic targets and strategies targeting pericytes for IS, and provide new treatment ideas for ischemic stroke.

TNF-α induces AQP4 overexpression in astrocytes through the NF-κB pathway causing cellular edema and apoptosis

Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) is highly expressed on astrocytes and is critical for controlling brain water transport in neurological diseases. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α is a common cytokine found in disease microenvironment. The aim of this study was to determine whether TNF-α can regulate the expression of AQP4 in astrocytes. Primary astrocyte cultures were treated with different concentrations of TNF-α and the cell viability was assessed through cell counting kit-8 assay and AQP4 expression was detected by qPCR, western blots, and immunofluorescence assays. The activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathway was detected by western blot. Further, dual-luciferase reporting system and chromatin immunoprecipitation were used to detect the transcriptional regulation of AQP4 by p65. These experiments demonstrated that treatment with TNF-α can lead to astrocyte edema and an increase in AQP4 expression. Following TNF-α treatment, the expression levels of P-IKKα/β-IκBα and P-p65 increased significantly over time. The results of the dual-luciferase reporter system and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed that p65 protein and AQP4 promoter had a robust binding effect after TNF-α treatment, and the NF-κB pathway inhibitor, BAY 11-7082 could inhibit these effects of TNF-α. The expression level of AQP4 was significantly decreased upon p65 interference, while the astrocyte viability was significantly increased compared to that in the TNF-α only group. In conclusion, TNF-α activated NF-κB pathway, which promoted the binding of p65 to the AQP4 gene promoter region, and enhanced AQP4 expression, ultimately reducing astrocyte viability and causing cell edema.

Circular noncoding RNA circ_0007865, serves as a competing endogenous RNA, targeting the miR-214-3p/FKBP5 axis to regulate oxygen-glucose deprivation-induced injury in brain microvascular endothelial cells

BACKGROUND

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a major cause of permanent morbidity and lifelong disability worldwide. Circular RNA (circRNA) circ_0007865 has been reported to be upregulated in acute ischemic stroke (AIS) patients. Also, AIS patients exhibited increased death of human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs). This study is designed to explore the role and mechanism of circ_0007865 in the oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD)-induced cell damage in AIS.

METHODS

Circ_0007865, microRNA-214-3p (miR-214-3p), and FK506-binding protein 5 (FKBP5) levels were detected by real-time quantitative PCR. Cell proliferative angiogenesis, migration, and apoptosis were assessed by Cell Counting Kit-8, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine, colony formation, tube formation, wound healing, transwell, and flow cytometry assays. B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2-related X protein (Bax), cleaved caspase-3, and FKBP5 protein levels were determined by western blot assay. The binding relationship between miR-214-3p and circ_0007865 or FKBP5 was predicted by StarBase, and verified by a dual-luciferase reporter, RNA pull-down assay.

RESULTS

Circ_0007865 and FKBP5 were increased, and miR-214-3p was decreased in OGD-treated HBMECs. Furthermore, the silencing of circ_0007865 could promote cell proliferative angiogenesis, migration, and inhibit apoptosis in OGD-triggered HBMECs in vitro. Mechanically, circ_0007865 acted as a sponge of miR-214-3p to regulate FKBP5.

CONCLUSION

According to these results, circ_0007865 deficiency could attenuate OGD-induced HBMEC damage by modulating the miR-214-3p/FKBP5 axis, hinting at a promising therapeutic target for future acute IS therapy.

Pyroptosis, and its Role in Central Nervous System Disease

Pyroptosis is an inflammatory form of cell death executed by transmembrane pore-forming proteins known as gasdermins and can be activated in an inflammasome-dependent or -independent manner. Inflammasome-dependent pyroptosis is triggered in response to pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and has emerged as an important player in the pathogenesis of multiple inflammatory diseases, mainly by releasing inflammatory contents. More recently, numerous studies have revealed the intricate mechanisms of pyroptosis and its role in the development of neuroinflammation in central nervous system (CNS) diseases. In this review, we summarize current understandings of the molecular and regulatory mechanisms of pyroptosis. In addition, we discuss how pyroptosis can drive different forms of neurological diseases and new promising therapeutic strategies targeting pyroptosis that can be leveraged to treat neuroinflammation.

Chinese Herbal Preparation SaiLuoTong Alleviates Brain Ischemia via Nrf2 Antioxidation Pathway-Dependent Cerebral Microvascular Protection

Stroke is one of the most devastating diseases worldwide. The Chinese herbal preparation SaiLuoTong (SLT) capsule showed outstanding therapeutic effects on stroke and its sequelae. The aim of this study was to further elucidate its therapeutic mechanism. We duplicated a permanent cerebral ischemia model in rats by MCAO and used SLT (33 and 16.5 mg/kg) to intervene. The results showed SLT dose dependently decreased infarction volumes, relieved neuron degeneration and loss, and ameliorated neurological functions, and the dose of 33 mg/kg had statistical significance (compared with the model group, p < 0.05); SLT of 33 mg/kg also significantly inhibited the elevation in brain water content and the loss in claudin-1 and occludin expressions; additionally, it significantly increased nucleus translocation of Nrf2, elevated the expression of HO-1, and raised the activity of SOD and content of GSH (compared with the model group, p < 0.05 or 0.01). These results testified SLT’s anti-brain ischemia effect and hint this effect may be related to the protection of brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) that is dependent on the Nrf2 pathway. To further testify, we cultured hCMEC/D3 cells, duplicated OGD/R model to simulate ischemia, and used SLT (3.125, 6.25, and 12.5 mg/L) to treat. SLT dose dependently and significantly inhibited the drop in cell viabilities, and activated the Nrf2 pathway by facilitating Nrf2 nucleus translocation, and increasing HO-1 expression, SOD activity, and GSH content (compared with the model group, p < 0.05 or 0.01); last, the anti-OGD/R effects of SLT, including raising cell viabilities, inhibiting the elevation in dextran permeability, and preserving expressions of claudin-1 and occludin, were all abolished by Nrf2 siRNA interference. The in vitro experiment undoubtedly confirmed the direct protective effect of SLT on BMECs and the obligatory role of the Nrf2 pathway in it. Collectively, data of this study suggest that SLT’s therapeutic effect on brain ischemia is related to its Nrf2-dependent BMECs protection.

Dexmedetomidine maintains blood-brain barrier integrity by inhibiting Drp1-related endothelial mitochondrial dysfunction in ischemic stroke

Stroke is the second leading cause of death and long-term disability worldwide, which lacks effective treatment. Perioperative stroke is associated with much higher rates of mortality and disability. The neuroprotective role of dexmedetomidine (Dex), a highly selective agonist of alpha2-adrenergic receptor, has been reported in a stroke rat model, and it was found that pretreatment of Dex before stroke could alleviate blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. As the brain endothelial cells are the main constituents of BBB and in high demand of energy, mitochondrial function of endothelial cells plays an important role in the maintenance of BBB. Given that dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) is a protein mediating mitochondrial fission, with mitochondrial fusion that balances mitochondrial morphology and ensures mitochondria function, the present study was designed to investigate the possible role of Drp1 in endothelial cells involved in the neuroprotective effects of Dex in ischemic stroke. Our results showed that preconditioning with Dex reduced infarction volume, alleviated brain water content and BBB damage, and improved neurological scores in middle cerebral artery occlusion rats. Meanwhile, Dex enhanced cell activity and decreased cell apoptosis in oxygen-glucose deprivation human brain microvascular endothelial cells in vitro. These protective effects of Dex were correlated with the mitochondrial morphology integrality of endothelial cells, mediated by increased phosphorylation of serine 637 in Drp1, and could be reversed by α2-adrenergic receptor antagonist Yohimbine and AMP-activated protein kinase inhibitor Compound C. These findings suggest new molecular pathways involved in the neuroprotective effects of Dex in ischemic stroke. As Dex is routinely used as a sedative drug clinically, our findings provide molecular evidence that it has perioperative neuroprotection from ischemic stroke.

The Role of NLRP3 Inflammasome in Cerebrovascular Diseases Pathology and Possible Therapeutic Targets

Cerebrovascular diseases are pathological conditions involving impaired blood flow in the brain, primarily including ischaemic stroke, intracranial haemorrhage, and subarachnoid haemorrhage. The nucleotide-binding and oligomerisation (NOD) domain-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain (PYD)-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome is a protein complex and a vital component of the immune system. Emerging evidence has indicated that the NLRP3 inflammasome plays an important role in cerebrovascular diseases. The function of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of cerebrovascular diseases remains an interesting field of research. In this review, we first summarised the pathological mechanism of cerebrovascular diseases and the pathological mechanism of the NLRP3 inflammasome in aggravating atherosclerosis and cerebrovascular diseases. Second, we outlined signalling pathways through which the NLRP3 inflammasome participates in aggravating or mitigating cerebrovascular diseases. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)/nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), ROS/thioredoxin-interacting protein (TXNIP) and purinergic receptor-7 (P2X7R) signalling pathways can activate the NLRP3 inflammasome; activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome can aggravate cerebrovascular diseases by mediating apoptosis and pyroptosis. Autophagy/mitochondrial autophagy, nuclear factor E2-related factor-2 (Nrf2), interferon (IFN)-β, sirtuin (SIRT), and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) reportedly alleviate cerebrovascular diseases by inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Finally, we explored specific inhibitors of the NLRP3 inflammasome based on the two-step activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, which can be developed as new drugs to treat cerebrovascular diseases.