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Liu H, Han D, Hu J, Ren L, Tang Y. Biomechanical functions analysis of the Mallard webbed foot: A study of macroscopic and microscopic material assembly and tendon morphology. Micron 2024; 183:103648. [PMID: 38723296 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2024.103648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
The mallard webbed foot represents an exemplary model of biomechanical efficiency in avian locomotion. This study delves into the intricate material assembly and tendon morphology of the mallard webbed foot, employing both macroscopic and microscopic analyses. Through histological slices and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), we scrutinized the coupling assembly of rigid and flexible materials such as skin, tendon, and bone, while elucidating the biomechanical functions of tendons across various segments of the tarsometatarsophalangeal joint (TMTPJ). The histological examination unveiled a complex structural hierarchy extending from the external integument to the skeletal framework. Notably, the bone architecture, characterized by compact bone and honeycombed trabeculae, showcases a harmonious blend of strength and lightweight design. Tendons, traversing the phalangeal periphery, surrounded by elastic fibers, collagen fibers, and fat tissue. Fat chambers beneath the phalanx, filled with adipocytes, provide effective buffering, enabling the phalanx to withstand gravity, provide support, and facilitate locomotion. Furthermore, SEM analysis provided insights into the intricate morphology and arrangement of collagen fiber bundles within tendons. Flexor tendons in proximal and middle TMTPJ segments adopt a wavy-type, facilitating energy storage and release during weight-bearing activities. In contrast, distal TMTPJ flexor tendons assume a linear-type, emphasizing force transmission across phalangeal interfaces. Similarly, extensor tendons demonstrate segment-specific arrangements tailored to their respective biomechanical roles, with wavy-type in proximal and distal segments for energy modulation and linear-type in middle segments for enhanced force transmission and tear resistance. Overall, our findings offer a comprehensive understanding of the mallard webbed foot's biomechanical prowess, underscoring the symbiotic relationship between material composition, tendon morphology, and locomotor functionality. This study not only enriches our knowledge of avian biomechanics but also provides valuable insights for biomimetic design and tissue engineering endeavors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hairui Liu
- School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dianlei Han
- School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Jinrui Hu
- School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lizhi Ren
- School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yu Tang
- School of Agricultural Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, China
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2
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Nishiyama N, Masuda T, Nakagawa J, Terami K, Nakaura T. Optimization of wrist tendon detection in virtual monochromatic images using dual energy-computed tomography. Jpn J Radiol 2023; 41:1397-1404. [PMID: 37460747 DOI: 10.1007/s11604-023-01467-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To evaluate the depiction of wrist tendons in virtual monochromatic images (VMIs) during a dual-energy CT (DE-CT) with the VMI image of conventional equivalent to 120 kVp. MATERIALS AND METHODS Using Catphan600 and phantom analysis software for CT evaluation, measurements of VMI in a DE-CT were performed corresponding to the tube voltages of single-energy CT at 120 kVp. Using a Discovery CT750 HD CT scanner (GE Healthcare) with DE-CT technology, 73 patients were scanned. We calculated the CT number, image noise, visual score, and contrast noise ratio (CNR) at the extensor pollicis tendon, extensor digitorum tendon, and flexor tendon in 11 VMIs from the DE-CT and VMI image of conventional equivalent to 120 kVp. The results from the optimal VMIs were then compared with that of the VMI image of the conventional equivalent to 120 kVp. RESULTS The highest CT number and CNR for the tendon were for the 140 keV VMI in the DE-CT compared to the other energy levels. There were significantly higher CT numbers, CNR values, and visual scores for each tendon at 140 keV VMI with the DE-CT (p < 0.01) compared with a VMI image of conventional equivalent to 120 kVp. CONCLUSION Energy level of the VMIs during DE-CT for the best wrist tendon delineation was 140 keV. This value of 140 keV for the DE-CT was significantly higher than the CT number and CNR for the extensor pollicis, extensor digitorum, and flexor tendon compared with a VMI image of conventional equivalent to 120 kVp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norimi Nishiyama
- Department of Radiological Technologist, Okayama Saiseikai General Hospital, 2-25, Kokutai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama, 700-8511, Japan
| | - Takanori Masuda
- Department of Radiological Technology, Faculty of Health Science and Technology, Kawasaki University of Medical Welfare, 288 Matsushima, Kurashiki, Okayama, 701-0193, Japan.
| | - Junnichi Nakagawa
- Department of Radiological Technologist, Okayama Saiseikai General Hospital, 2-25, Kokutai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama, 700-8511, Japan
| | - Keisuke Terami
- Department of Radiological Technologist, Okayama Saiseikai General Hospital, 2-25, Kokutai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama, 700-8511, Japan
| | - Takeshi Nakaura
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kumamoto University, 1-1-1 Honjo, Kumamoto, 860-8556, Japan
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3
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Gomez-Florit M, Labrador-Rached CJ, Domingues RM, Gomes ME. The tendon microenvironment: Engineered in vitro models to study cellular crosstalk. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 185:114299. [PMID: 35436570 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tendinopathy is a multi-faceted pathology characterized by alterations in tendon microstructure, cellularity and collagen composition. Challenged by the possibility of regenerating pathological or ruptured tendons, the healing mechanisms of this tissue have been widely researched over the past decades. However, so far, most of the cellular players and processes influencing tendon repair remain unknown, which emphasizes the need for developing relevant in vitro models enabling to study the complex multicellular crosstalk occurring in tendon microenvironments. In this review, we critically discuss the insights on the interaction between tenocytes and the other tendon resident cells that have been devised through different types of existing in vitro models. Building on the generated knowledge, we stress the need for advanced models able to mimic the hierarchical architecture, cellularity and physiological signaling of tendon niche under dynamic culture conditions, along with the recreation of the integrated gradients of its tissue interfaces. In a forward-looking vision of the field, we discuss how the convergence of multiple bioengineering technologies can be leveraged as potential platforms to develop the next generation of relevant in vitro models that can contribute for a deeper fundamental knowledge to develop more effective treatments.
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4
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Eisner LE, Rosario R, Andarawis-Puri N, Arruda EM. The Role of the Non-Collagenous Extracellular Matrix in Tendon and Ligament Mechanical Behavior: A Review. J Biomech Eng 2022; 144:1128818. [PMID: 34802057 PMCID: PMC8719050 DOI: 10.1115/1.4053086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tendon is a connective tissue that transmits loads from muscle to bone, while ligament is a similar tissue that stabilizes joint articulation by connecting bone to bone. The 70-90% of tendon and ligament's extracellular matrix (ECM) is composed of a hierarchical collagen structure that provides resistance to deformation primarily in the fiber direction, and the remaining fraction consists of a variety of non-collagenous proteins, proteoglycans, and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) whose mechanical roles are not well characterized. ECM constituents such as elastin, the proteoglycans decorin, biglycan, lumican, fibromodulin, lubricin, and aggrecan and their associated GAGs, and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) have been suggested to contribute to tendon and ligament's characteristic quasi-static and viscoelastic mechanical behavior in tension, shear, and compression. The purpose of this review is to summarize existing literature regarding the contribution of the non-collagenous ECM to tendon and ligament mechanics, and to highlight key gaps in knowledge that future studies may address. Using insights from theoretical mechanics and biology, we discuss the role of the non-collagenous ECM in quasi-static and viscoelastic tensile, compressive, and shear behavior in the fiber direction and orthogonal to the fiber direction. We also address the efficacy of tools that are commonly used to assess these relationships, including enzymatic degradation, mouse knockout models, and computational models. Further work in this field will foster a better understanding of tendon and ligament damage and healing as well as inform strategies for tissue repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lainie E Eisner
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Ryan Rosario
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
| | - Nelly Andarawis-Puri
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Ellen M Arruda
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; Professor Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; Professor Program in Macromolecular Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109
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5
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Eekhoff JD, Abraham JA, Schott HR, Solon LF, Ulloa GE, Zellers JA, Cannon PC, Lake SP. Fascicular elastin within tendon contributes to the magnitude and modulus gradient of the elastic stress response across tendon type and species. Acta Biomater 2022; 163:91-105. [PMID: 35306182 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Elastin, the main component of elastic fibers, has been demonstrated to significantly influence tendon mechanics using both elastin degradation studies and elastinopathic mouse models. However, it remains unclear how prior results differ between species and functionally distinct tendons and, in particular, how results translate to human tendon. Differences in function between fascicular and interfascicular elastin are also yet to be fully elucidated. Therefore, this study evaluated the quantity, structure, and mechanical contribution of elastin in functionally distinct tendons across species. Tendons with an energy-storing function had slightly more elastin content than tendons with a positional function, and human tendon had at least twice the elastin content of other species. While distinctions in the organization of elastic fibers between fascicles and the interfascicular matrix were observed, differences in structural arrangement of the elastin network between species and tendon type were limited. Mechanical testing paired with enzyme-induced elastin degradation was used to evaluate the contribution of elastin to tendon mechanics. Across all tendons, elastin degradation affected the elastic stress response by decreasing stress values while increasing the modulus gradient of the stress-strain curve. Only the contributions of elastin to viscoelastic properties varied between tendon type and species, with human tendon and energy-storing tendon being more affected. These data suggest that fascicular elastic fibers contribute to the tensile mechanical response of tendon, likely by regulating collagen engagement under load. Results add to prior findings and provide evidence for a more mechanistic understanding of the role of elastic fibers in tendon. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Elastin has previously been shown to influence the mechanical properties of tendon, and degraded or abnormal elastin networks caused by aging or disease may contribute to pain and an increased risk of injury. However, prior work has not fully determined how elastin contributes differently to tendons with varying functional demands, as well as within distinct regions of tendon. This study determined the effects of elastin degradation on the tensile elastic and viscoelastic responses of tendons with varying functional demands, hierarchical structures, and elastin content. Moreover, volumetric imaging and protein quantification were used to thoroughly characterize the elastin network in each distinct tendon. The results presented herein can inform tendon-specific strategies to maintain or restore native properties in elastin-degraded tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy D Eekhoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, MSC: 1185-208-125, St. Louis, MO 63130, United States
| | - James A Abraham
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, United States
| | - Hayden R Schott
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, United States
| | - Lorenzo F Solon
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, United States
| | - Gabriella E Ulloa
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, United States
| | - Jennifer A Zellers
- Department of Physical Therapy, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, United States
| | - Paul C Cannon
- Department of Mathematics, Brigham Young University - Idaho, United States
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, MSC: 1185-208-125, St. Louis, MO 63130, United States; Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis School of Medicine, , United States.
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6
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Atta G, Tempfer H, Kaser-Eichberger A, Traweger A, Heindl LM, Schroedl F. Is the human sclera a tendon-like tissue? A structural and functional comparison. Ann Anat 2021; 240:151858. [PMID: 34798297 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2021.151858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Collagen rich connective tissues fulfill a variety of important functions throughout the human body, most of which having to resist mechanical challenges. This review aims to compare structural and functional aspects of tendons and sclera, two tissues with distinct location and function, but with striking similarities regarding their cellular content, their extracellular matrix and their low degree of vascularization. The description of these similarities meant to provide potential novel insight for both the fields of orthopedic research and ophthalmology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghada Atta
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Institute for Tendon and Bone Regeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herbert Tempfer
- Institute for Tendon and Bone Regeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Strubergasse 21, 5020 Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andreas Traweger
- Institute for Tendon and Bone Regeneration, Spinal Cord Injury and Tissue Regeneration Center Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ludwig M Heindl
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Cologne, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany; Center for Integrated Oncology (CIO) Aachen - Bonn - Cologne - Düsseldorf, Cologne, Germany
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Strubergasse 21, 5020 Salzburg, Austria.
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7
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Zhang S, Ju W, Chen X, Zhao Y, Feng L, Yin Z, Chen X. Hierarchical ultrastructure: An overview of what is known about tendons and future perspective for tendon engineering. Bioact Mater 2021; 8:124-139. [PMID: 34541391 PMCID: PMC8424392 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal tendons are rarely ever repaired to the natural structure and morphology of normal tendons. To better guide the repair and regeneration of injured tendons through a tissue engineering method, it is necessary to have insights into the internal morphology, organization, and composition of natural tendons. This review summarized recent researches on the structure and function of the extracellular matrix (ECM) components of tendons and highlight the application of multiple detection methodologies concerning the structure of ECMs. In addition, we look forward to the future of multi-dimensional biomaterial design methods and the potential of structural repair for tendon ECM components. In addition, focus is placed on the macro to micro detection methods for tendons, and current techniques for evaluating the extracellular matrix of tendons at the micro level are introduced in detail. Finally, emphasis is given to future extracellular matrix detection methods, as well as to how future efforts could concentrate on fabricating the biomimetic tendons. Summarize recent research on the structure and function of the extracellular matrix (ECM) components of tendons. Comments on current research methods concerning the structure of ECMs. Perspective on the future of multi-dimensional detection techniques and structural repair of tendon ECM components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shichen Zhang
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Department of Orthopedic Surgery of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310052, China.,Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Wei Ju
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xiaoyi Chen
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine, Guangxi-ASEAN Collaborative Innovation Center for Major Disease Prevention and Treatment, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Yanyan Zhao
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Department of Orthopedic Surgery of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310052, China.,Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Lingchong Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, Zhejiang, China
| | - Zi Yin
- Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Regenerative Medicine and Department of Orthopedic Surgery of Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,Department of Sports Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,China Orthopedic Regenerative Medicine Group (CORMed), Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Dr. Li Dak Sum & Yip Yio Chin Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine and Department of Orthopedic Surgery of the Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310052, China.,Key Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of Regenerative Medicine, Guangxi-ASEAN Collaborative Innovation Center for Major Disease Prevention and Treatment, Guangxi Medical University, Guangxi, 530021, China.,Department of Sports Medicine, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.,China Orthopedic Regenerative Medicine Group (CORMed), Hangzhou, 310058, China
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8
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Godinho MS, Thorpe CT, Greenwald SE, Screen HR. Elastase treatment of tendon specifically impacts the mechanical properties of the interfascicular matrix. Acta Biomater 2021; 123:187-196. [PMID: 33508509 PMCID: PMC7935645 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The tendon interfascicular matrix (IFM) binds tendon fascicles together. As a result of its low stiffness behaviour under small loads, it enables non-uniform loading and increased overall extensibility of tendon by facilitating fascicle sliding. This function is particularly important in energy storing tendons, with previous studies demonstrating enhanced extensibility, recovery and fatigue resistance in the IFM of energy storing compared to positional tendons. However, the compositional specialisations within the IFM that confer this behaviour remain to be elucidated. It is well established that the IFM is rich in elastin, therefore we sought to test the hypothesis that elastin depletion (following elastase treatment) will significantly impact IFM, but not fascicle, mechanical properties, reducing IFM resilience in all samples, but to a greater extent in younger tendons, which have a higher elastin content. Using a combination of quasi-static and fatigue testing, and optical imaging, we confirmed our hypothesis, demonstrating that elastin depletion resulted in significant decreases in IFM viscoelasticity, fatigue resistance and recoverability compared to untreated samples, with no significant changes to fascicle mechanics. Ageing had little effect on fascicle or IFM response to elastase treatment. This study offers a first insight into the functional importance of elastin in regional specific tendon mechanics. It highlights the important contribution of elastin to IFM mechanical properties, demonstrating that maintenance of a functional elastin network within the IFM is essential to maintain IFM and thus tendon integrity. Statement of significance Developing effective treatments or preventative measures for musculoskeletal tissue injuries necessitates the understanding of healthy tissue function and mechanics. By establishing the contribution of specific proteins to tissue mechanical behaviour, key targets for therapeutics can be identified. Tendon injury is increasingly prevalent and chronically debilitating, with no effective treatments available. Here, we investigate how elastin modulates tendon mechanical behaviour, using enzymatic digestion combined with local mechanical characterisation, and demonstrate for the first time that removing elastin from tendon affects the mechanical properties of the interfascicular matrix specifically, resulting in decreased recoverability and fatigue resistance. These findings provide a new level of insight into tendon hierarchical mechanics, important for directing development of novel therapeutics for tendon injury.
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9
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Liu J, Yang F, Gao P, Yu D, Yu P, Jiang Q, Xu Y, Xia W. The impact of crucial protein degradation in intramuscular connective tissue on softening of ice‐stored grass carp (
Ctenopharyngodon idella
) fillets. Int J Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.14979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jixuan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Fang Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Pei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Dawei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Peipei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Qixing Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Yanshun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
| | - Wenshui Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology School of Food Science and Technology Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province Jiangnan University Wuxi Jiangsu214122China
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10
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Comparative Analysis of Tenogenic Gene Expression in Tenocyte-Derived Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Response to Biochemical and Biomechanical Stimuli. Stem Cells Int 2021; 2021:8835576. [PMID: 33510795 PMCID: PMC7825360 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8835576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The tendon is highly prone to injury, overuse, or age-related degeneration in both humans and horses. Natural healing of injured tendon is poor, and cell-based therapeutic treatment is still a significant clinical challenge. In this study, we extensively investigated the expression of tenogenic genes in equine bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and tenocyte-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (teno-iPSCs) stimulated by growth factors (TGF-β3 and BMP12) combined with ectopic expression of tenogenic transcription factor MKX or cyclic uniaxial mechanical stretch. Western blotting revealed that TGF-β3 and BMP12 increased the expression of transcription factors SCX and MKX in both cells, but the tenocyte marker tenomodulin (TNMD) was detected only in BMSCs and upregulated by either inducer. On the other hand, quantitative real-time PCR showed that TGF-β3 increased the expression of EGR1, COL1A2, FMOD, and TNC in BMSCs and SCX, COL1A2, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs. BMP12 treatment elevated SCX, MKX, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs. Overexpression of MKX increased SCX, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in BMSCs and EGR1, COL1A2, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs; TGF-β3 further enhanced TNC in BMSCs. Moreover, mechanical stretch increased SCX, EGR1, DCN, ELN, and TNC in BMSCs and SCX, MKX, EGR1, COL1A2, DCN, FMOD, and TNC in teno-iPSCs; TGF-β3 tended to further elevate SCX, ELN, and TNC in BMSCs and SCX, MKX, COL1A2, DCN, and TNC in teno-iPSCs, while BMP12 further uptrended the expression of SCX and DCN in BMSCs and DCN in teno-iPSCs. Additionally, the aforementioned tenogenic inducers also affected the expression of signaling regulators SMAD7, ETV4, and SIRT1 in BMSCs and teno-iPSCs. Taken together, our data demonstrate that, in respect to the tenocyte-lineage-specific gene expression, BMSCs and teno-iPSCs respond differently to the tenogenic stimuli, which may affect the outcome of their application in tendon repair or regeneration.
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11
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Eekhoff JD, Steenbock H, Berke IM, Brinckmann J, Yanagisawa H, Wagenseil JE, Lake SP. Dysregulated assembly of elastic fibers in fibulin-5 knockout mice results in a tendon-specific increase in elastic modulus. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 113:104134. [PMID: 33045519 PMCID: PMC8146012 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.104134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Elastic fiber assembly is coordinated in part by fibulin-5, a matricellular protein. When fibulin-5 is not available to guide elastogenesis, elastin forms into disconnected globules instead of the dense elastic fiber core found in healthy tissues. Despite the growing evidence for a significant role of elastic fibers in tendon mechanics and the clinical relevance to cutis laxa, a human disease which can be caused by a mutation in the gene encoding fibulin-5, it is unknown how malformed elastic fibers affect tendon function. Therefore, this study investigated the effects of dysregulated elastic fiber assembly in tendons from fibulin-5 knockout mice in comparison to wild-type controls. Due to evidence for a more prominent role of elastic fibers in tendons with higher functional demands, both the energy-storing Achilles tendon and the more positional tibialis anterior tendon were evaluated. The linear modulus of knockout Achilles tendons was increased compared to controls, yet there was no discernible change in mechanical properties of the tibialis anterior tendon across genotypes. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed the presence of malformed elastic fibers in knockout tendons while no other changes to tendon composition or structure were found. The mechanism behind the increase in linear modulus in fibulin-5 knockout Achilles tendons may be greater collagen engagement due to decreased regulation of strain-induced structural reorganization. These findings support the theory of a significant, functionally distinct role of elastic fibers in tendon mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy D Eekhoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, USA
| | - Heiko Steenbock
- Institute of Virology and Cell Biology, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Ian M Berke
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, USA
| | - Jürgen Brinckmann
- Institute of Virology and Cell Biology, University of Lübeck, Germany; Department of Dermatology, University of Lübeck, Germany
| | - Hiromi Yanagisawa
- Life Science Center for Survival Dynamics, Tsukuba Advanced Research Alliance, University of Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Jessica E Wagenseil
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, USA
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, USA.
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12
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Narayanan N, Calve S. Extracellular matrix at the muscle - tendon interface: functional roles, techniques to explore and implications for regenerative medicine. Connect Tissue Res 2021; 62:53-71. [PMID: 32856502 PMCID: PMC7718290 DOI: 10.1080/03008207.2020.1814263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The muscle-tendon interface is an anatomically specialized region that is involved in the efficient transmission of force from muscle to tendon. Due to constant exposure to loading, the interface is susceptible to injury. Current treatment methods do not meet the socioeconomic demands of reduced recovery time without compromising the risk of reinjury, requiring the need for developing alternative strategies. The extracellular matrix (ECM) present in muscle, tendon, and at the interface of these tissues consists of unique molecules that play significant roles in homeostasis and repair. Better, understanding the function of the ECM during development, injury, and aging has the potential to unearth critical missing information that is essential for accelerating the repair at the muscle-tendon interface. Recently, advanced techniques have emerged to explore the ECM for identifying specific roles in musculoskeletal biology. Simultaneously, there is a tremendous increase in the scope for regenerative medicine strategies to address the current clinical deficiencies. Advancements in ECM research can be coupled with the latest regenerative medicine techniques to develop next generation therapies that harness ECM for treating defects at the muscle-tendon interface. The current work provides a comprehensive review on the role of muscle and tendon ECM to provide insights about the role of ECM in the muscle-tendon interface and discusses the latest research techniques to explore the ECM to gathered information for developing regenerative medicine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naagarajan Narayanan
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado – Boulder, 1111 Engineering Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309 – 0427
| | - Sarah Calve
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado – Boulder, 1111 Engineering Drive, Boulder, Colorado 80309 – 0427
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13
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Hill JR, Eekhoff JD, Brophy RH, Lake SP. Elastic fibers in orthopedics: Form and function in tendons and ligaments, clinical implications, and future directions. J Orthop Res 2020; 38:2305-2317. [PMID: 32293749 PMCID: PMC7572591 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 03/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Elastic fibers are an essential component of the extracellular matrix of connective tissues. The focus of both clinical management and scientific investigation of elastic fiber disorders has centered on the cardiovascular manifestations due to their significant impact on morbidity and mortality. As such, the current understanding of the orthopedic conditions experienced by these patients is limited. The musculoskeletal implications of more subtle elastic fiber abnormalities, whether due to allelic variants or age-related tissue degeneration, are also not well understood. Recent advances have begun to uncover the effects of elastic fiber deficiency on tendon and ligament biomechanics; future research must further elucidate mechanisms governing the role of elastic fibers in these tissues. The identification of population-based genetic variations in elastic fibers will also be essential. Minoxidil administration, modulation of protein expression with micro-RNA molecules, and direct injection of recombinant elastic fiber precursors have demonstrated promise for therapeutic intervention, but further work is required prior to consideration for orthopedic clinical application. This review provides an overview of the role of elastic fibers in musculoskeletal tissue, summarizes current knowledge of the orthopedic manifestations of elastic fiber abnormalities, and identifies opportunities for future investigation and clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Ryan Hill
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, 425 S. Euclid Avenue, Suite 5505, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Jeremy D. Eekhoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Robert H. Brophy
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, 425 S. Euclid Avenue, Suite 5505, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Spencer P. Lake
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130,Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
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14
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Citeroni MR, Ciardulli MC, Russo V, Della Porta G, Mauro A, El Khatib M, Di Mattia M, Galesso D, Barbera C, Forsyth NR, Maffulli N, Barboni B. In Vitro Innovation of Tendon Tissue Engineering Strategies. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6726. [PMID: 32937830 PMCID: PMC7555358 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 09/06/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendinopathy is the term used to refer to tendon disorders. Spontaneous adult tendon healing results in scar tissue formation and fibrosis with suboptimal biomechanical properties, often resulting in poor and painful mobility. The biomechanical properties of the tissue are negatively affected. Adult tendons have a limited natural healing capacity, and often respond poorly to current treatments that frequently are focused on exercise, drug delivery, and surgical procedures. Therefore, it is of great importance to identify key molecular and cellular processes involved in the progression of tendinopathies to develop effective therapeutic strategies and drive the tissue toward regeneration. To treat tendon diseases and support tendon regeneration, cell-based therapy as well as tissue engineering approaches are considered options, though none can yet be considered conclusive in their reproduction of a safe and successful long-term solution for full microarchitecture and biomechanical tissue recovery. In vitro differentiation techniques are not yet fully validated. This review aims to compare different available tendon in vitro differentiation strategies to clarify the state of art regarding the differentiation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rita Citeroni
- Unit of Basic and Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (V.R.); (A.M.); (M.E.K.); (M.D.M.); (B.B.)
| | - Maria Camilla Ciardulli
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi (SA), Italy; (M.C.C.); (G.D.P.); (N.M.)
| | - Valentina Russo
- Unit of Basic and Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (V.R.); (A.M.); (M.E.K.); (M.D.M.); (B.B.)
| | - Giovanna Della Porta
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi (SA), Italy; (M.C.C.); (G.D.P.); (N.M.)
- Interdepartment Centre BIONAM, Università di Salerno, via Giovanni Paolo I, 84084 Fisciano (SA), Italy
| | - Annunziata Mauro
- Unit of Basic and Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (V.R.); (A.M.); (M.E.K.); (M.D.M.); (B.B.)
| | - Mohammad El Khatib
- Unit of Basic and Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (V.R.); (A.M.); (M.E.K.); (M.D.M.); (B.B.)
| | - Miriam Di Mattia
- Unit of Basic and Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (V.R.); (A.M.); (M.E.K.); (M.D.M.); (B.B.)
| | - Devis Galesso
- Fidia Farmaceutici S.p.A., via Ponte della Fabbrica 3/A, 35031 Abano Terme (PD), Italy; (D.G.); (C.B.)
| | - Carlo Barbera
- Fidia Farmaceutici S.p.A., via Ponte della Fabbrica 3/A, 35031 Abano Terme (PD), Italy; (D.G.); (C.B.)
| | - Nicholas R. Forsyth
- Guy Hilton Research Centre, School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Thornburrow Drive, Stoke on Trent ST4 7QB, UK;
| | - Nicola Maffulli
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Via S. Allende, 84081 Baronissi (SA), Italy; (M.C.C.); (G.D.P.); (N.M.)
- Department of Musculoskeletal Disorders, Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Salerno, Via San Leonardo 1, 84131 Salerno, Italy
- Centre for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Mile End Hospital, Queen Mary University of London, 275 Bancroft Road, London E1 4DG, UK
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University School of Medicine, Thornburrow Drive, Stoke on Trent ST5 5BG, UK
| | - Barbara Barboni
- Unit of Basic and Applied Biosciences, Faculty of Bioscience and Agro-Food and Environmental Technology, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (V.R.); (A.M.); (M.E.K.); (M.D.M.); (B.B.)
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15
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Jacobson KR, Lipp S, Acuna A, Leng Y, Bu Y, Calve S. Comparative Analysis of the Extracellular Matrix Proteome across the Myotendinous Junction. J Proteome Res 2020; 19:3955-3967. [PMID: 32830507 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.0c00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The myotendinous junction is a highly interdigitated interface designed to transfer muscle-generated force to tendon. Understanding how this interface is formed and organized, as well as identifying tendon- and muscle-specific extracellular matrix (ECM), is critical for designing effective regenerative therapies to restore functionality to damaged muscle-tendon units. However, a comparative analysis of the ECM proteome across this interface has not been conducted. The goal of this study was to resolve the distribution of ECM proteins that are uniformly expressed as well as those specific to each of the muscle, tendon, and junction tissues. The soleus muscles from 5-month-old wild-type C57BL/6 mice were harvested and dissected into the central muscle (M) away from tendon, the junction between muscle and tendon (J) and the tendon (T). Tissues were processed by either homogenizing in guanidine hydrochloride or fractionating to isolate the ECM from more soluble intracellular components and then analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Overall, we found that both tissue processing methods generated similar ECM profiles. Many ECM were found across the muscle-tendon unit, including type I collagen and associated fibril-regulating proteins. The ECM identified exclusively in M were primarily related to the basal lamina, whereas those specific to T and J tissue included thrombospondins and other matricellular ECM. Type XXII collagen (COL22A1) was restricted to J, and we identified COL5A3 as a potential marker of the muscle-tendon interface. Immunohistochemical analysis of key proteins confirmed the restriction of some basal lamina proteins to M, tenascin-C to T, and COL22A1 to J. COL5A3, PRELP, and POSTN were visualized in the tissue surrounding the junction, suggesting that these proteins play a role in stabilizing the interface. This comparative map provides a guide for tissue-specific ECM that can facilitate the spatial visualization of M, J, and T tissues and inform musculoskeletal regenerative therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn R Jacobson
- Purdue University Interdisciplinary Life Science Program, 155 S. Grant Street, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Sarah Lipp
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 206 South Martin Jischke Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Andrea Acuna
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 206 South Martin Jischke Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Yue Leng
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 206 South Martin Jischke Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Ye Bu
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 206 South Martin Jischke Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Sarah Calve
- Purdue University Interdisciplinary Life Science Program, 155 S. Grant Street, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States.,Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 206 South Martin Jischke Drive, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States.,Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado-Boulder, 1111 Engineering Center, 427 UCB, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
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16
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Gains CC, Correia JC, Baan GC, Noort W, Screen HRC, Maas H. Force Transmission Between the Gastrocnemius and Soleus Sub-Tendons of the Achilles Tendon in Rat. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:700. [PMID: 32766214 PMCID: PMC7379440 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The Achilles tendon (AT) is comprised of three distinct sub-tendons bound together by the inter-subtendon matrix (ISTM). The interactions between sub-tendons will have important implications for AT function. The aim of this study was to investigate the extent to which the ISTM facilitates relative sliding between sub-tendons, and serves as a pathway for force transmission between the gastrocnemius (GAS) and soleus (SOL) sub-tendons of the rat AT. In this study, ATs were harvested from Wistar rats, and the mechanical behavior and composition of the ISTM were explored. To determine force transmission between sub-tendons, the proximal and distal ends of the GAS and SOL sub-tendons were secured, and the forces at each of these locations were measured during proximal loading of the GAS. To determine the ISTM mechanical behavior, only the proximal GAS and distal SOL were secured, and the ISTM was loaded in shear. Finally, for compositional analysis, histological examination assessed the distribution of matrix proteins throughout sub-tendons and the ISTM. The results revealed distinct differences between the forces at the proximal and distal ends of both sub-tendons when proximal loading was applied to the GAS, indicating force transmission between GAS and SOL sub-tendons. Inter-subtendon matrix tests demonstrated an extended initial low stiffness toe region to enable some sub-tendon sliding, coupled with high stiffness linear region such that force transmission between sub-tendons is ensured. Histological data demonstrate an enrichment of collagen III, elastin, lubricin and hyaluronic acid in the ISTM. We conclude that ISTM composition and mechanical behavior are specialized to allow some independent sub-tendon movement, whilst still ensuring capacity for force transmission between the sub-tendons of the AT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connor C Gains
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Janaina C Correia
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Guus C Baan
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wendy Noort
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hazel R C Screen
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Huub Maas
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Faculty of Behavioural and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
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17
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Wu YT, Wu YT, Huang TC, Su FC, Jou IM, Wu CC. Sequential inflammation model for Achilles tendinopathy by elastin degradation with treadmill exercise. J Orthop Translat 2020; 23:113-121. [PMID: 32642426 PMCID: PMC7322491 DOI: 10.1016/j.jot.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objective Tendinopathy is a tendon disease with abnormal mechanical loading to induce chronic repetitive injury. However, lack of a comparable animal model to demonstrate clinical progressions has hindered the understanding of anatomical and pathological changes. The major extracellular matrix (ECM) in the tendon consists of abundant type I collagen (COL) and minimal amount of elastin (ELN). Methods To study the ECM breakdown and inflammation, rat Achilles tendon was harvested and ex vivo incubated with specific enzymes of elastase (ELNase) or collagenase (COLase). Results The ELNase broke down ELN, loosened the tendon structure, and increased the COL composition. Increases in cyclooxygenase-2 expression levels in tenocytes were revealed to induce inflammation with either ELNase or COLase. However, incubation of COLase for 12 hours severely digested the tendon. To create a proper ELN degradation in rats, the present study used high-frequency ultrasound to guide the injection of ELNase at the paratendon tissue of the Achilles tendon. The effect of mechanically triggered inflammatory responses was investigated by applying treadmill exercise (15 m/min for 20 min per day). After ELNase injection for 14 and 28 days, a significant loss of ELN was observed, and exercise further facilitated the pathological transition of COL. The dynamics of inflammatory cell recruitments was revealed by specific staining of CD-11b (neutrophils) and CD-68 (macrophage) after in vivo injection of ELNase or COLase for 1, 3, 7, 14, and 28 days. The combination of ELNase and exercise caused early recruitment of neutrophil on day 1 and sequential expression of macrophage on day 7 in peritendinous tissue. Conclusion These results suggested that ELN degradation with repetitive mechanical loading may present a suitable model for the pathogenesis of tendinopathy. The Translational potential of this article This discover the role of elastin degradation in tendinopathy and the interaction of exercise in the histological changes. The established the pathological model mimicking the pathogenesis to the human disease by injecting the elastase using ultrasound guidance and then applying treadmill exercise. The loss of elastin and change of collagen composition in clinical tendinopathy samples were observed in the rats. In addition, the sequential inflammation cascades were observed in the histological outcomes with combination of elastase injection and treadmill exercise. Thus, this model may be used to test the clinical treatment of tendinopathy in different stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ting Wu
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.,Department of Nursing, Tzu Hui Institute of Technology, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Ting Wu
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.,Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
| | - Tzu-Chieh Huang
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.,Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
| | - Fong-Chin Su
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
| | - I-Ming Jou
- Department of Orthopedics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Taiwan.,Department of Orthopedics, E-Da Hospital, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Ching Wu
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.,Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.,International Center for Wound Repair and Regeneration, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
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18
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Durgam S, Singh B, Cole SL, Brokken MT, Stewart M. Quantitative Assessment of Tendon Hierarchical Structure by Combined Second Harmonic Generation and Immunofluorescence Microscopy. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2020; 26:253-262. [PMID: 32228165 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2020.0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Histological evaluation of healing tendons is primarily focused on monitoring restoration of longitudinal collagen alignment, although the elastic property of energy-storing flexor tendons is largely attributed to interfascicular sliding facilitated by the interfascicular matrix (IFM). The objectives of this study were to explore the utility of second harmonic generation (SHG) imaging to objectively assess cross-sectional tendon fascicle architecture, to combine SHG microscopy with elastin immunofluorescence to assess the ultrastructure of collagen and elastin in longitudinal and transverse sections, and lastly, to quantify changes in IFM elastin and fascicle collagen alignment of normal and collagenase-injured flexor tendons. Paraffin-embedded transverse and longitudinal histological sections (10-μm thickness) derived from normal and collagenase-injured (6- and 16-week time-points) equine superficial digital flexor tendons were de-paraffinized, treated with Tris EDTA at 80°C for epitope retrieval, and incubated with mouse monoclonal anti-elastin antibody (1:100 dilution) overnight. Anti-mouse IgG Alexa Flour 546 secondary antibody was applied, and sections were mounted with ProLong Gold reagent with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI). Nuclei (DAPI) and elastin (Alexa Fluor 546) signals were captured by using standard confocal imaging with 405 and 543 nm excitation wavelengths, respectively. The SHG signal was captured by using a tunable Ti:Sapphire laser tuned to 950 nm to visualize type I collagen. Quantitative measurements of fascicle cross-sectional area (CSA), IFM thickness in transverse SHG-DAPI merged z-stacks, fascicle/IFM elastin area fraction (%), and elastin-collagen alignment in longitudinal SHG-elastin merged z-stacks were conducted by using ImageJ software. Using this methodology, fascicle CSA, IFM thickness, and IFM elastin area fraction (%) at 6 weeks (∼2.25-fold; ∼2.8-fold; 60% decrease; p < 0.001) and 16 weeks (∼2-fold; ∼1.5-fold; 70% decrease; p < 0.001) after collagenase injection, respectively, were found to be significantly different from normal tendon. IFM elastin and fascicle collagen alignment characterized via fast Fourier transform (FFT) frequency plots at 16 weeks demonstrated that collagen re-alignment was more advanced than that of elastin. The integration of SHG-derived quantitative measurements in transverse and longitudinal tendon sections supports comprehensive assessment of tendon structure. Our findings demonstrate the importance of including IFM and non-collagenous proteins in tendon histological evaluations, tasks that can be effectively carried out by using SHG and immunofluorescence microscopy. Impact statement This work demonstrated that second harmonic generation microscopy in conjunction with elastin immunofluorescence provided a comprehensive assessment of multiscale structural re-organization in healing tendon than when restricted to longitudinal collagen fiber alignment alone. Utilizing this approach for tendon histomorphometry is ideal not only to improve our understanding of hierarchical structural changes that occur after tendon injury and during remodeling but also to monitor the efficacy of therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushmitha Durgam
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Benjamin Singh
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Sara L Cole
- Campus Microscopy Imaging Facility, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Matthew T Brokken
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Matthew Stewart
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, USA
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19
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Tendon and ligament mechanical loading in the pathogenesis of inflammatory arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2020; 16:193-207. [PMID: 32080619 DOI: 10.1038/s41584-019-0364-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical loading is an important factor in musculoskeletal health and disease. Tendons and ligaments require physiological levels of mechanical loading to develop and maintain their tissue architecture, a process that is achieved at the cellular level through mechanotransduction-mediated fine tuning of the extracellular matrix by tendon and ligament stromal cells. Pathological levels of force represent a biological (mechanical) stress that elicits an immune system-mediated tissue repair pathway in tendons and ligaments. The biomechanics and mechanobiology of tendons and ligaments form the basis for understanding how such tissues sense and respond to mechanical force, and the anatomical extent of several mechanical stress-related disorders in tendons and ligaments overlaps with that of chronic inflammatory arthritis in joints. The role of mechanical stress in 'overuse' injuries, such as tendinopathy, has long been known, but mechanical stress is now also emerging as a possible trigger for some forms of chronic inflammatory arthritis, including spondyloarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Thus, seemingly diverse diseases of the musculoskeletal system might have similar mechanisms of immunopathogenesis owing to conserved responses to mechanical stress.
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20
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Taye N, Karoulias SZ, Hubmacher D. The "other" 15-40%: The Role of Non-Collagenous Extracellular Matrix Proteins and Minor Collagens in Tendon. J Orthop Res 2020; 38:23-35. [PMID: 31410892 PMCID: PMC6917864 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) determines the physiological function of all tissues, including musculoskeletal tissues. In tendon, ECM provides overall tissue architecture, which is tailored to match the biomechanical requirements of their physiological function, that is, force transmission from muscle to bone. Tendon ECM also constitutes the microenvironment that allows tendon-resident cells to maintain their phenotype and that transmits biomechanical forces from the macro-level to the micro-level. The structure and function of adult tendons is largely determined by the hierarchical organization of collagen type I fibrils. However, non-collagenous ECM proteins such as small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs), ADAMTS proteases, and cross-linking enzymes play critical roles in collagen fibrillogenesis and guide the hierarchical bundling of collagen fibrils into tendon fascicles. Other non-collagenous ECM proteins such as the less abundant collagens, fibrillins, or elastin, contribute to tendon formation or determine some of their biomechanical properties. The interfascicular matrix or endotenon and the outer layer of tendons, the epi- and paratenon, includes collagens and non-collagenous ECM proteins, but their function is less well understood. The ECM proteins in the epi- and paratenon may provide the appropriate microenvironment to maintain the identity of distinct tendon cell populations that are thought to play a role during repair processes after injury. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the role of non-collagenous ECM proteins and less abundant collagens in tendon development and homeostasis. © 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 38:23-35, 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nandaraj Taye
- Leni & Peter W. May Department of Orthopaedics, Orthopaedic Research LaboratoriesIcahn School of Medicine at Mt. SinaiNew York New York 10029
| | - Stylianos Z. Karoulias
- Leni & Peter W. May Department of Orthopaedics, Orthopaedic Research LaboratoriesIcahn School of Medicine at Mt. SinaiNew York New York 10029
| | - Dirk Hubmacher
- Leni & Peter W. May Department of Orthopaedics, Orthopaedic Research LaboratoriesIcahn School of Medicine at Mt. SinaiNew York New York 10029
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21
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Zitnay JL, Weiss JA. Load transfer, damage, and failure in ligaments and tendons. J Orthop Res 2018; 36:3093-3104. [PMID: 30175857 PMCID: PMC6454883 DOI: 10.1002/jor.24134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The function of ligaments and tendons is to support and transmit loads applied to the musculoskeletal system. These tissues are often able to perform their function for many decades; however, connective tissue disease and injury can compromise ligament and tendon integrity. A range of protein and non-protein constituents, combined in a complex structural hierarchy from the collagen molecule to the tissue and covering nanometer to centimeter length scales, govern tissue function, and impart characteristic non-linear material behavior. This review summarizes the structure of ligaments and tendons, the roles of their constituent components for load transfer across the hierarchy of structure, and the current understanding of how damage occurs in these tissues. Disease and injury can alter the constituent make-up and structural organization of ligaments and tendons, affecting tissue function, while also providing insight to the role and interactions of individual constituents. The studies and techniques presented here have helped to understand the relationship between tissue constituents and the physical mechanisms (e.g., stretching, sliding) that govern material behavior at and between length scales. In recent years, new techniques have been developed to probe ever smaller length scales and may help to elucidate mechanisms of load transfer and damage and the molecular constituents involved in the in the earliest stages of ligament and tendon damage. A detailed understanding of load transfer and damage from the molecular to the tissue level may elucidate targets for the treatment of connective tissue diseases and inform practice to prevent and rehabilitate ligament and tendon injuries. © 2018 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 36:3093-3104, 2018.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared L. Zitnay
- Department of Bioengineering, and Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute University of Utah
| | - Jeffrey A. Weiss
- Department of Bioengineering, and Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute University of Utah,Department of Orthopaedics, University of Utah
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22
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Shu CC, Smith MM, Appleyard RC, Little CB, Melrose J. Achilles and tail tendons of perlecan exon 3 null heparan sulphate deficient mice display surprising improvement in tendon tensile properties and altered collagen fibril organisation compared to C57BL/6 wild type mice. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5120. [PMID: 30042881 PMCID: PMC6056265 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the role of the perlecan (Hspg2) heparan sulphate (HS) side chains on cell and matrix homeostasis in tail and Achilles tendons in 3 and 12 week old Hspg2 exon 3 null HS deficient (Hspg2Δ3 − ∕Δ3 −) and C57 BL/6 Wild Type (WT) mice. Perlecan has important cell regulatory and matrix organizational properties through HS mediated interactions with a range of growth factors and morphogens and with structural extracellular matrix glycoproteins which define tissue function and allow the resident cells to regulate tissue homeostasis. It was expected that ablation of the HS chains on perlecan would severely disrupt normal tendon organization and functional properties and it was envisaged that this study would better define the role of HS in normal tendon function and in tendon repair processes. Tail and Achilles tendons from each genotype were biomechanically tested (ultimate tensile stress (UTS), tensile modulus (TM)) and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen (hydroxyproline) compositional analyses were undertaken. Tenocytes were isolated from tail tendons from each mouse genotype and grown in monolayer culture. These cultures were undertaken in the presence of FGF-2 to assess the cell signaling properties of each genotype. Total RNA was isolated from 3–12 week old tail and Achilles tendons and qRT-PCR was undertaken to assess the expression of the following genes Vcan, Bgn, Dcn, Lum, Hspg2, Ltbp1, Ltbp2, Eln and Fbn1. Type VI collagen and perlecan were immunolocalised in tail tendon and collagen fibrils were imaged using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). FGF-2 stimulated tenocyte monolayers displayed elevated Adamts4, Mmp2, 3, 13 mRNA levels compared to WT mice. Non-stimulated tendon Col1A1, Vcan, Bgn, Dcn, Lum, Hspg2, Ltbp1, Ltbp2, Eln and Fbn1 mRNA levels showed no major differences between the two genotypes other than a decline with ageing while LTBP2 expression increased. Eln expression also declined to a greater extent in the perlecan exon 3 null mice (P < 0.05). Type VI collagen and perlecan were immunolocalised in tail tendon and collagen fibrils imaged using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). This indicated a more compact form of collagen localization in the perlecan exon 3 null mice. Collagen fibrils were also smaller by TEM, which may facilitate a more condensed fibril packing accounting for the superior UTS displayed by the perlecan exon 3 null mice. The amplified catabolic phenotype of Hspg2Δ3 − ∕Δ3 − mice may account for the age-dependent decline in GAG observed in tail tendon over 3 to 12 weeks. After Achilles tenotomy Hspg2Δ3 − ∕Δ3 − and WT mice had similar rates of recovery of UTS and TM over 12 weeks post operatively indicating that a deficiency of HS was not detrimental to tendon repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy C Shu
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Laboratory, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Margaret M Smith
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Laboratory, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia
| | - Richard C Appleyard
- Murray Maxwell Biomechanics Laboratory, Royal North Shore Hospital, University of Sydney, St. Leonards, New South Wales, Australia.,Surgical Skills Laboratory, Australian School of Advanced Medicine, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Christopher B Little
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Laboratory, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, Northern, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - James Melrose
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Laboratory, Kolling Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, Northern, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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23
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Eekhoff JD, Fang F, Kahan LG, Espinosa G, Cocciolone AJ, Wagenseil JE, Mecham RP, Lake SP. Functionally Distinct Tendons From Elastin Haploinsufficient Mice Exhibit Mild Stiffening and Tendon-Specific Structural Alteration. J Biomech Eng 2018; 139:2654667. [PMID: 28916838 DOI: 10.1115/1.4037932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Elastic fibers are present in low quantities in tendon, where they are located both within fascicles near tenocytes and more broadly in the interfascicular matrix (IFM). While elastic fibers have long been known to be significant in the mechanics of elastin-rich tissue (i.e., vasculature, skin, lungs), recent studies have suggested a mechanical role for elastic fibers in tendons that is dependent on specific tendon function. However, the exact contribution of elastin to properties of different types of tendons (e.g., positional, energy-storing) remains unknown. Therefore, this study purposed to evaluate the role of elastin in the mechanical properties and collagen alignment of functionally distinct supraspinatus tendons (SSTs) and Achilles tendons (ATs) from elastin haploinsufficient (HET) and wild type (WT) mice. Despite the significant decrease in elastin in HET tendons, a slight increase in linear stiffness of both tendons was the only significant mechanical effect of elastin haploinsufficiency. Additionally, there were significant changes in collagen nanostructure and subtle alteration to collagen alignment in the AT but not the SST. Hence, elastin may play only a minor role in tendon mechanical properties. Alternatively, larger changes to tendon mechanics may have been mitigated by developmental compensation of HET tendons and/or the role of elastic fibers may be less prominent in smaller mouse tendons compared to the larger bovine and human tendons evaluated in previous studies. Further research will be necessary to fully elucidate the influence of various elastic fiber components on structure-function relationships in functionally distinct tendons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy D Eekhoff
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Lindsey G Kahan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Gabriela Espinosa
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Austin J Cocciolone
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Jessica E Wagenseil
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130
| | - Robert P Mecham
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University in St. Louis, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130 e-mail:
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24
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Kharaz YA, Canty-Laird EG, Tew SR, Comerford EJ. Variations in internal structure, composition and protein distribution between intra- and extra-articular knee ligaments and tendons. J Anat 2018; 232:943-955. [PMID: 29498035 PMCID: PMC5978954 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendons and ligaments play key roles in the musculoskeletal system in both man and animals. Both tissues can undergo traumatic injury, age‐related degeneration and chronic disease, causing discomfort, pain and increased susceptibility to wider degenerative joint disease. To date, tendon and ligament ultrastructural biology is relatively under‐studied in healthy, non‐diseased tissues. This information is essential to understand the pathology of these tissues with regard to function‐related injury and to assist with the future development of tissue‐engineered tendon and ligament structures. This study investigated the morphological, compositional and extracellular matrix protein distribution differences between tendons and ligaments around the non‐diseased canine stifle joint. The morphological, structural characteristics of different regions of the periarticular tendons and ligaments (the intra‐articular anterior cruciate ligament, the extra‐articular medial collateral ligament, the positional long digital extensor tendon and energy‐storing superficial digital flexor tendons) were identified using a novel semi‐objective histological scoring analysis and by determining their biochemical composition. Protein distribution of extracellular matrix collagens, proteoglycans and elastic fibre proteins in anterior cruciate ligament and long digital extensor tendon were also determined using immunostaining techniques. The anterior cruciate ligament was found to have significant morphological differences in comparison with the other three tissues, including less compact collagen architecture, differences in cell nuclei phenotype and increased glycosaminoglycan and elastin content. Intra‐ and interobserver differences of histology scoring resulted in an average score 0.7, indicative of good agreement between observers. Statistically significant differences were also found in the extracellular matrix composition in terms of glycosaminoglycan and elastin content, being more prominent in the anterior cruciate ligament than in the other three tissues. A different distribution of several extracellular matrix proteins was also found between long digital extensor tendon and anterior cruciate ligament, with a significantly increased immunostaining of aggrecan and versican in the anterior cruciate ligament. These findings directly relate to the different functions of tendon and ligament and indicate that the intra‐articular anterior cruciate ligament is subjected to more compressive forces, reflecting an adaptive response to normal or increased loads and resulting in different extracellular matrix composition and arrangement to protect the tissue from damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalda A Kharaz
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Elizabeth G Canty-Laird
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.,The MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated Research into Musculoskeletal Ageing (CIMA), Liverpool, UK
| | - Simon R Tew
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.,The MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated Research into Musculoskeletal Ageing (CIMA), Liverpool, UK
| | - Eithne J Comerford
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.,The MRC-Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated Research into Musculoskeletal Ageing (CIMA), Liverpool, UK.,Institute of Veterinary Science, University of Liverpool, Neston, UK
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25
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Fang F, Lake SP. Multiscale Mechanical Evaluation of Human Supraspinatus Tendon Under Shear Loading After Glycosaminoglycan Reduction. J Biomech Eng 2018; 139:2625661. [PMID: 28462418 DOI: 10.1115/1.4036602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs) are broadly distributed within many soft tissues and, among other roles, often contribute to mechanical properties. Although PGs, consisting of a core protein and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) sidechains, were once hypothesized to regulate stress/strain transfer between collagen fibrils and help support load in tendon, several studies have reported no changes to tensile mechanics after GAG depletion. Since GAGs are known to help sustain nontensile loading in other tissues, we hypothesized that GAGs might help support shear loading in human supraspinatus tendon (SST), a commonly injured tendon which functions in a complex multiaxial loading environment. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine whether GAGs contribute to the response of SST to shear, specifically in terms of multiscale mechanical properties and mechanisms of microscale matrix deformation. Results showed that chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) treatment digested GAGs in SST while not disrupting collagen fibers. Peak and equilibrium shear stresses decreased only slightly after ChABC treatment and were not significantly different from pretreatment values. Reduced stress ratios were computed and shown to be slightly greater after ChABC treatment compared to phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) incubation without enzyme, suggesting that these relatively small changes in stress values were not due strictly to tissue swelling. Microscale deformations were also not different after ChABC treatment. This study demonstrates that GAGs possibly play a minor role in contributing to the mechanical behavior of SST in shear, but are not a key tissue constituent to regulate shear mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130 e-mail:
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130;Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130;Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, MO 63130 e-mail:
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26
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Szczesny SE, Fetchko KL, Dodge GR, Elliott DM. Evidence that interfibrillar load transfer in tendon is supported by small diameter fibrils and not extrafibrillar tissue components. J Orthop Res 2017; 35:2127-2134. [PMID: 28071819 PMCID: PMC5503823 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Collagen fibrils in tendon are believed to be discontinuous and transfer tensile loads through shear forces generated during interfibrillar sliding. However, the structures that transmit these interfibrillar forces are unknown. Various extrafibrillar tissue components (e.g., glycosaminoglycans, collagens XII and XIV) have been suggested to transmit interfibrillar loads by bridging collagen fibrils. Alternatively, collagen fibrils may interact directly through physical fusions and interfibrillar branching. The objective of this study was to test whether extrafibrillar proteins are necessary to transmit load between collagen fibrils or if interfibrillar load transfer is accomplished directly by the fibrils themselves. Trypsin digestions were used to remove a broad spectrum of extrafibrillar proteins and measure their contribution to the multiscale mechanics of rat tail tendon fascicles. Additionally, images obtained from serial block-face scanning electron microscopy were used to determine the three-dimensional fibrillar organization in tendon fascicles and identify any potential interfibrillar interactions. While trypsin successfully removed several extrafibrillar tissue components, there was no change in the macroscale fascicle mechanics or fibril:tissue strain ratio. Furthermore, the imaging data suggested that a network of smaller diameter fibrils (<150 nm) wind around and fuse with their neighboring larger diameter fibrils. These findings demonstrate that interfibrillar load transfer is not supported by extrafibrillar tissue components and support the hypothesis that collagen fibrils are capable of transmitting loads themselves. Conclusively determining how fibrils bear load within tendon is critical for identifying the mechanisms that impair tissue function with degeneration and for restoring tissue properties via cell-mediated regeneration or engineered tissue replacements. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:2127-2134, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spencer E. Szczesny
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, 240 Skirkanich Hall, 210 South 33rd St, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Kristen L. Fetchko
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, 161 Colburn Lab, 150 Academy Street, Newark, DE 19716
| | - George R. Dodge
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, 424 Stemmler Hall, 36 St & Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104,Translational Musculoskeletal Research Center, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 3900 Woodland Ave, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Dawn M. Elliott
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, 161 Colburn Lab, 150 Academy Street, Newark, DE 19716,Corresponding Author: Dawn M. Elliott, Ph.D., 161 Colburn Lab, 150 Academy Street, Newark, DE 19716, Phone: 302-831-1295,
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27
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Wu YT, Su WR, Wu PT, Shen PC, Jou IM. Degradation of elastic fiber and elevated elastase expression in long head of biceps tendinopathy. J Orthop Res 2017; 35:1919-1926. [PMID: 27935111 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Tendinopathy of the long head of the biceps (TLHB) involves various types of extracellular matrix degeneration, but previous studies have not evaluated elastic fibers. The purpose of this study was to investigate elastic fiber distribution in long head of the biceps (LHB). The TLHB tendons of 16 consecutive patients (eight men and eight women; average age of 55.75 years; age range of 40-71 years) were transected and harvested. Three cadaveric LHB tendons were used as the control group. The expression of collagen type I was decreased, but type III was increased in TLHB. Disruption of elastic fibers was particularly observed in grade II specimens where the level of elastase-positive staining was significantly higher than in grade I specimens. Elastic fibers were not observed in the grade III area, implying a higher expression of elastase than in the grade I area. Results of Western blotting showed that the expression of elastin was higher in the control group and the levels of elastin significantly decreased in grades II and III of TLHB. Levels of osteopontin and elastase were increased in primary culture of human tenocytes after experiencing elastic derived peptide treatment. These results suggested that elastase may be caused by the disruption of elastic fibers in the development of chronic tendinopathy and that elastic derived peptide may enhance elastase and osteopontin expression. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:1919-1926, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Ting Wu
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ren Su
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70428, Taiwan
| | - Po-Ting Wu
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70428, Taiwan
| | - Po-Chuan Shen
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Tainan Hospital, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
| | - I-Ming Jou
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan 70428, Taiwan
- Department of Orthopedics, E-Da Hospital, Kaohsiung 70824, Taiwan
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28
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Godinho MSC, Thorpe CT, Greenwald SE, Screen HRC. Elastin is Localised to the Interfascicular Matrix of Energy Storing Tendons and Becomes Increasingly Disorganised With Ageing. Sci Rep 2017; 7:9713. [PMID: 28855560 PMCID: PMC5577209 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09995-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendon is composed of fascicles bound together by the interfascicular matrix (IFM). Energy storing tendons are more elastic and extensible than positional tendons; behaviour provided by specialisation of the IFM to enable repeated interfascicular sliding and recoil. With ageing, the IFM becomes stiffer and less fatigue resistant, potentially explaining why older tendons become more injury-prone. Recent data indicates enrichment of elastin within the IFM, but this has yet to be quantified. We hypothesised that elastin is more prevalent in energy storing than positional tendons, and is mainly localised to the IFM. Further, we hypothesised that elastin becomes disorganised and fragmented, and decreases in amount with ageing, especially in energy storing tendons. Biochemical analyses and immunohistochemical techniques were used to determine elastin content and organisation, in young and old equine energy storing and positional tendons. Supporting the hypothesis, elastin localises to the IFM of energy storing tendons, reducing in quantity and becoming more disorganised with ageing. These changes may contribute to the increased injury risk in aged energy storing tendons. Full understanding of the processes leading to loss of elastin and its disorganisation with ageing may aid in the development of treatments to prevent age related tendinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta S C Godinho
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, United Kingdom
| | - Chavaunne T Thorpe
- Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Royal College Street, London, NW1 0TU, United Kingdom
| | - Steve E Greenwald
- Blizard Institute, Barts and London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Turner Street, London, E1 11BB, United Kingdom
| | - Hazel R C Screen
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, United Kingdom.
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29
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Fang F, Lake SP. Experimental evaluation of multiscale tendon mechanics. J Orthop Res 2017; 35:1353-1365. [PMID: 27878999 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Tendon's primary function is a mechanical link between muscle and bone. The hierarchical structure of tendon and specific compositional constituents are believed to be critical for proper mechanical function. With increased appreciation for tendon importance and the development of various technological advances, this review paper summarizes recent experimental approaches that have been used to study multiscale tendon mechanics, includes an overview of studies that have evaluated the role of specific tissue constituents, and also proposes challenges/opportunities facing tendon study. Tendon has been demonstrated to have specific structural characteristics (e.g., multi-level hierarchy, crimp pattern, helix) and complex mechanical properties (e.g., non-linearity, anisotropy, viscoelasticity). Physical mechanisms including uncrimping, fiber sliding, and collagen reorganization have been shown to govern tendon mechanical responses under both static and dynamic loading. Several tendon constituents with relatively small quantities have been suggested to play a role in its mechanics, although some results are conflicting. Further research should be performed to understand the interplay and communication of tendon mechanical properties across levels of the hierarchical structure, and further show how each of these components contribute to tendon mechanics. The studies summarized and discussed in this review have helped elucidate important aspects of multiscale tendon mechanics, which is a prerequisite for analyzing stress/strain transfer between multiple scales and identifying key principles of mechanotransduction. This information could further facilitate interpreting the functional diversity of tendons from different species, different locations, and even different developmental stages, and then better understand and identify fundamental concepts related to tendon degeneration, disease, and healing. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:1353-1365, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130.,Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Campus Box 1185, St. Louis, Missouri, 63130
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30
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Ashraf Kharaz Y, Zamboulis D, Sanders K, Comerford E, Clegg P, Peffers M. Comparison between chaotropic and detergent-based sample preparation workflow in tendon for mass spectrometry analysis. Proteomics 2017; 17:1700018. [PMID: 28547889 PMCID: PMC5575552 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201700018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Exploring the tendon proteome is a challenging but important task for understanding the mechanisms of physiological/pathological processes during ageing and disease and for the development of new treatments. Several extraction methods have been utilised for tendon mass spectrometry, however different extraction methods have not been simultaneously compared. In the present study we compared protein extraction in tendon with two chaotropic agents, guanidine hydrochloride (GnHCl) and urea, a detergent, RapiGest™, and their combinations for shotgun mass spectrometry. An initial proteomic analysis was performed following urea, GnHCl, and RapiGest™ extraction of equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) tissue. Subsequently, another proteomic analysis was performed following extraction with GnHCl, Rapigest™, and their combinations. Between the two chaotropic agents, GnHCl extracted more proteins, whilst a greater number of proteins were solely identified after Rapigest™ extraction. Protein extraction with a combination of GnHCl followed by RapiGest™ on the insoluble pellet demonstrated, after label-free quantification, increased abundance of identified collagen proteins and low sample to sample variability. In contrast, GnHCl extraction on its own showed increased abundance of identified proteoglycans and cellular proteins. Therefore, the selection of protein extraction method for tendon tissue for mass spectrometry analysis should reflect the focus of the study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yalda Ashraf Kharaz
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Danae Zamboulis
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Karen Sanders
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Eithne Comerford
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Peter Clegg
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
- The MRC‐Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing (CIMA)LiverpoolUK
| | - Mandy Peffers
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic DiseaseUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
- The MRC‐Arthritis Research UK Centre for Integrated research into Musculoskeletal Ageing (CIMA)LiverpoolUK
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31
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Pang X, Wu JP, Allison GT, Xu J, Rubenson J, Zheng MH, Lloyd DG, Gardiner B, Wang A, Kirk TB. Three dimensional microstructural network of elastin, collagen, and cells in Achilles tendons. J Orthop Res 2017; 35:1203-1214. [PMID: 27002477 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Similar to most biological tissues, the biomechanical, and functional characteristics of the Achilles tendon are closely related to its composition and microstructure. It is commonly reported that type I collagen is the predominant component of tendons and is mainly responsible for the tissue's function. Although elastin has been found in varying proportions in other connective tissues, previous studies report that tendons contain very small quantities of elastin. However, the morphology and the microstructural relationship among the elastic fibres, collagen, and cells in tendon tissue have not been well examined. We hypothesize the elastic fibres, as another fibrillar component in the extracellular matrix, have a unique role in mechanical function and microstructural arrangement in Achilles tendons. It has been shown that elastic fibres present a close connection with the tenocytes. The close relationship of the three components has been revealed as a distinct, integrated and complex microstructural network. Notably, a "spiral" structure within fibril bundles in Achilles tendons was observed in some samples in specialized regions. This study substantiates the hierarchical system of the spatial microstructure of tendon, including the mapping of collagen, elastin and tenocytes, with 3-dimensional confocal images. © 2017 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Orthop Res 35:1203-1214, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Pang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3D Imaging and Bioengineering Laboratory, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Jian-Ping Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3D Imaging and Bioengineering Laboratory, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia 6102, Australia
| | - Garry T Allison
- The School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Sciences, Curtin University, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jiake Xu
- The School of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Jonas Rubenson
- Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania.,School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, University of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Ming-Hao Zheng
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, School of Surgery, University of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia
| | - David G Lloyd
- Centre for Musculoskeletal Research, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bruce Gardiner
- School of Engineering and Information Technology, Murdoch University, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Allan Wang
- Centre for Orthopaedic Research, School of Surgery, University of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia.,St John of God Hospital, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Thomas Brett Kirk
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, 3D Imaging and Bioengineering Laboratory, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia 6102, Australia
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32
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A quantitative label-free analysis of the extracellular proteome of human supraspinatus tendon reveals damage to the pericellular and elastic fibre niches in torn and aged tissue. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177656. [PMID: 28542244 PMCID: PMC5436668 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Tears of the human supraspinatus tendon are common and often cause painful and debilitating loss of function. Progressive failure of the tendon leading to structural abnormality and tearing is accompanied by numerous cellular and extra-cellular matrix (ECM) changes in the tendon tissue. This proteomics study aimed to compare torn and aged rotator cuff tissue to young and healthy tissue, and provide the first ECM inventory of human supraspinatus tendon generated using label-free quantitative LC-MS/MS. Employing two digestion protocols (trypsin and elastase), we analysed grain-sized tendon supraspinatus biopsies from older patients with torn tendons and from healthy, young controls. Our findings confirm measurable degradation of collagen fibrils and associated proteins in old and torn tendons, suggesting a significant loss of tissue organisation. A particularly marked reduction of cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) raises the possibility of using changes in levels of this glycoprotein as a marker of abnormal tissue, as previously suggested in horse models. Surprisingly, and despite using an elastase digestion for validation, elastin was not detected, suggesting that it is not highly abundant in human supraspinatus tendon as previously thought. Finally, we identified marked changes to the elastic fibre, fibrillin-rich niche and the pericellular matrix. Further investigation of these regions may yield other potential biomarkers and help to explain detrimental cellular processes associated with tendon ageing and tendinopathy.
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Abstract
Tendons among connective tissue, mainly collagen, contain also elastic fibers (EF) made of fibrillin 1, fibrillin 2 and elastin that are broadly distributed in tendons and represent 1-2% of the dried mass of the tendon. Only in the last years, studies on structure and function of EF in tendons have been performed. Aim of this review is to revise data on the organization of EF in tendons, in particular fibrillin structure and function, and on the clinical manifestations associated to alterations of EF in tendons. Indeed, microfibrils may contribute to tendon mechanics; therefore, their alterations may cause joint hypermobility and contractures which have been found to be clinical features in patients with Marfan syndrome (MFS) and Beals syndrome. The two diseases are caused by mutations in genes FBN1 and FBN2 encoding fibrillin 1 and fibrillin 2, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Betti Giusti
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Excellence Centre for Research, Transfer and High Education for the Development of De Novo Therapies (DENOTHE), University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
- Marfan Syndrome and Related Disorders Regional (Tuscany) Referral Center, Careggi HospitalFlorence, Italy
| | - Guglielmina Pepe
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Excellence Centre for Research, Transfer and High Education for the Development of De Novo Therapies (DENOTHE), University of FlorenceFlorence, Italy
- Marfan Syndrome and Related Disorders Regional (Tuscany) Referral Center, Careggi HospitalFlorence, Italy
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Szotek S, Dawidowicz J, Eyden B, Matysiak N, Czogalla A, Dudzik G, Leśniewicz A, Maksymowicz K. Morphological features of fascia lata in relation to fascia diseases. Ultrastruct Pathol 2016; 40:297-310. [PMID: 27762645 DOI: 10.1080/01913123.2016.1239665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Fascia lata is an important element of the fascial system, which forms the continuum of connective tissue throughout the body. This deep fascia envelops the entire thigh and hip area and its main function is to transmit mechanical forces generated by the musculoskeletal system of the lower extremities. Fascia lata is also known as a useful and easily harvested graft material. Despite its crucial role in lower extremity biomechanics and wide-ranging applications in plastic and reconstructive surgery, both the structure of fascia lata and particularly the cells populating this tissue are relatively unexplored and therefore poorly understood. The aim of this study was to characterize the main cell populations encountered within human fascia lata and to try to understand their role in health and diseases. Pathologically unchanged human fascia lata was obtained post mortem from adult males. The specimens were analyzed under light, electron, and confocal microscopy. On the basis of different visualization techniques, we were able to characterize in detail the cells populating human fascia lata. The main cells found were fibroblasts, fibrocytes, mast cells, cells showing myoid differentiation, nerve cells, and most interestingly, telocytes. Our results supplement the formerly inadequate information in the literature regarding the cellular components of deep fascial structure, may contribute to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of fascial disorders and improve fascia lata application as a graft material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Szotek
- a Department of Biomedical Engineering, Mechatronics and Theory of Mechanisms, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering , Wrocław University of Science and Technology , Wrocław , Poland
| | | | - Brian Eyden
- c Christie NHS Foundation Trust , Manchester , United Kingdom
| | - Natalia Matysiak
- d Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine with the Division of Dentistry in Zabrze , Medical University of Silesia , Zabrze , Poland
| | - Aleksander Czogalla
- e Department of Cytobiochemistry, Faculty of Biotechnology , University of Wrocław , Wrocław , Poland
| | - Grzegorz Dudzik
- f Chair of EM Field Theory, Electronic Circuits and Optoelectronics, Faculty of Electronics , Wrocław University of Science and Technology , Wrocław , Poland
| | - Anna Leśniewicz
- g Analytical Chemistry and Chemical Metallurgy Division, Faculty of Chemistry , Wrocław University of Science and Technology , Wrocław , Poland
| | - Krzysztof Maksymowicz
- h Department of Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Medicine , Wroclaw Medical University , Wrocław , Poland
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Fang F, Lake SP. Multiscale mechanical integrity of human supraspinatus tendon in shear after elastin depletion. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2016; 63:443-455. [PMID: 27472764 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2016.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Human supraspinatus tendon (SST) exhibits region-specific nonlinear mechanical properties under tension, which have been attributed to its complex multiaxial physiological loading environment. However, the mechanical response and underlying multiscale mechanism regulating SST behavior under other loading scenarios are poorly understood. Furthermore, little is known about the contribution of elastin to tendon mechanics. We hypothesized that (1) SST exhibits region-specific shear mechanical properties, (2) fiber sliding is the predominant mode of local matrix deformation in SST in shear, and (3) elastin helps maintain SST mechanical integrity by facilitating force transfer among collagen fibers. Through the use of biomechanical testing and multiphoton microscopy, we measured the multiscale mechanical behavior of human SST in shear before and after elastase treatment. Three distinct SST regions showed similar stresses and microscale deformation. Collagen fiber reorganization and sliding were physical mechanisms observed as the SST response to shear loading. Measures of microscale deformation were highly variable, likely due to a high degree of extracellular matrix heterogeneity. After elastase treatment, tendon exhibited significantly decreased stresses under shear loading, particularly at low strains. These results show that elastin contributes to tendon mechanics in shear, further complementing our understanding of multiscale tendon structure-function relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Fang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, United States
| | - Spencer P Lake
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, United States; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, United States; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Washington University in St. Louis, United States.
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Thorpe CT, Karunaseelan KJ, Ng Chieng Hin J, Riley GP, Birch HL, Clegg PD, Screen HRC. Distribution of proteins within different compartments of tendon varies according to tendon type. J Anat 2016; 229:450-8. [PMID: 27113131 PMCID: PMC4974547 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the predominant function of all tendons is to transfer force from muscle to bone and position the limbs, some tendons additionally function as energy stores, reducing the energetic cost of locomotion. To maximise energy storage and return, energy‐storing tendons need to be more extensible and elastic than tendons with a purely positional function. These properties are conferred in part by a specialisation of a specific compartment of the tendon, the interfascicular matrix, which enables sliding and recoil between adjacent fascicles. However, the composition of the interfascicular matrix is poorly characterised and we therefore tested the hypothesis that the distribution of elastin and proteoglycans differs between energy‐storing and positional tendons, and that protein distribution varies between the fascicular matrix and the interfascicular matrix, with localisation of elastin and lubricin to the interfascicular matrix. Protein distribution in the energy‐storing equine superficial digital flexor tendon and positional common digital extensor tendon was assessed using histology and immunohistochemistry. The results support the hypothesis, demonstrating enrichment of lubricin in the interfascicular matrix in both tendon types, where it is likely to facilitate interfascicular sliding. Elastin was also localised to the interfascicular matrix, specifically in the energy‐storing superficial digital flexor tendon, which may account for the greater elasticity of the interfascicular matrix in this tendon. A differential distribution of proteoglycans was identified between tendon types and regions, which may indicate a distinct role for each of these proteins in tendon. These data provide important advances into fully characterising structure–function relationships within tendon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chavaunne T Thorpe
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Kabelan J Karunaseelan
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Jade Ng Chieng Hin
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Graham P Riley
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - Helen L Birch
- Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore, UK
| | - Peter D Clegg
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Neston, UK
| | - Hazel R C Screen
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
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Connizzo BK, Adams SM, Adams TH, Jawad AF, Birk DE, Soslowsky LJ. Multiscale regression modeling in mouse supraspinatus tendons reveals that dynamic processes act as mediators in structure-function relationships. J Biomech 2016; 49:1649-1657. [PMID: 27067362 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2016.03.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2015] [Revised: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in technology have allowed for the measurement of dynamic processes (re-alignment, crimp, deformation, sliding), but only a limited number of studies have investigated their relationship with mechanical properties. The overall objective of this study was to investigate the role of composition, structure, and the dynamic response to load in predicting tendon mechanical properties in a multi-level fashion mimicking native hierarchical collagen structure. Multiple linear regression models were investigated to determine the relationships between composition/structure, dynamic processes, and mechanical properties. Mediation was then used to determine if dynamic processes mediated structure-function relationships. Dynamic processes were strong predictors of mechanical properties. These predictions were location-dependent, with the insertion site utilizing all four dynamic responses and the midsubstance responding primarily with fibril deformation and sliding. In addition, dynamic processes were moderately predicted by composition and structure in a regionally-dependent manner. Finally, dynamic processes were partial mediators of the relationship between composition/structure and mechanical function, and results suggested that mediation is likely shared between multiple dynamic processes. In conclusion, the mechanical properties at the midsubstance of the tendon are controlled primarily by fibril structure and this region responds to load via fibril deformation and sliding. Conversely, the mechanical function at the insertion site is controlled by many other important parameters and the region responds to load via all four dynamic mechanisms. Overall, this study presents a strong foundation on which to design future experimental and modeling efforts in order to fully understand the complex structure-function relationships present in tendon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brianne K Connizzo
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, 424 Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States
| | - Sheila M Adams
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Thomas H Adams
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Abbas F Jawad
- Division of Biostatistics, Department of Pediatrics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States
| | - David E Birk
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, United States
| | - Louis J Soslowsky
- McKay Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, University of Pennsylvania, 424 Stemmler Hall, 36th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6081, United States.
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Wu YT, Wu PT, Jou IM. Peritendinous elastase treatment induces tendon degeneration in rats: A potential model of tendinopathy in vivo. J Orthop Res 2016; 34:471-7. [PMID: 26291184 DOI: 10.1002/jor.23030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of elastase on tendinopathy, as well as to evaluate the potential for peritendinous injections of elastase into rats to cause tendinopathy. We first investigated the expression of elastase in the tendons of patients with tendinopathy, and then established the effects of elastase injection on the Achilles tendons of rats. Ultrasonographic and incapacitance testing was used to conduct tests for 8 weeks. Tendon tissues were collected for histological observation and protein levels of collagen type I and type III were detected using Western blotting. The percentage of elastase-positive cells increased in human specimens with grades II and III tendinopathy. The rat model demonstrated that the thickness of the tendon increased after elastase injection during Week 2-8. Hypercellularity and focal lesions were detected after Week 2. The expression of elastase was increased and elastin was decreased in Week 8. Collagen type I expression was decreased, but type III was increased in Week 4. These results suggested that elastase may be involved in the development of chronic tendinopathy, and that peritendinous injection of elastase may result in tendinopathy in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yen-Ting Wu
- Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - Po-Ting Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Tainan, Taiwan
| | - I-Ming Jou
- Department of Orthopedics, National Cheng Kung University Hospital, Tainan, Taiwan
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Anatomical heterogeneity of tendon: Fascicular and interfascicular tendon compartments have distinct proteomic composition. Sci Rep 2016; 6:20455. [PMID: 26842662 PMCID: PMC4740843 DOI: 10.1038/srep20455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tendon is a simple aligned fibre composite, consisting of collagen-rich fascicles surrounded by a softer interfascicular matrix (IFM). The composition and interactions between these material phases are fundamental in ensuring tissue mechanics meet functional requirements. However the IFM is poorly defined, therefore tendon structure-function relationships are incompletely understood. We hypothesised that the IFM has a more complex proteome, with faster turnover than the fascicular matrix (FM). Using laser-capture microdissection and mass spectrometry, we demonstrate that the IFM contains more proteins, and that many proteins show differential abundance between matrix phases. The IFM contained more protein fragments (neopeptides), indicating greater matrix degradation in this compartment, which may act to maintain healthy tendon structure. Protein abundance did not alter with ageing, but neopeptide numbers decreased in the aged IFM, indicating decreased turnover which may contribute to age-related tendon injury. These data provide important insights into how differences in tendon composition and turnover contribute to tendon structure-function relationships and the effects of ageing.
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Thorpe CT, Screen HRC. Tendon Structure and Composition. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2016; 920:3-10. [PMID: 27535244 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-33943-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Tendons are soft, fibrous tissues that connect muscle to bone. Their main function is to transfer muscle generated force to the bony skeleton, facilitating movement around a joint, and as such they are relatively passive, inelastic structures, able to resist high forces. Tendons are predominantly composed of collagen, which is arranged in a hierarchical manner parallel to the long axis of the tendon, resulting in high tensile strength. Tendon also contains a range of non-collagenous proteins, present in low amounts, which nevertheless have important functional roles. In this chapter, we describe general tendon composition and structure, and discuss how variations in composition and structure at different levels of the tendon hierarchy confer specific mechanical properties, which are related to tendon function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chavaunne T Thorpe
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Hazel R C Screen
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London, E1 4NS, UK
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Forelimb contractures and abnormal tendon collagen fibrillogenesis in fibulin-4 null mice. Cell Tissue Res 2015; 364:637-646. [PMID: 26711913 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-015-2346-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Fibulin-4 is an extracellular matrix glycoprotein essential for elastic fiber formation. Mice deficient in fibulin-4 die perinatally because of severe pulmonary and vascular defects associated with the lack of intact elastic fibers. Patients with fibulin-4 mutations demonstrate similar defects, and a significant number die shortly after birth or in early childhood from cardiopulmonary failure. The patients also demonstrate skeletal and other systemic connective tissue abnormalities, including joint laxity and flexion contractures of the wrist. A fibulin-4 null mouse strain was generated and used to analyze the roles of fibulin-4 in tendon fibrillogenesis. This mouse model displayed bilateral forelimb contractures, in addition to pulmonary and cardiovascular defects. The forelimb and hindlimb tendons exhibited disruption in collagen fibrillogenesis in the absence of fibulin-4 as analyzed by transmission electron microscopy. Fewer fibrils were assembled, and fibrils were disorganized compared with wild-type controls. The organization of developing tenocytes and compartmentalization of the extracellular space was also disrupted. Fibulin-4 was co-localized with fibrillin-1 and fibrillin-2 in limb tendons by using immunofluorescence microscopy. Thus, fibulin-4 seems to play a role in regulating tendon collagen fibrillogenesis, in addition to its essential function in elastogenesis.
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Smaldone S, Ramirez F. Fibrillin microfibrils in bone physiology. Matrix Biol 2015; 52-54:191-197. [PMID: 26408953 DOI: 10.1016/j.matbio.2015.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 09/19/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The severe skeletal abnormalities associated with Marfan syndrome (MFS) and congenital contractural arachnodactyly (CCA) underscore the notion that fibrillin assemblies (microfibrils and elastic fibers) play a critical role in bone formation and function in spite of representing a low abundance component of skeletal matrices. Studies of MFS and CCA mice have correlated the skeletal phenotypes of these mutant animals with distinct pathophysiological mechanisms that reflect the contextual contribution of fibrillin-1 and -2 scaffolds to TGFβ and BMP signaling during bone patterning, growth and metabolism. Illustrative examples include the unique role of fibrillin-2 in regulating BMP-dependent limb patterning and the distinct impact of the two fibrillin proteins on the commitment and differentiation of marrow mesenchymal stem cells. Collectively, these findings have important implication for our understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms that drive age- and injury-related processes of bone degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Smaldone
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Institute for Systems Biomedicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States
| | - Francesco Ramirez
- Department of Pharmacology and Systems Therapeutics, Institute for Systems Biomedicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, United States.
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ISSLS Prize Winner: A Detailed Examination of the Elastic Network Leads to a New Understanding of Annulus Fibrosus Organization. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2015; 40:1149-57. [PMID: 25893352 DOI: 10.1097/brs.0000000000000943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Investigation of the elastic network in disc annulus and its function. OBJECTIVE To investigate the involvement of the elastic network in the structural interconnectivity of the annulus and to examine its possible mechanical role. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA The lamellae of the disc are now known to consist of bundles of collagen fibers organized into compartments. There is strong interconnectivity between adjacent compartments and between adjacent lamellae, possibly aided by a translamellar bridging network, containing blood vessels. An elastic network exists across the disc annulus and is particularly dense between the lamellae, and forms crossing bridges within the lamellae. METHODS Blocks of annulus taken from bovine caudal discs were studied in either their unloaded or radially stretched state then fixed and sectioned, and their structure analyzed optically using immunohistology. RESULTS An elastic network enclosed the collagen compartments, connecting the compartments with each other and with the elastic network of adjacent lamellae, formed an integrated network across the annulus, linking it together. Stretching experiments demonstrated the mechanical interconnectivities of the elastic fibers and the collagen compartments. CONCLUSION The annulus can be viewed as a modular structure organized into compartments of collagen bundles enclosed by an elastic sheath. The elastic network of these sheaths is interconnected mechanically across the entire annulus. This organization is also seen in the modular structure of tendon and muscle. The results provide a new understanding annulus structure and its interconnectivity, and contribute to fundamental structural information relevant to disc tissue engineering and mechanical modeling. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE N/A.
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Thorpe CT, Godinho MSC, Riley GP, Birch HL, Clegg PD, Screen HRC. The interfascicular matrix enables fascicle sliding and recovery in tendon, and behaves more elastically in energy storing tendons. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2015; 52:85-94. [PMID: 25958330 PMCID: PMC4655227 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2015.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
While the predominant function of all tendons is to transfer force from muscle to bone and position the limbs, some tendons additionally function as energy stores, reducing the cost of locomotion. Energy storing tendons experience extremely high strains and need to be able to recoil efficiently for maximum energy storage and return. In the equine forelimb, the energy storing superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) has much higher failure strains than the positional common digital extensor tendon (CDET). However, we have previously shown that this is not due to differences in the properties of the SDFT and CDET fascicles (the largest tendon subunits). Instead, there is a greater capacity for interfascicular sliding in the SDFT which facilitates the greater extensions in this particular tendon (Thorpe et al., 2012). In the current study, we exposed fascicles and interfascicular matrix (IFM) from the SDFT and CDET to cyclic loading followed by a test to failure. The results show that IFM mechanical behaviour is not a result of irreversible deformation, but the IFM is able to withstand cyclic loading, and is more elastic in the SDFT than in the CDET. We also assessed the effect of ageing on IFM properties, demonstrating that the IFM is less able to resist repetitive loading as it ages, becoming stiffer with increasing age in the SDFT. These results provide further indications that the IFM is important for efficient function in energy storing tendons, and age-related alterations to the IFM may compromise function and predispose older tendons to injury. Fascicle sliding enables high levels of extension in energy storing tendons. Sliding mechanics are governed by the interfascicular matrix (IFM). We assessed IFM extension and recovery. IFM elasticity and recovery are greater in energy storing tendons. The IFM plays an important role in the function of energy storing tendons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chavaunne T Thorpe
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS UK.
| | - Marta S C Godinho
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS UK
| | - Graham P Riley
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
| | - Helen L Birch
- Institute of Orthopaedics and Musculoskeletal Science, University College London, Royal National Orthopaedic Hospital, Stanmore HA7 4LP, UK
| | - Peter D Clegg
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, UK
| | - Hazel R C Screen
- Institute of Bioengineering, School of Engineering and Materials Science, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS UK
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The Mechanical, Structural, and Compositional Changes of Tendon Exposed to Elastase. Ann Biomed Eng 2015; 43:2477-86. [PMID: 25808209 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-015-1308-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The mechanical response of tendon is dependent on the interaction of structural molecules that constitute the extracellular matrix. However, little is known about the role of elastic fibers that are present in this structure. Elastase treatments have been used to elucidate the mechanical role of elastic fibers in numerous tissues. Here, we show that a standard elastase treatment affects the mechanical properties of tendon, including the ultimate tensile strength and failure strain. Moreover, elastase-treated specimens exhibit significant structural and compositional changes including crimp undulation and release of glycosaminoglycans. These data demonstrate that a common elastase treatment has a complex digestion profile that influences the structure-function relationship of tendon. Thus, defining the mechanical role of elastic fibers in tendon using this technique is challenging. This introduces new and exciting questions regarding the function of elastic fibers in tendon, which may not be as well understood as previously thought.
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46
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Svensson RB, Couppé C, Magnusson SP. Mechanical Properties of the Aging Tendon. ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND PROCESSES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-03970-1_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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47
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Thakkar D, Grant TM, Hakimi O, Carr AJ. Distribution and expression of type VI collagen and elastic fibers in human rotator cuff tendon tears. Connect Tissue Res 2014; 55:397-402. [PMID: 25166893 DOI: 10.3109/03008207.2014.959119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence for a progressive extracellular matrix change in rotator cuff disease progression. Directly surrounding the cell is the pericellular matrix, where assembly of matrix aggregates typically occurs making it critical in the response of tendon cells to pathological conditions. Studies in animal models have identified type VI collagen, fibrillin-1 and elastin to be located in the pericellular matrix of tendon and contribute in maintaining the structural and biomechanical integrity of tendon. However, there have been no reports on the localization of these proteins in human tendon biopsies. This study aimed to characterize the distribution of these ECM components in human rotator cuffs and gain greater insight into the relationship of pathology to tear size by analyzing the distribution and expression profiles of these ECM components. Confocal microscopy confirmed the localization of these structural molecules in the pericellular matrix of the human rotator cuff. Tendon degeneration led to an increased visibility of these components with a significant disorganization in the distribution of type VI collagen. At the genetic level, an increase in tear size was linked to an increased transcription of type VI collagen and fibrillin-1 with no significant alteration in the elastin levels. This is the first study to confirm the localization of type VI collagen, elastin and fibrillin-1 in the pericellular region of human supraspinatus tendon and assesses the effect of tendon degeneration on these structures, thus providing a useful insight into the composition of human rotator cuff tears which can be instrumental in predicting disease prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipti Thakkar
- Nuffield Department of Orthopedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, University of Oxford , Oxford , UK and
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48
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Peffers MJ, Thorpe CT, Collins JA, Eong R, Wei TKJ, Screen HRC, Clegg PD. Proteomic analysis reveals age-related changes in tendon matrix composition, with age- and injury-specific matrix fragmentation. J Biol Chem 2014; 289:25867-78. [PMID: 25077967 PMCID: PMC4162187 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.566554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Energy storing tendons, such as the human Achilles and equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), are highly prone to injury, the incidence of which increases with aging. The cellular and molecular mechanisms that result in increased injury in aged tendons are not well established but are thought to result in altered matrix turnover. However, little attempt has been made to fully characterize the tendon proteome nor determine how the abundance of specific tendon proteins changes with aging and/or injury. The aim of this study was, therefore, to assess the protein profile of normal SDFTs from young and old horses using label-free relative quantification to identify differentially abundant proteins and peptide fragments between age groups. The protein profile of injured SDFTs from young and old horses was also assessed. The results demonstrate distinct proteomic profiles in young and old tendon, with alterations in the levels of proteins involved in matrix organization and regulation of cell tension. Furthermore, we identified several new peptide fragments (neopeptides) present in aged tendons, suggesting that there are age-specific cleavage patterns within the SDFT. Proteomic profile also differed between young and old injured tendon, with a greater number of neopeptides identified in young injured tendon. This study has increased the knowledge of molecular events associated with tendon aging and injury, suggesting that maintenance and repair of tendon tissue may be reduced in aged individuals and may help to explain why the risk of injury increases with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mandy J Peffers
- From the Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE
| | - Chavaunne T Thorpe
- From the Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, Institute of Bioengineering, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, and
| | - John A Collins
- From the Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE
| | - Robin Eong
- From the Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, School of Life Sciences, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Singapore 599489
| | - Timothy K J Wei
- From the Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE, School of Life Sciences, Ngee Ann Polytechnic, Singapore 599489
| | - Hazel R C Screen
- Institute of Bioengineering, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, London E1 4NS, and
| | - Peter D Clegg
- From the Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston CH64 7TE
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49
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Thompson MS. Tendon mechanobiology: experimental models require mathematical underpinning. Bull Math Biol 2013; 75:1238-54. [PMID: 23681792 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-013-9850-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mathematical and computational modeling is in demand to help address current challenges in mechanobiology of musculoskeletal tissues. In particular for tendon, the high clinical importance of the tissue, the huge mechanical demands placed on it and its ability to adapt to these demands, require coupled, multiscale models incorporating complex geometrical and microstructural information as well as time-based descriptions of cellular activity and response.This review introduces the information sources required to develop such multiscale models. It covers tissue structure and biomechanics, cell biomechanics, the current understanding of tendon's ability in health and disease to update its properties and structure and the few already existing multiscale mechanobiological models of the tissue. Finally, a sketch is provided of what such models could achieve ideally, pointing out where experimental data and knowledge are still missing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S Thompson
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Botnar Research Centre, University of Oxford, Windmill Road, Oxford, OX3 7LD, UK.
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