Role of distinct CD4(+) T helper subset in pathogenesis of oral lichen planus

Increased pathogenicity and pro-inflammatory capabilities of mucosal-associated invariant T cells involved in Oral Lichen Planus

BACKGROUND

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells assume pivotal roles in numerous autoimmune inflammatory maladies. However, scant knowledge exists regarding their involvement in the pathological progression of oral lichen planus (OLP). The focus of our study was to explore whether MAIT cells were altered across distinct clinical types of OLP.

METHODS

The frequency, phenotype, and partial functions of MAIT cells were performed by flow cytometry, using peripheral blood from 18 adults with non-erosive OLP and 22 adults with erosive OLP compared with 15 healthy adults. We also studied the changes in MAIT cells in 15 OLP patients receiving and 10 not receiving corticosteroids. Surface proteins including CD4, CD8, CD69, CD103, CD38, HLA-DR, Tim-3, Programmed Death Molecule-1 (PD-1), and related factors released by MAIT cells such as Granzyme B (GzB), interferon (IFN)-γ, tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-17A, and IL-22 were detected.

RESULTS

Within non-erosive OLP patients, MAIT cells manifested an activated phenotype, evident in an elevated frequency of CD69+ CD38+ MAIT cells (p < 0.01). Conversely, erosive OLP patients displayed an activation and depletion phenotype in MAIT cells, typified by elevated CD69 (p < 0.01), CD103 (p < 0.05), and PD-1 expression (p < 0.01). Additionally, MAIT cells exhibited heightened cytokine production, encompassing GzB, IFN-γ, and IL-17A in erosive OLP patients. Notably, the proportion of CD103+ MAIT cells (p < 0.05) and GzB secretion (p < 0.01) by MAIT cells diminished, while the proportion of CD8+ MAIT cells (p < 0.05) rose in OLP patients with corticosteroid therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

MAIT cells exhibit increased pathogenicity and pro-inflammatory capabilities in OLP. Corticosteroid therapy influences the expression of certain phenotypes and functions of MAIT cells in the peripheral blood of OLP patients.

CPT-11 mitigates autoimmune diseases by suppressing effector T cells without affecting long-term anti-tumor immunity

The incidence of autoimmune diseases has significantly increased over the past 20 years. Excessive host immunoreactions and disordered immunoregulation are at the core of the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. The traditional anti-tumor chemotherapy drug CPT-11 is associated with leukopenia. Considering that CPT-11 induces leukopenia, we believe that it is a promising drug for the control of autoimmune diseases. Here, we show that CPT-11 suppresses T cell proliferation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in healthy C57BL/6 mice and in complete Freund's adjuvant-challenged mice. We found that CPT-11 effectively inhibited T cell proliferation and Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation by inhibiting glycolysis in T cells. We also assessed CPT-11 efficacy in treating autoimmune diseases in models of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and psoriasis. Finally, we proved that treatment of autoimmune diseases with CPT-11 did not suppress long-term immune surveillance for cancer. Taken together, these results show that CPT-11 is a promising immunosuppressive drug for autoimmune disease treatment.

Prevalence of oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes mellitus: A cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

Oral lichen planus, a chronic inflammatory immune disease, occurs in the oral mucosa. We aimed to assess the prevalence and possible influencing factors of oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes mellitus.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study involved 525 patients with diabetes mellitus and 525 controls. We collected information on blood glucose level, duration of diabetes, diabetic complications, treatment methods, other systemic diseases and medication history.

RESULTS

Oral lichen planus was significantly more prevalent in the diabetes mellitus/type 2 diabetes mellitus group than in the controls (2.3%/2.2% vs. 0.6%, p = 0.019/0.022). There was no significant association between patients with diabetes mellitus with and those without oral lichen planus in age (p = 0.195), sex (p = 0.390), blood glucose level (p = 1), duration of diabetes (p = 0.638), diabetic complications (p = 1), treatment methods (p = 0.962), other systemic diseases (p = 0.891) and medication history (p = 0.848).

CONCLUSIONS

Diabetes mellitus was associated with oral lichen planus; there was a higher prevalence of oral lichen planus in patients with diabetes mellitus/type 2 diabetes mellitus than in those without diabetes. Oral lichen planus development in patients with diabetes mellitus was not significantly associated with age, sex, blood glucose level, duration of diabetes, diabetic complications, treatment methods, other systemic diseases and medication history.

What can we learn from treatments of oral lichen planus?

Oral lichen planus (OLP), a T-lymphocyte-mediated disease of the oral mucosa, has a complex pathogenesis that involves a number of factors. The disease is characterized by recurrent episodes and requires continuous follow up, and there is no curative treatment available. Erosive lichen planus, among others, has a risk of malignant transformation and requires standardized treatment to control its progression. Different clinical subtypes of oral lichen planus require appropriate treatment. Pharmacological treatments are the most widely available and have the greatest variety of options and a number of novel pharmacological treatments are presented as highlights, including JAK enzyme inhibitors. The second is photodynamic therapy, which is the leading physiological treatment. In addition, periodontal treatment and psychological treatment should not be neglected. In this review, we briefly discuss the most recent developments in therapies for oral lichen planus after summarizing the most widely used clinical treatments, aiming to provide different proposals for future clinical treatment.

Dynamic changes of Th1/Th2/Th17 cytokines and hBD-2/3 in erosive oral lichen planus patients saliva before and after prednisone acetate treatment

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the expression of T helper 1 (Th1)/Th2/Th17- related cytokines and human beta defensins 2 and 3 (hBD-2 and -3) in the saliva of patients with erosive oral lichen planus (EOLP) and to explore their role in the pathogenesis of EOLP and the effects of glucocorticoids on EOLP.

Methods

A total of 30 patients with EOLP and 20 age- and sex-matched healthy individuals were included in this study. The patients were treated with prednisone at a dose of 0.4 mg/(kg·d) for 1 week and examined before and after treatment. Unstimulated whole saliva samples were collected to determine the levels of cytokines (interleukin 1 beta [IL-1β], tumour necrosis factor alpha [TNF]-α, interferon gamma [IFN-γ], IL-4, IL-6, IL-10 and IL-17) by cytometric bead array and those of hBD-2 and -3 b y enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, oral rinse samples were collected to detect Candida load.

Results

The levels of salivary IL-1β, IL-6, hBD-2 and hBD-3 were higher and the IFN-γ/IL-4 and IL-1β/IL-6 ratios were lower in patients with EOLP than in healthy individuals. In patients with EOLP, hBD-2 levels were positively correlated with IFN-γ levels and negatively correlated with IL-17 levels, whereas hBD-3 levels were negatively correlated with IL-17 and IL-10 levels. In addition, the prevalence of EOLP was positively correlated with IL-6 levels and negatively correlated with the IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio. The levels of IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, hBD-2 and hBD-3 and the IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio decreased after treatment with prednisone for 1 week. The levels of IL-6, hBD-2 and hBD-3 were significantly higher in EOLP patients than in healthy individuals; while TNF-α levels and the IFN-γ/IL-4 ratio were significantly lower in EOLP patients than in healthy individuals. Furthermore, the oral counts of Candida spp. (colony forming unit [CFU]) were negatively correlated with TNF-α levels. Numerical Rating Scale(NRS) and Sign scores decreased in EOLP patients after treatment. Approximately 80 % of patients were effectively treated. Salivary TNF-α levels were significantly higher in the treatment-ineffective group than in the treatment-effective group before treatment with prednisone, and differences in salivary IL-6 levels before and after treatment were significantly higher in the treatment-effective group than in the treatment-ineffective group.

Conclusions

High expression of IL-1β, IL-6, hBD-2 and Th1/Th2 imbalance in saliva may be associated with the pathogenesis of EOLP. IFN-γ/IL-4 balance may serve as a protective factor for EOLP. Glucocorticoids significantly alleviate the symptoms of EOLP and inhibit the expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines.

Oral Lichen Planus: An Update on Diagnosis and Management

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disease whose pathogenesis involves a T-cell mediated, epithelium-directed inflammation in response to unknown antigen(s). The disease evolves by intermittent flares and displays polymorphous clinical features (reticular, erosive, atrophic, plaque, papular, bullous, etc.). When present, symptoms vary depending on the clinical form and range from discomfort to severe pain. Topical superpotent corticosteroids constitute the first-line treatment of symptomatic flares, whereas a wide range of second/third-line treatments are available among topical calcineurin inhibitors, systemic corticosteroids, systemic retinoids, topical/systemic immunomodulators, etc. Follow-up of patients is necessary to detect transformation into squamous cell carcinoma, occurring in approximately 1% of patients.

Bridging the gaps: management of lichen planus subtypes in a joint dermatology-oral surgery clinic

Lichen planus (LP) presents with a range of clinical subtypes. It can affect the outer skin, involve the nails and present with alopecia and mucosal symptoms to varying degrees. LP of the outer skin mostly shows a self-limiting course; however, this is not the case for lichen planopilaris and the mucosa-affecting subtypes. The pathogenesis of LP is still incompletely understood. As a result, an effective, targeted therapy is currently lacking and different immunomodulatory approaches are being used in clinical practice. The management of patients with severe oral LP mucosae can be particularly challenging. Although the true risk remains controversial, oral LP is considered a risk factor for the development of squamous cell carcinoma and there is a need for regular screening. The quality of life in patients with LP is significantly impaired because of frequent clinical visits, pain, soreness, inability to eat certain foods, side effects to medication, frustrating therapy attempts and worry regarding cancer risk. We highlight here the advantages of an interdisciplinary dermatology and oral surgery clinic, which can address the domains of tooth status, nutrition, pain and malignant transformation and optimized patient management.

Lichenoid mucocutaneous reactions associated with sintilimab therapy in a non-small cell lung adenocarcinoma patient: case report and review

The immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI), anti-programmed cell death receptor-1 (PD-1) antibody, has gained widespread approval for treating various malignancies. Among the immune-related adverse reactions (irAEs) during ICI treatment, the lichenoid reaction is noteworthy. Sintilimab, a new PD-1 inhibitor, has secured approval in China for treating refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, and phase I/II clinical trials for other solid tumors are ongoing both domestically and abroad. This paper presents a case of a mucocutaneous lichenoid reaction associated with sintilimab therapy, its diagnosis, and management. Our study, using multiplex immunofluorescence staining, reveals localized infiltration of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes in the subepithelial lamina propria region with upregulated PD-1 expression, implying an association between PD-1 expression upregulation and lichenoid reactions provoked by PD-1 monoclonal antibody. We provide a summary of clinical characteristics and treatment guidelines for lichenoid reactions induced by ICIs from previous reports, highlighting the success of a combined therapeutic regimen of oral antihistamines and topical corticosteroids in controlling symptoms without interrupting ICI treatment.

Non-Coding RNAs as Potential Targets for Diagnosis and Treatment of Oral Lichen Planus: A Narrative Review

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disease that is characterized by the infiltration of T cells into the oral mucosa, causing the apoptosis of basal keratinocytes. OLP is a multifactorial disease of unknown etiology and is not solely caused by the malfunction of a single key gene but rather by various intracellular and extracellular factors. Non-coding RNAs play a critical role in immunological homeostasis and inflammatory response and are found in all cell types and bodily fluids, and their expression is closely regulated to preserve normal physiologies. The dysregulation of non-coding RNAs may be highly implicated in the onset and progression of diverse inflammatory disorders, including OLP. This narrative review summarizes the role of non-coding RNAs in molecular and cellular changes in the oral epithelium during OLP pathogenesis.

ASCT2-mediated glutamine uptake promotes Th1 differentiation via ROS-EGR1-PAC1 pathway in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease of oral mucosa concerning with the redox imbalance. Although glutamine uptake mediated by alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 2 (ASCT2) is critical to T cell differentiation, the exact mechanism remains ambiguous. Here, we elucidate a novel regulatory mechanism of ASCT2-mediated uptake in the differentiation and proliferation of T cells through maintaining redox balance in OLP. The results of immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed that both ASCT2 and glutaminase (GLS) were obviously upregulated compared to controls in OLP. Moreover, correlation analyses indicated that ASCT2 expression was significantly related to GLS level. Interestingly, the upregulation of glutamine metabolism in epithelial layer was consistent with that in lamina propria. Functional assays in vitro revealed the positive association between glutamine metabolism and lymphocytes infiltration. Additionally, multiplex immunohistochemistry (mIHC) uncovered a stronger colocalization among ASCT2 and CD4 and IFN-γ, which was further demonstrated by human Th1 differentiation assay in vitro. Mechanistically, targeting glutamine uptake through interference with ASCT2 using L-γ-Glutamyl-p-nitroanilide (GPNA) decreased the glutamine uptake of T cells and leaded to the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), which promoted dual specificity phosphatase 2 (DUSP2/PAC1) expression through activation of early growth response 1 (EGR1) to induce dephosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and inhibit Th1 differentiation in turn. These results demonstrated that glutamine uptake mediated by ASCT2 induced Th1 differentiation by ROS-EGR1-PAC1 pathway, and restoring the redox dynamic balance through targeting ASCT2 may be a potential treatment for T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases.

Different expression profiles of circulating miR-31 and miR-181a in CD4+ T cells and plasma of patients with oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T cell-mediated inflammatory-immune disease in which CD4+ T cells may be significantly involved in the dysregulated immune response. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) critically control gene expression post-transcriptionally and regulate the immune response and inflammation. Here, we explored the expression profiles of circulating miRs (miR-19b, miR-31, and miR-181a), which can modulate CD4+ T cell activation, differentiation, and immune function. Quantitative real-time PCR showed that miR-31 and miR-181a dramatically decreased in peripheral CD4+ T cells, whereas they markedly increased in the plasma of OLP patients, especially in the erosive form. However, no significant differences were observed in the expression of miR-19b in CD4+ T cells and plasma between OLP patients and healthy controls or between different forms of OLP. Moreover, miR-31 expression positively correlated with the miR-181a expression in the CD4+ T cells and plasma of OLP patients. Furthermore, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses indicated that miR-31 and miR-181a, rather than miR-19b, in CD4+ T cells and plasma could discriminate OLP, especially erosive OLP, from healthy controls. In conclusion, there were different expression profiles of circulating miR-31 and miR-181a in CD4+ T cells and plasma of patients with OLP, which could synergistically serve as potential biomarkers for OLP.

Skin-infiltrating T cells display distinct inflammatory signatures in lichen planus, bullous pemphigoid and pemphigus vulgaris

Introduction

We here thought to dissect the inflammatory signature in lesions of three skin disorders, which show a common adaptive immune response against autoantigens of the skin but are characterized by diverging clinical phenotypes. Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) and bullous pemphigoid (BP) are type-2-dependent, IgG autoantibody-driven blistering disorders of mucous membranes and skin, which target desmoglein (Dsg)3 and bullous pemphigoid (BP)180, respectively. In contrast, lichen planus (LP) is a common chronic inflammatory disease of the skin and mucous membranes with a pronounced dermal T cell infiltrate. We previously identified peripheral type 1 and 17 T cell responses against Dsg3 and BP180 in a cohort of LP patients strongly suggesting that the underlying inflammatory T cell signature may drive the evolving phenotype.

Methods

Paraffin-embedded skin biopsies from well-characterized patients with LP (n=31), BP (n=19), PV (n=9), and pemphigus foliaceus (PF) (n=2) were analysed. Areas with the most prominent inflammatory infiltrate were excised with punch biopsies and tissue microarrays (TMA) containing multiple biopsies were created. Using multicolor immunofluorescence, the inflammatory infiltrate was stained with antibodies against multiple cellular markers, i. e. CD3ϵ, CD4, CD15, TCR-δ, the cytokine IL-17A, and the transcription factors, T-bet and GATA-3.

Results

In LP, there was a higher number of CD4+ T cells expressing T-bet compared to GATA-3. In contrast, CD4+ T cells in PV and BP skin lesions more frequently expressed GATA-3 than T-bet. IL-17A+ cells and IL-17A+ T cells were found to a similar extent in all the three disorders. IL-17A+ granulocytes were more predominant in BP than in LP or PV. Of note, the majority of IL-17A+ cells in LP were neither T cells nor granulocytes.

Discussion

Our findings in inflammatory skin infiltrates clearly show a predominant type 1 signature in LP in contrast to a preponderance of type 2 T cells in PV and BP. In contrast to LP, granulocytes and to a much lesser extent CD3+ T cells were a cellular source of IL-17A in BP and PV. These data strongly suggest that different inflammatory cell signatures drive evolving clinically diverse phenotypes of LP, PV and BP despite common target antigens of the skin.

ASCT2-mediated glutamine uptake of epithelial cells facilitates CCL5-induced T cell infiltration via ROS-STAT3 pathway in oral lichen planus

BACKGROUND

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by T cell infiltration at lesion sites. T cell migration is greatly facilitated by chemokines produced by epithelial cells. Studies have noted the potential role of glutamine uptake in OLP and other inflammatory diseases. Here, we investigated the effect of altered glutamine uptake of epithelial cells on T cell infiltration and its underlying mechanisms in OLP.

METHODS

Immunohistochemistry was used to identify the expressions of glutamine transporter alanine-serine-cysteine transporter 2 (ASCT2) and C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) in oral tissues of OLP and healthy controls. Human gingival epithelial cells (HGECs) were treated with glutamine deprivation and ASCT2 inhibiter GPNA respectively to detect the expressions of CCL5 and its related signaling molecules. Additionally, we had determined the impact of epithelial cell-derived CCL5 on T-cell migration using a co-culture system in vitro.

RESULTS

ASCT2 and CCL5 expressions in OLP were significantly higher than healthy controls and positively correlated with the density of inflammatory infiltrations. Glutamine supplement significantly increased CCL5 production in HGECs, which was effectively inhibited by GPNA. Besides, glutamine could inhibit reactive oxygen species (ROS) production to activate the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) causing higher expression level of CCL5 in HGECs. Simultaneously, T cell migration could be blocked by anti-CCL5 neutralizing antibody and STAT3 inhibitor stattic in the co-culture system.

CONCLUSION

The upregulated ASCT2-mediated glutamine uptake in epithelial cells promotes CCL5 production via ROS-STAT3 signaling, which boosts the T-cell infiltration in OLP lesion.

Escherichia coli enhances Th17/Treg imbalance via TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T-cell-mediated immunoinflammatory disease. Several studies have proposed that Escherichia coli (E. coli) may participate in the progress of OLP. In this study, we examined the functional role of E. coli and its supernatant via toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor-kappab (NF-κB) signaling pathway in regulating T helper (Th) 17/ regulatory T (Treg) balance and related cytokines and chemokines profile in OLP immune microenvironment. We discovered that E. coli and supernatant could activate the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in human oral keratinocytes (HOKs) and OLP-derived T cells and increase the expression of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-17, C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL) 17 and CCL20, thereby increasing the expression of retinoic acid-related orphan receptor (RoRγt) and the proportion of Th17 cells. Furthermore, the co-culture experiment revealed that HOKs treated with E. coli and supernatant increased T cell proliferation and migration, which promoted HOKs apoptosis. TLR4 inhibitor (TAK-242) successfully reversed the effect of E. coli and its supernatant. Consequently, E. coli and supernatant activated the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in HOKs and OLP-derived T cells, leading to increased cytokines and chemokines expression and Th17/Treg imbalance in OLP.

E. coli LPS/TLR4/NF-κB Signaling Pathway Regulates Th17/Treg Balance Mediating Inflammatory Responses in Oral Lichen Planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease mediated by T cells. The imbalance of microflora has potential impacts on the onset and development of OLP, but the mechanism is still unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of Escherichia coli (E. coli) lipopolysaccharide (LPS) simulating the microbial enrichment state of OLP on T cell immune functions in vitro. Effect of E. coli LPS on the viability of T cell using CCK8 assay. After E. coli LPS pretreatment, the expression of the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), nuclear factor-kappa B p65 (NF-κB p65), cytokines, retinoic acid-related orphan receptor γt (RORγt), and forkhead box p3 (Foxp3) in the peripheral blood of OLP patients and normal controls (NC) were assessed using quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), western blot, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Finally, Th17 and Treg cells were detected by flow cytometry. We found that the TLR4/NF-κB pathway was activated and the expression of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-17 was increased in both groups after E. coli LPS stimulation. CC chemokine ligand (CCL)20 and CC chemokine receptor (CCR)4 expression was increased in OLP after E. coli LPS treatment, while no difference was found in CCR6 and CCL17 expression of both groups. Moreover, E. coli LPS treatment enhanced the proportion of Th17 cells, Th17/Treg ratio, and RORγt/Foxp3 ratio in OLP. In conclusion, E. coli LPS regulated Th17/Treg balance to mediate the inflammatory responses of OLP through the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in vitro, indicating that oral microbiota dysbiosis affected the chronic inflammatory state of OLP.

Regulatory T cell therapy suppresses inflammation of oral mucosa

Oral inflammatory diseases, including oral lichen planus (OLP) and recurrent aphthous ulcer (RAU), seriously affect the patient’s quality of life. Due to the lack of ideal disease models, it is difficult to determine whether novel immunotherapy strategies are effective in treating oral inflammatory diseases. Here, we show that the deficiency of Foxp3 or IL-2 caused oral mucosa inflammation in mice, proving that Treg cells are important in maintaining the immune homeostasis in the oral mucosa. Then we determined that adoptive transfer of CD4⁺CD25^-CD45Rb^high T cells could induce oral inflammation in Rag1^-/- mice, and co-transfer of Treg cells together with CD4⁺CD25^-CD45Rb^high T cells could suppress the development of oral inflammation in this mouse model. Our study showed that adoptive transfer of CD4⁺CD25^-CD45Rb^high T cells into Rag1^-/- mice could be a novel disease model of oral inflammation. Our data provides direct evidence that Treg cell therapy is effective in suppressing oral mucosa inflammation in mice. Therefore, Treg cell therapy may be a promising novel strategy to treat oral inflammatory diseases.

JAK inhibitors in lichen planus: A review of pathogenesis and treatments

Lichen planus (LP) is an auto-inflammatory skin disorder identified by a presence of T-cell lymphocytes at the dermal-epidermal junction. It is hypothesized that the INF-γ/CXCL10 axis fulfills a major role in the onset and persistence of chronic inflammation in LP. Since Janus kinases (JAKs) are involved in the transduction of INF-γ signals, they may be good targets for LP treatment. Several case reports and case series described the safety and efficacy of upadacitinib (2 articles), tofacitinib (6 articles), baricitinib (4 articles), and Ruxolitinib (1 Article) in the treatment of LP variants. The predominant variants that JAK inhibitors improved were lichen planopilaris, nail LP, and erosive LP. Considering the role of the JAK pathway in LP pathogenesis and the evidence provided by these reports, it seems JAK inhibitors would be effective therapeutic agents for LP treatment. Hence, these agents should be trialed and evaluated further.

circRNA: Regulatory factors and potential therapeutic targets in inflammatory dermatoses

The skin is the largest organ of the human body and acts as the first line of defence against injury and infection. Skin diseases are among the most common health problems and are associated with a considerable burden that encompasses financial, physical and mental consequences for patients. Exploring the pathogenesis of skin diseases can provide insights into new treatment strategies. Inflammatory dermatoses account for a large proportion of dermatoses and have a great impact on the patients' body and quality of life. Therefore, it is important to study their pathogenesis and explore effective treatment. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a special type of RNA molecules that play important regulatory roles in several diseases and are involved in skin pathophysiological processes. This review summarizes the biogenesis, properties and functions of circRNAs as well as their roles in the pathogenesis of inflammatory dermatoses, including psoriasis, lupus erythematosus, atopic dermatitis, lichen planus and severe acne and their potential as therapeutic targets.

Immune mechanisms in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T-cell-mediated inflammatory disease of the oral mucosa that has been extensively researched over many years but as yet the mechanisms of pathogenesis are still not fully understood. Whilst the specific etiologic factors driving OLP remain ambiguous, evidence points to the development of a chronic, dysregulated immune response to OLP-mediating antigens presented by innate immune cells and oral keratinocytes leading to increased cytokine, chemokine and adhesion molecule expression. These molecules recruit T-cells and mast cells to the diseased site and orchestrate a complex interplay between cells that culminates in keratinocyte cell death, mucosal basement membrane destruction and long-term chronicity of the disease. The main lymphocytes involved are thought to be CD8+ cytotoxic and CD4+ Th1 polarised T-cells although recent evidence indicates the involvement of other Th subsets such as Th9, Th17 and Tregs, suggesting that a more complex immune cell relationship exists during the disease process. This review provides an overview of the immune mechanisms at play in OLP pathogenesis with particular emphasis on the role of the different Th subsets and how these recent discoveries may guide research toward identifying potential therapeutic targets.

Reveals of quercetin's therapeutic effects on oral lichen planus based on network pharmacology approach and experimental validation

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a localized autoimmune disease of the oral mucosa, with an incidence of up to 2%. Although corticosteroids are the first-line treatment, they cause several adverse effects. Quercetin, a naturally occurring compound, has fewer side-effects and provides long-term benefits. Besides, it has powerful anti‑inflammatory activities. Here, we combined network pharmacology with experimental verification to predict and verify the key targets of quercetin against OLP. First, 66 quercetin-OLP common targets were analyzed from various databases. The protein–protein interaction (PPI) network was constructed. Topology analysis and MCODE cluster analysis of common targets were conducted to identify 12 key targets including TP53, IL-6 and IFN-γ and their connections. Gene functions and key signaling pathways, including reactive oxygen species metabolism, IL-17 pathway and AGE-RAGE pathway, were enriched by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analysis. Then, in vitro experiments showed that quercetin interfered with Th1/Th2 balance by acting on IL-6 and IFN-γ to modulate the immune system in treating OLP. Quercetin considerably affected the apoptosis and migration of T lymphocytes in OLP patients. Our study reveals the potential therapeutic targets and signaling pathways of quercetin associated with OLP, and establishes the groundwork for future clinical applications.

Salivary cytokine profile in patients with oral lichen planus

Background/purpose

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory lesion of oral mucosal, and its pathogenesis involves immune cell-mediated aberrances. However, the findings conflict with each other. This research aimed to comprehensively detect the salivary cytokine profile of patients with OLP.

Materials and methods

The cohort included 60 OLP patients (30 reticular and 30 erosive), and 30 healthy controls, matched in age and sex. Human Cytokine/Chemokine Magnetic Bead Panel Kit (HCYTMAG-60K-PX41) was used to detect salivary inflammation-related cytokines. Rank sum test, group t-test, and ANOVA were used for data analysis in different groups. Moreover, Spearman's rank correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation between salivary cytokine levels and OLP lesion severity.

Results

The levels of TNF-α, G-GSF, IL-1α, IL-1β and IL-8 were statistically significant higher in both erosive and reticular OLP patients than in the healthy group, while the IL-13 level was significantly lower. Particularly, the salivary TNF-α, GM-CSF, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-8 levels were higher in erosive OLP group than other groups. Spearman's rank correlation analysis revealed that the salivary TNF-α, GM-CSF, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, IL-1β and IL-6 levels were positively correlated with OLP lesion severity.

Conclusion

Imbalance of the Th1/Th2-mediated immune response contributes to OLP. Certain salivary cytokines, such as MIP-1α, MIP-1β, GM-CSF, and IL-6, are positively correlated with OLP severity, and they have a high potential as biomarkers to diagnose and predict OLP prognosis.

RNA-Seq based transcriptome analysis in oral lichen planus

Objectives

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease recognized as an oral potential malignant disorder (OPMD) with the precise mechanism unknown. This study focused on the transcriptional profiles of OLP to elucidate its potential pathogenesis.

Methods

We conducted RNA sequencing on matched 6 OLP tissues and 6 normal oral mucosal tissues. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) were performed on differentially expressed genes (DEGs). We utilized qRT-PCR to validated the top dysregulated genes and hub genes in another 10 pairs of specimens.

Results

A total of 153 DEGs (p-values< 0.05) were detected from RNA-Seq. According to GO and KEGG analysis, the dysregulated genes were mainly related to T cell related pathway and Wnt signaling. Based on the WGCNA analysis, 5 modules with high intramodular connectivity and hub genes in each module were gained.

Conclusions

RNA-Seq and bioinformatic methods offered a valuable understanding of the biological pathways and key genes in the regulation of OLP. The identified DEGs and hub genes categorized into 2 groups including T cell regulation and inflammation and Wnt signaling pathway may serve as potential novel molecular targets for therapy.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41065-021-00202-z.

Oral lichen planus - case report

This paper presents the case of a 58-year-old heavy smoker female who came to our clinic with acute pain, as well as mastication and feeding difficulties. The macroscopic examination revealed oral erosive lesions and ulcerations. The polymorphic aspect of the lesions required the differential diagnosis of oral erythroplakia or carcinoma, which were excluded by biopsy. At the same time, we assessed the expression of S100 protein, Ki67 and the cluster of differentiation (CD) 4, CD8 (T-cell) and CD20 (B-cell) immune cell markers by immunohistochemical analysis. As a result, after the clinical and pathological assessment, the diagnosis of oral lichen planus was established, and a therapy plan was conducted. We observed a favorable clinical evolution after the administration of corticosteroids and immunomodulatory agents.

T cell-derived exosomes containing cytokines induced keratinocytes apoptosis in oral lichen planus

OBJECTIVE

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T cell-mediated inflammatory disease with uncertain etiology. Exosomes are cell-derived vesicles containing biological cargo, being associated with the development of multiple inflammatory diseases. The present study aims to investigate the role of T cell-derived exosomes in the pathogenesis of OLP.

METHODS

Exosomal marker CD63 was detected in OLP lesions by immunohistochemistry. Twenty-three cytokines in T cell-derived exosomes were assessed using luminex xMAP-based assay. After co-incubating with exosomes, the apoptosis of keratinocytes and the proliferation of Jurkat cells were assessed via flow cytometry and cell counting kit-8 assay, respectively.

RESULTS

CD63 was highly expressed in the lymphocyte infiltrated areas of OLP lesions. OLP T cell-derived exosomes contained upregulated interleukin-7, -10, -12, -17 and downregulated interleukin-1β, -5, and interferon-γ. Both exosomes from OLP patients and controls induced the apoptosis of keratinocytes and altered their morphology. Moreover, healthy control-derived exosomes markedly inhibited the proliferation of Jurkat cells, whereas OLP-derived exosomes exhibited no inhibitory effect.

CONCLUSIONS

OLP T cell-derived exosomes have an aberrant cytokine profile and could trigger the apoptosis of keratinocytes in vitro, which may be involved in the pathogenesis of OLP.

The expression of membrane-bound complement regulatory proteins CD46, CD55 and CD59 in oral lichen planus

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the expression levels of membrane-anchored complement regulatory proteins (mCRPs), CD46, CD55 and CD59 in oral lichen planus (OLP), and evaluate the activation status of complement.

DESIGN

Thirty-seven cases of OLP patients (20 non-erosive OLP and 17 erosive OLP) and twenty healthy controls were recruited in this study. The proteins and mRNA expression levels of CD46, CD55 and CD59 in OLP tissues were detected by western blotting and RT-qPCR respectively, and the expression levels of complement C3 and sC5b-9 in OLP patients' saliva were detected by ELISA to evaluate the activation status of complement. In addition, mucosa tissues of another 3 non-erosive OLP patients and another 3 healthy controls were collected, and the epithelial layer of two groups were separated to culture primary keratinocytes in vitro. Immunofluorescence was used to further detect the expression of mCRPs at the cellular level.

RESULTS

The levels of CD46, CD55 and CD59 in OLP tissues and cells were significantly decreased compared with those of the healthy control group, and the level of complement C3 in the patients' saliva was significantly decreased, while the level of sC5b-9 was increased.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that the reduced expression of mCRPs keeps the complement system in a continuously active state, which may be the reason of the persistent local immune inflammatory state in OLP. This study aimed to provide new insights for the etiology and therapy of OLP.

Induction of High Endothelial Venule-like Vessels in Oral and Cutaneous Lichen Planus: A Comparative Study

Lichen planus (LP) is a chronic inflammatory mucocutaneous disease involving the oral mucosa and skin. Both oral LP (OLP) and cutaneous LP (CLP) are histopathologically characterized by dense subepithelial lymphocyte infiltrates; however, the mechanisms underlying lymphocyte recruitment to sites of LP lesions are not fully understood. Here, we assessed the induction of peripheral lymph node addressin (PNAd)-expressing high endothelial venule (HEV)-like vessels in 19 OLP and 17 CLP cases. To do so, we performed immunohistochemical staining for PNAd and CD34, followed by quantitative analysis. We also conducted triple immunohistochemistry for PNAd and either CD3 and CD20 or CD4 and CD8 to identify the lymphocyte subset preferentially recruited via HEV-like vessels. PNAd-expressing HEV-like vessels were induced in and around lymphocyte aggregates in all cases of OLP and in 10 of 17 CLP cases, and these vessels were more frequently observed in OLP relative to CLP. Although the number of T-cells attached per HEV-like vessel exceeded the number of B-cells in both OLP and CLP, the number of CD4⁺ T-cells attached was greater than the number of CD8⁺ T-cells only in OLP. These findings combined suggest that PNAd-expressing HEV-like vessels play a more important role in the pathogenesis of OLP compared with CLP.

T cell-derived exosomes induced macrophage inflammatory protein-1α/β drive the trafficking of CD8+ T cells in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T cell–mediated chronic inflammatory disease with uncertain aetiology. Exosomes are nanosized particles with biological capacities. Here, we aimed to study the effects of T cell–derived exosomes (T‐exos) on the pathogenesis of OLP and its mechanism. T‐exos were incubated with Jurkat cells for 48 hours, and 26 cytokines in the supernatant were measured by luminex assay. The expression of macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)‐1α/β was detected using immunohistochemistry and ELISA; that of CCR1/3/5 on peripheral T cells was determined by flow cytometry. Transwell assay was performed to investigate the chemotactic effect of MIP‐1α/β, and cells in the lower chambers were examinated by flow cytometry. As a result, OLP T‐exos elevated the production of MIP‐1α/β, which were highly expressed in OLP tissues and plasma. CCR1/5 were markedly expressed on OLP peripheral T cells, and the majority of CCR1/5⁺ T cells were CD8⁺ T cells. Besides, MIP‐1α/β promoted the migration of OLP mononuclear cells, while inhibiting CCR1/5 significantly decreased the trafficking of mononuclear cells, especially that of CD8⁺ T cells. Conclusively, OLP T‐exos‐induced MIP‐1α/β may drive the trafficking of CD8⁺ T cells after binding with CCR1/5 in OLP, contributing to the development of OLP.

IFN-γ enhances cell-mediated cytotoxicity against keratinocytes via JAK2/STAT1 in lichen planus

Lichen planus (LP) is a chronic debilitating inflammatory disease of unknown etiology affecting the skin, nails, and mucosa with no current FDA-approved treatments. It is histologically characterized by dense infiltration of T cells and epidermal keratinocyte apoptosis. Using global transcriptomic profiling of patient skin samples, we demonstrate that LP is characterized by a type II interferon (IFN) inflammatory response. The type II IFN, IFN-γ, is demonstrated to prime keratinocytes and increase their susceptibility to CD8⁺ T cell-mediated cytotoxic responses through MHC class I induction in a coculture model. We show that this process is dependent on Janus kinase 2 (JAK2) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1), but not JAK1 or STAT2 signaling. Last, using drug prediction algorithms, we identify JAK inhibitors as promising therapeutic agents in LP and demonstrate that the JAK1/2 inhibitor baricitinib fully protects keratinocytes against cell-mediated cytotoxic responses in vitro. In summary, this work elucidates the role and mechanisms of IFN-γ in LP pathogenesis and provides evidence for the therapeutic use of JAK inhibitors to limit cell-mediated cytotoxicity in patients with LP.

HIF1α/PLD2 axis linked to glycolysis induces T-cell immunity in oral lichen planus

BACKGROUND

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a common T-cell-mediated immunological disease. Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF1α) plays an integral role in the glycolytic metabolism that facilitates immune functions from boosting cellular proliferative capacity to driving T-cell differentiation. In general, phospholipase D2 (PLD2) is required for HIF1α regulation. However, the involvement of HIF1α and PLD2 in dysfunctional T-cell immunity of OLP remains elusive.

METHODS

HIF1α and PLD2 expression in OLP lesions were determined by qRT-PCR, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining, and correlation analysis was carried out between their expressions. HIF1α or PLD2 silencing in T cells was performed to investigate the glycolytic alteration. Then their involvement in T-cell immunobiology was evaluated by detecting cell proliferation, cell cycle, apoptosis, and effector subsets differentiation. Additionally, the modulation of HIF1α on PLD2 expression and the engagement of mTOR in this process were explored.

RESULTS

HIF1α and PLD2 protein were highly expressed in OLP lesions and they were both observed in large numbers of local CD3⁺ T cells in OLP. Besides, HIF1α expression was positively correlated with PLD2 expression in OLP. Both HIF1α and PLD2 promoted T-cell proliferation and pro-inflammatory phenotype differentiation, which was associated with the upregulation of glycolysis mediated by HIF1α or PLD2. Moreover, HIF1α induced PLD2 expression in an mTOR-independent way.

CONCLUSIONS

HIF1α/PLD2 axis was supposed to be critical regulatory signaling involved in the T-cell immunity of OLP.

The mTOR-glycolytic pathway promotes T-cell immunobiology in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T-cell-mediated inflammatory mucosal disease. T cells require rapid metabolic reprogramming for their effector functions after activation by immunologic stimuli. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a central player in the metabolic reprogramming and immune responses of T cells. The present study investigated the role of mTOR in the immunometabolism of OLP. mTOR and its direct target eukaryotic initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 (4E-BP1) were highly phosphorylated in peripheral T cells of OLP patients. Rapamycin-mediated blockage of mTOR activation restrained both T-cell proliferation and DNA synthesis, promoted apoptosis, and decreased Th1/Th2 and Th17/Treg ratios. Dual blockage of mTOR and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) exerted stronger inhibition on T-cell immunobiology than selective repression of PI3K alone. Rapamycin also blocked the glycolytic pathway in T cells. Moreover, glucose-induced activation of mTOR-glycolytic pathway increased T-cell proliferation, DNA synthesis, and the Th17/Treg ratio, and decreased T-cell apoptosis. In contrast, inhibition of glycolysis by 2-Deoxy-d-glucose (2-DG) yielded the opposite effects on T-cell immunobiology by blocking the mTOR pathway. In conclusion, enhanced activation of the mTOR-glycolytic pathway promoted T-cell immunobiology, suggesting that dysregulation of immunometabolism might be associated with T-cell dysfunction in OLP.

MicroRNA-26a/b have protective roles in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a kind of oral epithelial disorder featured with keratinocyte apoptosis and inflammatory reaction. The pathogenesis of OLP remains an enigma. Herein, we showed that the levels of miR-26a/b were robustly down-regulated in oral mucosal biopsies, serum and saliva in OLP patients compared with healthy control. Moreover, we found the binding sites of vitamin D receptor (VDR) in the promoter regions of miR-26a/b genes and proved that the induction of miR-26a/b was VDR dependent. The reduction of miR-26a/b expression was also detected in the oral epithelium of vitamin D deficient or VDR knockout mice. miR-26a/b inhibitors enhanced apoptosis and Type 1T helper (Th1) cells-related cytokines production in oral keratinocytes, whereas miR-26a/b mimics were protective. Mechanistically, we analyzed miRNA target genes and confirmed that miR-26a/b blocked apoptosis by directly targeting Protein Kinase C δ (PKCδ) which promotes cellular apoptotic processes. Meanwhile, miR-26a/b suppressed Th1-related cytokines secretion through targeting cluster of the differentiation 38 (CD38). In accordant with miR-26a/b decreases, PKCδ and CD38 levels were highly elevated in OLP patients’ samples. Taken together, our present investigations suggest that vitamin D/VDR-induced miR-26a/b take protective functions in OLP via both inhibiting apoptosis and impeding inflammatory response in oral keratinocytes.

Cytokines Levels and Salivary Microbiome Play A Potential Role in Oral Lichen Planus Diagnosis

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic Th1-mediated inflammatory mucocutaneous disease of the skin and oral mucosa that can have various clinical presentations. Lesions are usually bilateral and often painful. While cutaneous Lichen Planus (LP) lesions are self-limiting, the oral lesions are chronic and rarely remissive. The diagnosis of oral lichen planus (OLP) is often challenging, and confirmation by histopathological criterion is generally advised. The aim of our study was to identify the cytokines present in OLP-suggestive lesions and in non-specific inflammatory lesions (NSIL) used as controls. Moreover, assess cytokines protein levels and oral microbiota composition in whole saliva samples. Histopathological analysis, immunohistochemistry and gene expression were used as techniques to analyze the oral mucosal tissue samples. ELISA was conducted to analyze salivary cytokine levels and 16S rRNA sequencing was used to determine the salivary microbiome. As a result we observed larger number of infiltrated lymphocytes (p = 0.025), as well, more T CD4 lymphocytes in the epithelial tissue (p = 0.006) in OLP samples compared to NSIL. In addition, the OLP samples displayed more apoptotic cells compared to NSIL (p = 0.047). Regarding the cytokine analysis, IFN-γ and IL-33 were more expressed in OLP lesions than in NSIL samples (p < 0.001; p = 0.026). Furthermore, our results demonstrated higher levels of IFN-γ protein expression in the saliva of OLP group compared to controls (p = 0.0156). We also observed noted differences in the oral microbiota composition between OLP and NSIL saliva samples. In conclusion, OLP lesions presented larger numbers of apoptotic and inflammatory cells, higher levels of IFN-γ and IL-33 compared to NSIL, and these lesions also differ regarding oral microbiota composition. These results are consistent with the Th-1-mediated chronic inflammation nature of oral lichen planus investigated lesions and displayed unique features that could be used as a diagnostic tool.

Significant reduction in the expression of interleukins-17A, 22 and 23A, forkhead box p3 and interferon gamma delineates lichen planus pigmentosus from lichen planus

Recent studies have noticed significant role of interleukin (IL)-17, 22, 23, Foxp3, interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and Wnt5a in oral and cutaneous lichen planus (LP). This study was undertaken to assess whether similar expression exists in lichen planus pigmentosus (LPP). We recruited 30 patients of treatment-naïve 'LPP' (in absence of cutaneous/mucosal LP elsewhere, group 1), 10 patients having active treatment-naïve cutaneous 'LP' (group 2), 10 patients having 'post-LP' hyperpigmentation (in absence of active LP and off treatment for at least past 3 months, group 3), and 10 controls. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR, peripheral blood mononuclear cells [PBMCs] and skin) and immunohistochemistry (IHC, skin) was performed. mRNA expression (in PBMCs) of IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23A, IFN-γ and Foxp3 was significantly decreased in group 1 and 3 as compared to group 2 (p < 0.05). Wnt5a expression was maximal in controls; and while there was no difference between group 1 and 2; whereas expression in group 3 was significantly lesser than group 1 and 2 (p < 0.05). qRT-PCR (skin) and IHC (skin) revealed similar results; and mRNA expression and mean fluorescence intensity of IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23A/R was significantly increased in group 2 and 3 compared to group 1 (p < 0.05). Mean fluorescence intensity and mRNA expression of IFN-γ, Foxp3 and Wnt5a were significantly increased in group 2 compared to group 1 (p < 0.05); whereas the difference between group 1 and 3 was not significant. Mean fluorescence intensity and mRNA expression of IL-17A, 1L-22 and IFN-γ showed no difference between group 2 and 3; whereas that of IL-23A/R, foxp3 and wnt5a were significantly higher in group 2 than group 3 (p < 0.05). Overall, maximal expression of IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23A, IFN-γ and Foxp3 (mRNA PBMCs) was observed in LP. Minimal expression of IL-17A, IL-22, IL-23A/R, IFN-γ and Foxp3 (mRNA skin and IHC skin) was seen in LPP patients. In contrast to LP, LPP lacks the expression of IFN-γ, Foxp3 and the cytokines representing Th17 pathway, and thus seems to have a distinct pathogenesis.

Potential roles of the CCL17-CCR4 axis in immunopathogenesis of oral lichen planus

BACKGROUND

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a T cell-mediated chronic inflammatory disease. C-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CCR4) and its cognate C-C motif chemokine ligand 17 (CCL17) play a key role in T-cell activation and trafficking, but their implication in OLP pathogenesis has not been explored. Our study was designed to analyze the expression and function of the CCL17-CCR4 axis in OLP.

METHODS

The mRNA expression levels of CCL17 and CCR4 in the circulating T cells of OLP subjects were examined by quantitative real-time PCR. The protein levels of CCL17 and CCR4 in the peripheral blood of OLP subjects were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Simple Western assay, respectively. The functional relevance of increased expression of CCL17 and CCR4 in OLP was demonstrated in proliferation, apoptosis, and migration assays.

RESULTS

The mRNA and protein expression levels of CCL17 and CCR4 in the peripheral blood of patients with OLP were significantly upregulated compared with those of controls. CCL17 induced the migration of OLP T cells. In addition, blocking CCR4 with a small molecule CCR4 antagonist not only inhibited the proliferation and migration of OLP T cells but also promoted the apoptosis of OLP T cells.

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicate that the CCL17-CCR4 axis might be responsible for the inflammatory infiltration of T cells in OLP.

Salivary mycobiome dysbiosis and its potential impact on bacteriome shifts and host immunity in oral lichen planus

The biodiversity of the mycobiome, an important component of the oral microbial community, and the roles of fungal–bacterial and fungal–immune system interactions in the pathogenesis of oral lichen planus (OLP) remain largely uncharacterized. In this study, we sequenced the salivary mycobiome and bacteriome associated with OLP. First, we described the dysbiosis of the microbiome in OLP patients, which exhibits lower levels of fungi and higher levels of bacteria. Significantly higher abundances of the fungi Candida and Aspergillus in patients with reticular OLP and of Alternaria and Sclerotiniaceae_unidentified in patients with erosive OLP were observed compared to the healthy controls. Aspergillus was identified as an “OLP-associated” fungus because of its detection at a higher frequency than in the healthy controls. Second, the co-occurrence patterns of the salivary mycobiome–bacteriome demonstrated negative associations between specific fungal and bacterial taxa identified in the healthy controls, which diminished in the reticular OLP group and even became positive in the erosive OLP group. Moreover, the oral cavities of OLP patients were colonized by dysbiotic oral flora with lower ecological network complexity and decreased fungal–Firmicutes and increased fungal–Bacteroidetes sub-networks. Third, several keystone fungal genera (Bovista, Erysiphe, Psathyrella, etc.) demonstrated significant correlations with clinical scores and IL-17 levels. Thus, we established that fungal dysbiosis is associated with the aggravation of OLP. Fungal dysbiosis could alter the salivary bacteriome or may reflect a direct effect of host immunity, which participates in OLP pathogenesis.

Imbalance in the oral fungal community could lead to the development of oral lichen planus (OLP), a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the mucous membranes in the mouth. The exact cause of OLP is uncertain, which is a major obstacle to therapeutic development. Using salivary samples, a team headed by Xuedong Zhou at Sichuan University in China investigated the composition and diversity of the fungal community in OLP patients and healthy individuals. The authors found that the oral fungal community was less diverse and that there were higher levels of bacteria in OLP patients. The team concluded that fungal community imbalance could affect the bacterial community in the saliva and the host immunity in the mucous membrane, thereby constituting a direct or indirect cause of the development of OLP.

Vitamin D/VDR signaling inhibits LPS-induced IFNγ and IL-1β in Oral epithelia by regulating hypoxia-inducible factor-1α signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is known as a chronic inflammatory disease. Our recent studies have suggested that vitamin D/vitamin D receptor (VDR) signaling exerts its protective effects on oral keratinocyte apoptosis by regulating microRNA-802 and p53-upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA), but its roles in oral epithelial inflammatory responses in OLP are still unknown. Herein, we identify lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is able to enhance interferon gamma (IFNγ) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) productions in human oral keratinocytes (HOKs) dependent on hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α).

METHODS

HIF-1α and cytokines levels in HOKs were investigated by real-time PCR and western blotting after LPS challenge. The effects of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ on LPS-induced HIF-1α and cytokines were tested by real-time PCR, western blotting, siRNA-interference and plasmids transfection techniques. The roles of 1,25(OH)₂D₃ in regulating HIF-1α levels were investigated using western blotting, siRNA-interference, plasmids transfection and Chromatin Immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays. Finally, HIF-1α, IFNγ and IL-1β expressions in oral epithelia derived from mice and individuals were measured by real-time PCR, western blotting and immunohistochemical staining.

RESULTS

As a critical regulator, vitamin D suppresses LPS-induced HIF-1α to block IFNγ and IL-1β productions. Mechanistically, vitamin D inactivates nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway and up-regulates von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) levels, leading to HIF-1α reduction. Moreover, HIF-1α status of oral epithelia is elevated in VDR^-/- mie as well as in VDR-deficient human biopsies, accompanied with increased IFNγ and IL-1β.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, this study uncovers an unrecognized roles of vitamin D/VDR signaling in regulating cytokines in oral keratinocytes and reveals the molecular basis of it.

Analysis of Immunologic Function Changes in Lichen Planus After Clinical Treatment

BACKGROUND Lichen planus (LP) is a common chronic superficial skin lesion that causes chronic or sub-acute inflammatory disorders. LP can affect the oral cavity, skin, mucous membrane, and other body parts, and features include repeat attacks and long duration, leading to lower quality of life. This study aimed to analyze the changes of immunologic function before and after treatment of LP. MATERIAL AND METHODS Thirty cutaneous LP patients were selected. Peripheral blood was collected in the morning before and after treatment. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated by density gradient method. Flow cytometry was used to detect T cell subpopulation CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T to calculate CD4⁺ T/CD8⁺ T ratio. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was adopted to detect the helper T-cell (Th) factor IL-2, IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-6, IL-17, and IL-22 levels. RESULTS Compared with before treatment, the expressions of CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells were decreased, while the proportion of CD4⁺ T/CD8⁺ T were significantly elevated after treatment. IL-2 and IFN-γ secretion were markedly increased, whereas IL-4, IL-6, IL-17, and IL-22 were significantly reduced after treatment (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS LP treatment reduces the distribution of CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells, and promotes the changes of Th1, Th2, and Th17 cytokines secretion.

Role of miR-155 in immune regulation and its relevance in oral lichen planus

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic mucosal inflammatory disease. The World Health Organization has described it as a potentially malignant condition. The pathogenesis of OLP remains to be fully elucidated, but extensive evidence suggests that immunologic and inflammatory factors have important roles. MicroRNAs (miRs), which are small non-coding RNAs, have been reported to be involved in OLP. In particular, miR-155 is significantly upregulated in patients with OLP. miR-155 has numerous functions and is closely linked to inflammation and immune system regulation. However, in-depth studies of the mechanisms via which miR-155 is involved in OLP are currently insufficient. Considering the close association between miR-155 and immune regulation as well as the importance of immune factors in OLP, the role of miR-155 in the immune system was herein summarized with a focus on OLP. The present review provides a basis for further study of the molecular mechanisms underlying the development and progression of OLP.

IL-25 promotes Th2-type reactions and correlates with disease severity in the pathogenesis of oral lichen planus

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to investigate the correlation between IL-25 expression and disease severity, and the potential immunoregulatory role of IL-25 expression in oral lichen planus (OLP).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The oral mucosal tissue samples obtained from OLP patients and healthy controls (HCs) were analyzed for IL-25 expression by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and immunohistochemistry. Recombinant IL-25 was used to stimulate OLP patient-derived CD4 + T cells, and then IL-4 secretion and mRNA expression were evaluated by ELISA and qPCR, respectively. The efficiency of the siRNA-mediated knockdown of IL-25R expression in oral keratinocytes was determined by qPCR and Western blotting. Human oral keratinocyte cells were cultured with the recombinant human cytokines IL-25, IL-17 A and IL-17 F. The production of associated cytokines by keratinocytes was determined by qPCR. Statistical analyses of quantitative data were performed using SPSS software.

RESULTS

The IL-25 and IL-4 mRNA levels were elevated and correlated significantly with each other in specific OLP subtype lesions compared to HCs, while the numbers of IL-25 positive cells were also increased in local OLP lesions as compared to HCs. In vitro culture with recombinant IL-25 could significantly promote CD4 + T cells from both subtypes of OLP to produce IL-4 mRNA and remarkably elevate supernatant IL-4 levels in reticular OLP CD4 + T cell cultures, which may be attributed to the elevated expression of IL-25R in local OLP lesions. Statistical analyses demonstrated that the simultaneously increased levels of IL-4, CXCL8 and CCL20 in keratinocytes were induced by IL-25 but not IL-17 A or IL-17 F. Decreasing IL-25R subunit expression by siRNA-mediated knockdown significantly blocked the expression of all cytokine-produced inflammatory mediators in oral keratinocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

In OLP lesions, IL-25 can function to mediate the Th2 response in specific disease subtypes, which may be an important cause of OLP disease chronicity and persistent inflammation.

Aberrant histone modification and inflammatory cytokine production of peripheral CD4+ T cells in patients with oral lichen planus

Backgrounds

To investigate alterations in histone modification and histone deacetylases (HDACs) in patients with oral lichen planus (OLP), and to evaluate correlations with inflammatory cytokine production.

Methods

Global histone H3/H4 acetylation and HDAC activity in CD4+ T cells from 23 patients with OLP and 10 healthy control subjects were examined using spectrophotometry. The mRNA levels of eight members of four classes of HDAC genes were measured by real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Forty cytokines involved in inflammation were examined with a cytokine array. The correlation between histone modification and cytokine production was analyzed.

Results

Global histone H3 hypo‐acetylation was observed in OLP patients. Patients with OLP had significantly higher HDACs activity,and higher HDAC6 and HDAC7 mRNA level compared with the controls. Of the 40 cytokines in the cytokine array, eight were significantly increased in OLP patients: interleukin (IL)‐4, IL‐8, IL‐1ra, tumor necrosis factor receptor II (TNFR II), macrophage inflammatory protein 1b (MIP‐1b), fibrosis‐associated tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP)‐1, monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP‐1), and eotaxin‐2. In the OLP group, the acetylation level of histone H3 was negatively correlated with IL‐4 and MCP‐1 production, and the expression of HDAC6 mRNA was positively correlated with MCP‐1 production. In the non‐erosive subgroup, acetylation of histone H3 was negatively correlated with IL‐4, IL‐16, and TIMP‐2 production. In the erosive OLP subgroup, the expression of HDAC7 mRNA was positively correlated with MIP‐1a production.

Conclusion

Aberrant histone modification of CD4+ T cells in peripheral blood could occur in OLP patients, and possibly affects inflammatory cytokine production.

Chitinase 3-Like-1-Deficient Splenocytes Deteriorated the Pathogenesis of Acute Graft-Versus-Host Disease via Regulating Differentiation of Tfh Cells

Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) is an intractable complication in transplant patients, limiting the efficacy of this therapy. Chitinase 3-like-1 (CHI3L1), a member of the glycosyl hydrolase 18 family that lacks chitinase activity, plays a critical role in a variety of inflammatory diseases. Here, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo effects of CHI3L1 on the development of aGVHD. In this study, mixed lymphocyte reactions (MLR) in vitro showed that CHI3L1 deficiency in CD4⁺ T cell promoted the production of interferon (IFN)-γ and T follicular helper (Tfh)-related cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-21 (IL-21). Meanwhile, the inducible Tfh cell population increased remarkably in CHI3L1-KO CD4⁺ T cells' induction group, compared with WT group. Then, in the murine acute GVHD model, we found that CHI3L1 deficiency in donor splenocytes dramatically increased the severity of aGVHD through enhancing Tfh cell differentiation. Moreover, at mRNA and protein levels, we defined several molecules that may account for the enhanced ability of CHI3L1-KO splenocytes to migrate into target organs and produce IFN-γ and Tfh-related cytokines and chemokines, such as IL-6, IL-21, and CXCL13. Expression of inducible co-stimulator (ICOS) and B cell lymphoma 6 (Bcl6) increased in the skin, the intestine, the lung, and the liver from CHI3L1-KO splenocyte-treated aGVHD mice. Therefore, these results strongly imply that CHI3L1 levels in donor cells may be related to the risk of aGVHD and targeting CHI3L1 represents a novel therapeutic strategy for controlling aGVHD progression.