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Georgakopoulou VE, Lempesis IG, Sklapani P, Trakas N, Spandidos DA. Exploring the pathogenetic mechanisms of Mycoplasmapneumoniae (Review). Exp Ther Med 2024; 28:271. [PMID: 38765654 PMCID: PMC11097136 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2024.12559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasmas, the smallest self-replicating prokaryotes without a cell wall, are the most prevalent and extensively studied species in humans. They significantly contribute to chronic respiratory tract illnesses and pneumonia, with children and adolescents being particularly vulnerable. Mycoplasma pneumoniae (M. pneumoniae) infections typically tend to be self-limiting and mild but can progress to severe or even life-threatening conditions in certain individuals. Extrapulmonary effects often occur without pneumonia, and both intrapulmonary and extrapulmonary complications operate through separate pathological mechanisms. The indirect immune-mediated damage of the immune system, vascular blockages brought on by vasculitis or thrombosis and direct harm from invasion or locally induced inflammatory cytokines are potential causes of extrapulmonary manifestations due to M. pneumoniae. Proteins associated with adhesion serve as the primary factor crucial for the pathogenicity of M. pneumoniae, relying on a specialized polarized terminal attachment organelle. The type and density of these host receptors significantly impact the adhesion and movement of M. pneumoniae, subsequently influencing the pathogenic mechanism and infection outcomes. Adjacent proteins are crucial for the proper assembly of the attachment organelle, with variations in the genetic domains of P1, P40 and P90 surfaces contributing to the variability of clinical symptoms and offering new avenues for developing vaccines against M. pneumoniae infections. M. pneumoniae causes oxidative stress within respiratory tract epithelial cells by adhering to host cells and releasing hydrogen peroxide and superoxide radicals. This oxidative stress enhances the vulnerability of host cells to harm induced by oxygen molecules. The lack of superoxide dismutase and catalase of bacteria allows it to hinder the catalase activity of the host cell, leading to the reduced breakdown of peroxides. Lung macrophages play a significant role in managing M. pneumoniae infection, identifying it via Toll-like receptor 2 and initiating the myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88-nuclear factor κΒ signaling cascade. However, the precise mechanisms enabling M. pneumoniae to evade intracellular host defenses remain unknown, necessitating further exploration of the pathways involved in intracellular survival. The present comprehensive review delves into the pathogenesis of M. pneumoniae infection within the pulmonary system and into extrapulmonary areas, outlining its impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasiliki Epameinondas Georgakopoulou
- Department of Pathophysiology, Laiko General Hospital, National and Kapodisttrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
- Department of Infectious Diseases-COVID-19 Unit, Laiko General Hospital, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis G. Lempesis
- Department of Pathophysiology, Laiko General Hospital, National and Kapodisttrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece
| | - Pagona Sklapani
- Department of Biochemistry, Sismanogleio Hospital, 15126 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Trakas
- Department of Biochemistry, Sismanogleio Hospital, 15126 Athens, Greece
| | - Demetrios A. Spandidos
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
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Yang J, Song Y, Xia K, Pomin VH, Wang C, Qiao M, Linhardt RJ, Dordick JS, Zhang F. Marine-Derived Sulfated Glycans Inhibit the Interaction of Heparin with Adhesion Proteins of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:232. [PMID: 38786623 PMCID: PMC11123223 DOI: 10.3390/md22050232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2024] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a notable pathogen behind respiratory infections, employs specialized proteins to adhere to the respiratory epithelium, an essential process for initiating infection. The role of glycosaminoglycans, especially heparan sulfate, is critical in facilitating pathogen-host interactions, presenting a strategic target for therapeutic intervention. In this study, we assembled a glycan library comprising heparin, its oligosaccharide derivatives, and a variety of marine-derived sulfated glycans to screen the potential inhibitors for the pathogen-host interactions. By using Surface Plasmon Resonance spectroscopy, we evaluated the library's efficacy in inhibiting the interaction between M. pneumoniae adhesion proteins and heparin. Our findings offer a promising avenue for developing novel therapeutic strategies against M. pneumoniae infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiyuan Yang
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; (J.Y.); (M.Q.)
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA; (Y.S.); (K.X.); (C.W.); (R.J.L.)
| | - Yuefan Song
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA; (Y.S.); (K.X.); (C.W.); (R.J.L.)
| | - Ke Xia
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA; (Y.S.); (K.X.); (C.W.); (R.J.L.)
| | - Vitor H. Pomin
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS 38677, USA;
| | - Chunyu Wang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA; (Y.S.); (K.X.); (C.W.); (R.J.L.)
| | - Mingqiang Qiao
- The Key Laboratory of Molecular Microbiology and Technology, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China; (J.Y.); (M.Q.)
| | - Robert J. Linhardt
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA; (Y.S.); (K.X.); (C.W.); (R.J.L.)
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Jonathan S. Dordick
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
| | - Fuming Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY 12180, USA
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Insight into the Pathogenic Mechanism of Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Curr Microbiol 2023; 80:14. [PMID: 36459213 PMCID: PMC9716528 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-022-03103-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, an obligate parasitic pathogen without cell wall, can cause severe upper and lower respiratory tract symptoms. It is the pathogen of human bronchitis and walking pneumonia, and named community-acquired pneumonia. In addition to severe respiratory symptoms, there are clinical extrapulmonary manifestations in the skin, brain, kidney, musculoskeletal, digestive system, and even blood system after M. pneumoniae infection. Hereby, we comprehensively summarized and reviewed the intrapulmonary and extrapulmonary pathogenesis of M. pneumoniae infection. The pathogenesis of related respiratory symptoms caused by M. pneumoniae is mainly adhesion damage, direct damage including nutrient predation, invasion and toxin, cytokine induced inflammation damage and immune evasion effect. The pathogenesis of extrapulmonary manifestations includes direct damage mediated by invasion and inflammatory factors, indirect damage caused by host immune response, and vascular occlusion. The intrapulmonary and extrapulmonary pathogenic mechanisms of M. pneumoniae infection are independent and interrelated, and have certain commonalities. In fact, the pathogenic mechanisms of M. pneumoniae are complicated, and the specific content is still not completely clear, further researches are necessary for determining the detailed pathogenesis of M. pneumoniae. This review can provide certain guidance for the effective prevention and treatment of M. pneumoniae infection.
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Numata M, Voelker DR. Anti-inflammatory and anti-viral actions of anionic pulmonary surfactant phospholipids. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2022; 1867:159139. [PMID: 35240310 PMCID: PMC9050941 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2022.159139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Pulmonary surfactant is a mixture of lipids and proteins, consisting of 90% phospholipid, and 10% protein by weight, found predominantly in pulmonary alveoli of vertebrate lungs. Two minor components of pulmonary surfactant phospholipids, phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and phosphatidylinositol (PI), are present within the alveoli at very high concentrations, and exert anti-inflammatory effects by regulating multiple Toll like receptors (TLR2/1, TLR4, and TLR2/6) by antagonizing cognate ligand-dependent activation. POPG also attenuates LPS-induced lung injury in vivo. In addition, these lipids bind directly to RSV and influenza A viruses (IAVs) and block interaction between host cells and virions, and thereby prevent viral replication in vitro. POPG and PI also inhibit RSV and IAV infection in vivo, in mice and ferrets. The lipids markedly inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro. These findings suggest that both POPG and PI have strong potential to be applied as both prophylaxis and post-infection treatments for problematic respiratory viral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mari Numata
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206, United States of America; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206, United States of America.
| | - Dennis R Voelker
- Department of Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206, United States of America; Division of Pulmonary, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, National Jewish Health, Denver, CO 80206, United States of America.
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Tran NT, Vo LK, Komatsu M, Shiozaki K. Involvement of N-acetylneuraminate cytidylyltransferase in Edwardsiella piscicida pathogenicity. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 124:534-542. [PMID: 35477099 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2022.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Edwardsiella piscicida is a gram-negative bacterium that causes Edwardsiellosis in cultured fish. Edwardsiellosis is accompanied by symptoms such as skin lesions, hemorrhage, and necrosis in fish organs, which leads to significant economic losses in the aquaculture industry. Recently, we found that bacterial sialoglycoconjugates may be involved in the infectivity of E. piscicida. The more infectious strains of E. piscicida contain more sialic acid in the bacterial body, and the mRNA level of putative CMP-Neu5Ac synthase (css) is upregulated compared to that in the non-pathogenic strain. However, this putative css gene is yet to be cloned, and the involvement of CSS in E. piscicida pathogenicity remains unclear. Here, we cloned and transferred the css gene from E. piscicida into the FPC498 strain. CSS promoted infection in cultured cells originating from different fish species, and enhanced the mortality of E. piscicida-infected zebrafish larvae. CSS enhanced cell attachment and motility in E. piscicida, which differs from the decreased bacterial growth observed with the sialic acid-supplemented M9 medium. Both fractions (chloroform-methanol)-soluble and -insoluble fraction) prepared from E. piscicida pellet exhibited the increment of sialo-conjugates induced by CSS. Further, lectin blotting revealed the increment of Sia α2-3- and α2-6-, but not α2-8-, -linked glycoprotein in CSS-overexpressing E. piscicida. Overall, these findings indicate the physiological significance of CSS and the role of sialylation in E. piscicida pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nhung Thi Tran
- Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Linh Khanh Vo
- The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Masaharu Komatsu
- Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan; The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Shiozaki
- Faculty of Fisheries, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan; The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan.
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Barbosa MS, Marques LM, Timenetsky J, Rosengarten R, Spergser J, Chopra-Dewasthaly R. Host cell interactions of novel antigenic membrane proteins of Mycoplasma agalactiae. BMC Microbiol 2022; 22:93. [PMID: 35395771 PMCID: PMC8991494 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-022-02512-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mycoplasma agalactiae is the main etiological agent of Contagious Agalactia syndrome of small ruminants notifiable to the World Organization for Animal Health. Despite serious economic losses, successful vaccines are unavailable, largely because its colonization and invasion factors are not well understood. This study evaluates the role of two recently identified antigenic proteins (MAG_1560, MAG_6130) and the cytadhesin P40 in pathogenicity related phenotypes. Results Adhesion to HeLa and sheep primary mammary stromal cells (MSC) was evaluated using ELISA, as well as in vitro adhesion assays on monolayer cell cultures. The results demonstrated MAG_6130 as a novel adhesin of M. agalactiae whose capacity to adhere to eukaryotic cells was significantly reduced by specific antiserum. Additionally, these proteins exhibited significant binding to plasminogen and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins like lactoferrin, fibrinogen and fibronectin, a feature that could potentially support the pathogen in host colonization, tissue migration and immune evasion. Furthermore, these proteins played a detrimental role on the host cell proliferation and viability and were observed to activate pro-apoptotic genes indicating their involvement in cell death when eukaryotic cells were infected with M. agalactiae. Conclusions To summarize, the hypothetical protein corresponding to MAG_6130 has not only been assigned novel adhesion functions but together with P40 it is demonstrated for the first time to bind to lactoferrin and ECM proteins thereby playing important roles in host colonization and pathogenicity. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-022-02512-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maysa Santos Barbosa
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, Vienna, A-1210, Austria.,Present Address: Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas Miranda Marques
- Present Address: Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. .,Multidisciplinary Institute of Health, Federal University of Bahia, Vitória da Conquista, Brazil.
| | - Jorge Timenetsky
- Present Address: Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renate Rosengarten
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, Vienna, A-1210, Austria
| | - Joachim Spergser
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, Vienna, A-1210, Austria
| | - Rohini Chopra-Dewasthaly
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, Vienna, A-1210, Austria.
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7
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Jennings MP, Day CJ, Atack JM. How bacteria utilize sialic acid during interactions with the host: snip, snatch, dispatch, match and attach. MICROBIOLOGY (READING, ENGLAND) 2022; 168:001157. [PMID: 35316172 PMCID: PMC9558349 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.001157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
N -glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc), and its precursor N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac), commonly referred to as sialic acids, are two of the most common glycans found in mammals. Humans carry a mutation in the enzyme that converts Neu5Ac into Neu5Gc, and as such, expression of Neu5Ac can be thought of as a 'human specific' trait. Bacteria can utilize sialic acids as a carbon and energy source and have evolved multiple ways to take up sialic acids. In order to generate free sialic acid, many bacteria produce sialidases that cleave sialic acid residues from complex glycan structures. In addition, sialidases allow escape from innate immune mechanisms, and can synergize with other virulence factors such as toxins. Human-adapted pathogens have evolved a preference for Neu5Ac, with many bacterial adhesins, and major classes of toxin, specifically recognizing Neu5Ac containing glycans as receptors. The preference of human-adapted pathogens for Neu5Ac also occurs during biosynthesis of surface structures such as lipo-oligosaccharide (LOS), lipo-polysaccharide (LPS) and polysaccharide capsules, subverting the human host immune system by mimicking the host. This review aims to provide an update on the advances made in understanding the role of sialic acid in bacteria-host interactions made in the last 5-10 years, and put these findings into context by highlighting key historical discoveries. We provide a particular focus on 'molecular mimicry' and incorporation of sialic acid onto the bacterial outer-surface, and the role of sialic acid as a receptor for bacterial adhesins and toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P. Jennings
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Christopher J. Day
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - John M. Atack
- Institute for Glycomics, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
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Rüger N, Sid H, Meens J, Szostak MP, Baumgärtner W, Bexter F, Rautenschlein S. New Insights into the Host-Pathogen Interaction of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Avian Metapneumovirus in Tracheal Organ Cultures of Chicken. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9112407. [PMID: 34835532 PMCID: PMC8618481 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9112407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Respiratory pathogens are a health threat for poultry. Co-infections lead to the exacerbation of clinical symptoms and lesions. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (M. gallispeticum) and Avian Metapneumovirus (AMPV) are two avian respiratory pathogens that co-circulate worldwide. The knowledge about the host-pathogen interaction of M. gallispeticum and AMPV in the chicken respiratory tract is limited. We aimed to investigate how co-infections affect the pathogenesis of the respiratory disease and whether the order of invading pathogens leads to changes in host-pathogen interaction. We used chicken tracheal organ cultures (TOC) to investigate pathogen invasion and replication, lesion development, and selected innate immune responses, such as interferon (IFN) α, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and IFNλ mRNA expression levels. We performed mono-inoculations (AMPV or M. gallispeticum) or dual-inoculations in two orders with a 24-h interval between the first and second pathogen. Dual-inoculations compared to mono-inoculations resulted in more severe host reactions. Pre-infection with AMPV followed by M. gallispeticum resulted in prolonged viral replication, more significant innate immune responses, and lesions (p < 0.05). AMPV as the secondary pathogen impaired the bacterial attachment process. Consequently, the M. gallispeticum replication was delayed, the innate immune response was less pronounced, and lesions appeared later. Our results suggest a competing process in co-infections and offer new insights in disease processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy Rüger
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (N.R.); (F.B.)
| | - Hicham Sid
- Reproductive Biotechnology, TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan, Technical University of Munich, 85354 Munich, Germany;
| | - Jochen Meens
- Institute for Microbiology, Centre for Infection Medicine, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Michael P. Szostak
- Institute of Microbiology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Frederik Bexter
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (N.R.); (F.B.)
| | - Silke Rautenschlein
- Clinic for Poultry, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (N.R.); (F.B.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-511-953-8779
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9
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Mizutani M, Sasajima Y, Miyata M. Force and Stepwise Movements of Gliding Motility in Human Pathogenic Bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:747905. [PMID: 34630372 PMCID: PMC8498583 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.747905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a human pathogenic bacterium, binds to sialylated oligosaccharides and glides on host cell surfaces via a unique mechanism. Gliding motility is essential for initiating the infectious process. In the present study, we measured the stall force of an M. pneumoniae cell carrying a bead that was manipulated using optical tweezers on two strains. The stall forces of M129 and FH strains were averaged to be 23.7 and 19.7 pN, respectively, much weaker than those of other bacterial surface motilities. The binding activity and gliding speed of the M129 strain on sialylated oligosaccharides were eight and two times higher than those of the FH strain, respectively, showing that binding activity is not linked to gliding force. Gliding speed decreased when cell binding was reduced by addition of free sialylated oligosaccharides, indicating the existence of a drag force during gliding. We detected stepwise movements, likely caused by a single leg under 0.2-0.3 mM free sialylated oligosaccharides. A step size of 14-19 nm showed that 25-35 propulsion steps per second are required to achieve the usual gliding speed. The step size was reduced to less than half with the load applied using optical tweezers, showing that a 2.5 pN force from a cell is exerted on a leg. The work performed in this step was 16-30% of the free energy of the hydrolysis of ATP molecules, suggesting that this step is linked to the elementary process of M. pneumoniae gliding. We discuss a model to explain the gliding mechanism, based on the information currently available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Mizutani
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuya Sasajima
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan.,The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
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10
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Protein cleavage influences surface protein presentation in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6743. [PMID: 33762641 PMCID: PMC7990945 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86217-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a significant cause of pneumonia and post infection sequelae affecting organ sites distant to the respiratory tract are common. It is also a model organism where extensive 'omics' studies have been conducted to gain insight into how minimal genome self-replicating organisms function. An N-terminome study undertaken here identified 4898 unique N-terminal peptides that mapped to 391 (56%) predicted M. pneumoniae proteins. True N-terminal sequences beginning with the initiating methionine (iMet) residue from the predicted Open Reading Frame (ORF) were identified for 163 proteins. Notably, almost half (317; 46%) of the ORFS derived from M. pneumoniae strain M129 are post-translationally modified, presumably by proteolytic processing, because dimethyl labelled neo-N-termini were characterised that mapped beyond the predicted N-terminus. An analysis of the N-terminome describes endoproteolytic processing events predominately targeting tryptic-like sites, though cleavages at negatively charged residues in P1' (D and E) with lysine or serine/alanine in P2' and P3' positions also occurred frequently. Surfaceome studies identified 160 proteins (23% of the proteome) to be exposed on the extracellular surface of M. pneumoniae. The two orthogonal methodologies used to characterise the surfaceome each identified the same 116 proteins, a 72% (116/160) overlap. Apart from lipoproteins, transporters, and adhesins, 93/160 (58%) of the surface proteins lack signal peptides and have well characterised, canonical functions in the cell. Of the 160 surface proteins identified, 134 were also targets of endo-proteolytic processing. These processing events are likely to have profound implications for how the host immune system recognises and responds to M. pneumoniae.
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11
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Yiwen C, Yueyue W, Lianmei Q, Cuiming Z, Xiaoxing Y. Infection strategies of mycoplasmas: Unraveling the panoply of virulence factors. Virulence 2021; 12:788-817. [PMID: 33704021 PMCID: PMC7954426 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1889813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasmas, the smallest bacteria lacking a cell wall, can cause various diseases in both humans and animals. Mycoplasmas harbor a variety of virulence factors that enable them to overcome numerous barriers of entry into the host; using accessory proteins, mycoplasma adhesins can bind to the receptors or extracellular matrix of the host cell. Although the host immune system can eradicate the invading mycoplasma in most cases, a few sagacious mycoplasmas employ a series of invasion and immune escape strategies to ensure their continued survival within their hosts. For instance, capsular polysaccharides are crucial for anti-phagocytosis and immunomodulation. Invasive enzymes degrade reactive oxygen species, neutrophil extracellular traps, and immunoglobulins. Biofilm formation is important for establishing a persistent infection. During proliferation, successfully surviving mycoplasmas generate numerous metabolites, including hydrogen peroxide, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide; or secrete various exotoxins, such as community-acquired respiratory distress syndrome toxin, and hemolysins; and express various pathogenic enzymes, all of which have potent toxic effects on host cells. Furthermore, some inherent components of mycoplasmas, such as lipids, membrane lipoproteins, and even mycoplasma-generated superantigens, can exert a significant pathogenic impact on the host cells or the immune system. In this review, we describe the proposed virulence factors in the toolkit of notorious mycoplasmas to better understand the pathogenic features of these bacteria, along with their pathogenic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Yiwen
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China; Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control; Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, China
| | - Wu Yueyue
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China; Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control; Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, China
| | - Qin Lianmei
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China; Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control; Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, China
| | - Zhu Cuiming
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China; Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control; Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, China
| | - You Xiaoxing
- Institute of Pathogenic Biology, Hengyang Medical College, University of South China; Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Special Pathogens Prevention and Control; Hunan Province Cooperative Innovation Center for Molecular Target New Drug Study, Hengyang, China
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12
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Vizarraga D, Torres-Puig S, Aparicio D, Pich OQ. The Sialoglycan Binding Adhesins of Mycoplasma genitalium and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Trends Microbiol 2021; 29:477-481. [PMID: 33593698 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2021.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Mycoplasma genitalium (Mge) and Mycoplasma pneumoniae (Mpn) are two human pathogens associated with urogenital and respiratory tract infections, respectively. The recent elucidation of the tridimensional structure of their major cytoadhesins by X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy/tomography, has provided important insights regarding the mechanics of infection and evasion of immune surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Vizarraga
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sergi Torres-Puig
- Research Unit of Molecular Microbiology (RUMM), Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - David Aparicio
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Oscar Q Pich
- Laboratori de Recerca en Microbiologia i Malalties Infeccioses, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Hospital Universitari Parc Taulí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08208 Sabadell, Spain; Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina and Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Spain.
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13
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Mycoplasma pneumoniae Infections: Pathogenesis and Vaccine Development. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10020119. [PMID: 33503845 PMCID: PMC7911756 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a major causative agent of community-acquired pneumonia which can lead to both acute upper and lower respiratory tract inflammation, and extrapulmonary syndromes. Refractory pneumonia caused by M. pneumonia can be life-threatening, especially in infants and the elderly. Here, based on a comprehensive review of the scientific literature related to the respective area, we summarize the virulence factors of M. pneumoniae and the major pathogenic mechanisms mediated by the pathogen: adhesion to host cells, direct cytotoxicity against host cells, inflammatory response-induced immune injury, and immune evasion. The increasing rate of macrolide-resistant strains and the harmful side effects of other sensitive antibiotics (e.g., respiratory quinolones and tetracyclines) in young children make it difficult to treat, and increase the health risk or re-infections. Hence, there is an urgent need for development of an effective vaccine to prevent M. pneumoniae infections in children. Various types of M. pneumoniae vaccines have been reported, including whole-cell vaccines (inactivated and live-attenuated vaccines), subunit vaccines (involving M. pneumoniae protein P1, protein P30, protein P116 and CARDS toxin) and DNA vaccines. This narrative review summarizes the key pathogenic mechanisms underlying M. pneumoniae infection and highlights the relevant vaccines that have been developed and their reported effectiveness.
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Distinct Mycoplasma pneumoniae Interactions with Sulfated and Sialylated Receptors. Infect Immun 2020; 88:IAI.00392-20. [PMID: 32839185 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00392-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a cell wall-less bacterial pathogen of the conducting airways, causing bronchitis and atypical or "walking" pneumonia in humans. M. pneumoniae recognizes sialylated and sulfated oligosaccharide receptors to colonize the respiratory tract, but the contribution of the latter is particularly unclear. We used chamber slides coated with sulfatide (3-O-sulfogalactosylceramide) to provide a baseline for M. pneumoniae binding and gliding motility. As expected, M. pneumoniae bound to surfaces coated with sulfatide in a manner that was dependent on sulfatide concentration and incubation temperature and inhibited by competing dextran sulfate. However, mycoplasmas bound to sulfatide exhibited no gliding motility, regardless of receptor density. M. pneumoniae also bound lactose 3'-sulfate ligated to an inert polymer scaffold, and binding was inhibited by competing dextran sulfate. The major adhesin protein P1 mediates adherence to terminal sialic acids linked α-2,3, but P1-specific antibodies that blocked M. pneumoniae hemadsorption (HA) and binding to the sialylated glycoprotein laminin by 95% failed to inhibit mycoplasma binding to sulfatide, suggesting that P1 does not mediate binding to sulfated galactose. Consistent with this conclusion, the M. pneumoniae HA-negative mutant II-3 failed to bind to sialylated receptors but adhered to sulfatide in a temperature-dependent manner.
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15
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Vizarraga D, Kawamoto A, Matsumoto U, Illanes R, Pérez-Luque R, Martín J, Mazzolini R, Bierge P, Pich OQ, Espasa M, Sanfeliu I, Esperalba J, Fernández-Huerta M, Scheffer MP, Pinyol J, Frangakis AS, Lluch-Senar M, Mori S, Shibayama K, Kenri T, Kato T, Namba K, Fita I, Miyata M, Aparicio D. Immunodominant proteins P1 and P40/P90 from human pathogen Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5188. [PMID: 33057023 PMCID: PMC7560827 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18777-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae is a bacterial human pathogen that causes primary atypical pneumonia. M. pneumoniae motility and infectivity are mediated by the immunodominant proteins P1 and P40/P90, which form a transmembrane adhesion complex. Here we report the structure of P1, determined by X-ray crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy, and the X-ray structure of P40/P90. Contrary to what had been suggested, the binding site for sialic acid was found in P40/P90 and not in P1. Genetic and clinical variability concentrates on the N-terminal domain surfaces of P1 and P40/P90. Polyclonal antibodies generated against the mostly conserved C-terminal domain of P1 inhibited adhesion of M. pneumoniae, and serology assays with sera from infected patients were positive when tested against this C-terminal domain. P40/P90 also showed strong reactivity against human infected sera. The architectural elements determined for P1 and P40/P90 open new possibilities in vaccine development against M. pneumoniae infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Vizarraga
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Akihiro Kawamoto
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.,Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, 3-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - U Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan
| | - Ramiro Illanes
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa Pérez-Luque
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rocco Mazzolini
- EMBL/CRG Systems Biology Research Unit, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Dr Aiguader 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Paula Bierge
- Laboratori de Recerca en Microbiologia i Malalties Infeccioses, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Hospital Universitari Parc Taulí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08208, Sabadell, Spain
| | - Oscar Q Pich
- Laboratori de Recerca en Microbiologia i Malalties Infeccioses, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Hospital Universitari Parc Taulí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08208, Sabadell, Spain.,Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mateu Espasa
- Departament de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitari Parc Taulí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08208, Sabadell, Spain
| | - Isabel Sanfeliu
- Departament de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitari Parc Taulí, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08208, Sabadell, Spain
| | - Juliana Esperalba
- Departament de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitari Vall d´Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miguel Fernández-Huerta
- Departament de Microbiologia, Hospital Universitari Vall d´Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Margot P Scheffer
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue Str. 15, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Jaume Pinyol
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Institut de Biotecnologia i Biomedicina, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Achilleas S Frangakis
- Buchmann Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Max-von-Laue Str. 15, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Maria Lluch-Senar
- EMBL/CRG Systems Biology Research Unit, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Dr Aiguader 88, 08003, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Shigetarou Mori
- Department of Bacteriology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Keigo Shibayama
- Department of Bacteriology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Kenri
- Department of Bacteriology II, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takayuki Kato
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.,Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, 3-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Keiichi Namba
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.,RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research and SPring-8 Center, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.,JEOL YOKOGUSHI Research Alliance Laboratories, Osaka University, 1-3 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ignacio Fita
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan. .,The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan.
| | - David Aparicio
- Instituto de Biología Molecular de Barcelona (IBMB-CSIC), Parc Científic de Barcelona, Baldiri Reixac 10, 08028, Barcelona, Spain.
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Bacterial Clearance Is Enhanced by α2,3- and α2,6-Sialyllactose via Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis and Phagocytosis. Infect Immun 2018; 87:IAI.00694-18. [PMID: 30396896 PMCID: PMC6300625 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00694-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Sialyllactose (SL) is a representative human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) of human breast milk. The roles of SL in infant brain development and immunity have been reported in previous studies. Sialyllactose (SL) is a representative human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) of human breast milk. The roles of SL in infant brain development and immunity have been reported in previous studies. In this study, we identified the impact of SL on innate immunity. Our results showed that the administration of SL had significant efficacy on bacterial clearance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa K-infected mice. We also examined the role of SL in the human THP-1 macrophage-like cell line. SL effectively promoted receptor-mediated endocytosis and phagocytosis. Furthermore, SL accelerated the recruitment of Rac1 to the cell membrane, leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species for the elimination of phagocytosed bacteria. Our findings provide a new perspective on the role of SL in breast milk and suggest its application as a therapeutic agent to treat bacterial and viral infections.
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