ABC transporter PEN3/PDR8/ABCG36 interacts with calmodulin that, like PEN3, is required for Arabidopsis nonhost resistance

Exploring the role of the LkABCG36 transporter in lignin accumulation

Lignin is a complex biopolymer formed through the condensation of three monomeric precursors known as monolignols. However, the mechanism underlying lignin precursor transport remains elusive, with uncertainty over whether it occurs through passive diffusion or an active energized process. ATP-binding cassette 36 (ABCG36) plays important roles in abiotic stress resistance. In this study, we investigated the transport functions of LkABCG36 (Larix kaempferi) for lignin precursors and the potential effects of LkABCG36 overexpression in plants. LkABCG36 enhanced the ability of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) bright yellow-2 (BY-2) cells to resist monolignol alcohol stress. Furthermore, LkABCG36 overexpression promoted lignin deposition in tobacco plant stem tissue. To understand the underlying mechanism, we measured the BY-2 cell ability to export lignin monomers and the uptake of monolignol precursors in inside-out (inverted) plasma membrane vesicles. We found that the transport of coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols is an ATP-dependent process. Our data suggest that LkABCG36 contributes to lignin accumulation in tobacco stem tissues through a mechanism involving the active transport of lignin precursors to the cell wall. These findings shed light on the lignin biosynthesis process, with important implications for enhancing lignin deposition in plants, potentially leading to improved stress tolerance and biomass production.

Functional Analysis of the GhIQD1 Gene in Cotton Resistance to Verticillium Wilt

Cotton is a critical crop with massive economic implications worldwide. Verticillium wilt is a soil-borne ailment caused by Verticillium dahliae, which harms the growth and development of cotton. Therefore, investigating the genes associated with resistance to verticillium wilt is of particular significance. In this study, we identified the GhIQD1 gene through transcriptome analysis and experimentally characterized the role of the GhIQD1 gene in cotton against V. dahliae. The findings indicated that GhIQD1 acts as a calmodulin-binding protein. The expression of GhIQD1 was the highest in stems, and the expression level increased significantly following infection with V. dahliae. The expression in resistant cotton varieties was higher than in susceptible cotton varieties. Through overexpression of the GhIQD1 gene in tobacco, these transgenic plants exhibited improved resistance to V. dahliae. In contrast, by silencing the GhIQD1 gene in cotton through VIGS, the resistance to V. dahliae was reduced. Following inoculation, the leaves yellowed, and the disease index was higher. Transcriptome analysis of transgenic tobacco 72 h after inoculation indicated that overexpression of GhIQD1 increased the enrichment of the calmodulin pathway and stimulated the production of plant hormones alongside secondary metabolites. Consequently, we investigated the relationship between the GhIQD1 gene and plant disease-resistant hormones SA, JA, and ABA. In summary, this study uncovered the mechanism by which GhIQD1 conferred resistance to V. dahliae in cotton through positive regulation of JA and ABA, providing crucial information for further research on the adaptation of plants to pathogen invasion.

Interplay of EXO70 and MLO proteins modulates trichome cell wall composition and susceptibility to powdery mildew

Exocyst component of 70-kDa (EXO70) proteins are constituents of the exocyst complex implicated in vesicle tethering during exocytosis. MILDEW RESISTANCE LOCUS O (MLO) proteins are plant-specific calcium channels and some MLO isoforms enable fungal powdery mildew pathogenesis. We here detected an unexpected phenotypic overlap of Arabidopsis thaliana exo70H4 and mlo2 mlo6 mlo12 triple mutant plants regarding the biogenesis of leaf trichome secondary cell walls. Biochemical and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analyses corroborated deficiencies in the composition of trichome cell walls in these mutants. Transgenic lines expressing fluorophore-tagged EXO70H4 and MLO exhibited extensive colocalization of these proteins. Furthermore, mCherry-EXO70H4 mislocalized in trichomes of the mlo triple mutant and, vice versa, MLO6-GFP mislocalized in trichomes of the exo70H4 mutant. Expression of GFP-marked PMR4 callose synthase, a known cargo of EXO70H4-dependent exocytosis, revealed reduced cell wall delivery of GFP-PMR4 in trichomes of mlo triple mutant plants. In vivo protein-protein interaction assays in plant and yeast cells uncovered isoform-preferential interactions between EXO70.2 subfamily members and MLO proteins. Finally, exo70H4 and mlo6 mutants, when combined, showed synergistically enhanced resistance to powdery mildew attack. Taken together, our data point to an isoform-specific interplay of EXO70 and MLO proteins in the modulation of trichome cell wall biogenesis and powdery mildew susceptibility.

Calmodulin and calmodulin-like protein-mediated plant responses to biotic stresses

Plants have evolved a set of finely regulated mechanisms to respond to various biotic stresses. Transient changes in intracellular calcium (Ca2+ ) concentration have been well documented to act as cellular signals in coupling environmental stimuli to appropriate physiological responses with astonishing accuracy and specificity in plants. Calmodulins (CaMs) and calmodulin-like proteins (CMLs) are extensively characterized as important classes of Ca2+ sensors. The spatial-temporal coordination between Ca2+ transients, CaMs/CMLs and their target proteins is critical for plant responses to environmental stresses. Ca2+ -loaded CaMs/CMLs interact with and regulate a broad spectrum of target proteins, such as ion transporters (including channels, pumps, and antiporters), transcription factors, protein kinases, protein phosphatases, metabolic enzymes and proteins with unknown biological functions. This review focuses on mechanisms underlying how CaMs/CMLs are involved in the regulation of plant responses to diverse biotic stresses including pathogen infections and herbivore attacks. Recent discoveries of crucial functions of CaMs/CMLs and their target proteins in biotic stress resistance revealed through physiological, molecular, biochemical, and genetic analyses have been described, and intriguing insights into the CaM/CML-mediated regulatory network are proposed. Perspectives for future directions in understanding CaM/CML-mediated signalling pathways in plant responses to biotic stresses are discussed. The application of accumulated knowledge of CaM/CML-mediated signalling in biotic stress responses into crop cultivation would improve crop resistance to various biotic stresses and safeguard our food production in the future.

Comprehensive comparative assessment of the Arabidopsis thaliana MLO2-CALMODULIN2 interaction by various in vitro and in vivo protein-protein interaction assays

Mildew resistance locus o (MLO) proteins are heptahelical integral membrane proteins of which some isoforms act as susceptibility factors for the powdery mildew pathogen. In many angiosperm plant species, loss-of-function mlo mutants confer durable broad-spectrum resistance against the fungal disease. Barley Mlo is known to interact via a cytosolic carboxyl-terminal domain with the intracellular calcium sensor calmodulin (CAM) in a calcium-dependent manner. Site-directed mutagenesis has revealed key amino acid residues in the barley Mlo calmodulin-binding domain (CAMBD) that, when mutated, affect the MLO-CAM association. We here tested the respective interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana MLO2 and CAM2 using seven different types of in vitro and in vivo protein-protein interaction assays. In each assay, we deployed a wild-type version of either the MLO2 carboxyl terminus (MLO2CT), harboring the CAMBD, or the MLO2 full-length protein and corresponding mutant variants in which two key residues within the CAMBD were substituted by non-functional amino acids. We focused in particular on the substitution of two hydrophobic amino acids (LW/RR mutant) and found in most protein-protein interaction experiments reduced binding of CAM2 to the corresponding MLO2/MLO2CT-LW/RR mutant variants in comparison with the respective wild-type versions. However, the Ura3-based yeast split-ubiquitin system and in planta bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays failed to indicate reduced CAM2 binding to the mutated CAMBD. Our data shed further light on the interaction of MLO and CAM proteins and provide a comprehensive comparative assessment of different types of protein-protein interaction assays with wild-type and mutant versions of an integral membrane protein.

Acetylation of GhCaM7 enhances cotton resistance to Verticillium dahliae

Protein lysine acetylation is an important post-translational modification mechanism involved in cellular regulation in eukaryotes. Calmodulin (CaM) is a ubiquitous Ca²⁺ sensor in eukaryotes and is crucial for plant immunity, but it is so far unclear whether acetylation is involved in CaM-mediated plant immunity. Here, we found that GhCaM7 is acetylated upon Verticillium dahliae (V. dahliae) infection and a positive regulator of V. dahliae resistance. Overexpressing GhCaM7 in cotton and Arabidopsis enhances V. dahliae resistance and knocking-down GhCaM7 makes cotton more susceptible to V. dahliae. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants overexpressing GhCaM7 with mutation at the acetylation site are more susceptible to V. dahliae than transgenics overexpressing the wild-type GhCaM7, implying the importance of the acetylated GhCaM7 in response to V. dahliae infection. Yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescent complementation, luciferase complementation imaging, and coimmunoprecipitation assays demonstrated interaction between GhCaM7 and an osmotin protein GhOSM34 that was shown to have a positive role in V. dahliae resistance. GhCaM7 and GhOSM34 are co-localized in the cell membrane. Upon V. dahliae infection, the Ca²⁺ content reduces almost instantly in plants with downregulated GhCaM7 or GhOSM34. Down regulating GhOSM34 enhances accumulation of Na⁺ and increases cell osmotic pressure. Comparative transcriptomic analyses between cotton plants with an increased or reduced expression level of GhCaM7 and wild-type plants indicate the involvement of jasmonic acid signaling pathways and reactive oxygen species in GhCaM7-enabled disease resistance. Together, these results demonstrate the involvement of CaM protein in the interaction between cotton and V. dahliae, and more importantly, the involvement of the acetylated CaM in the interaction.

An LRR receptor kinase controls ABC transporter substrate preferences during plant growth-defense decisions

The exporter of the auxin precursor indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), ABCG36/PDR8/PEN3, from the model plant Arabidopsis has recently been proposed to also function in the transport of the phytoalexin camalexin. Based on these bonafide substrates, it has been suggested that ABCG36 functions at the interface between growth and defense. Here, we provide evidence that ABCG36 catalyzes the direct, ATP-dependent export of camalexin across the plasma membrane. We identify the leucine-rich repeat receptor kinase, QIAN SHOU KINASE1 (QSK1), as a functional kinase that physically interacts with and phosphorylates ABCG36. Phosphorylation of ABCG36 by QSK1 unilaterally represses IBA export, allowing camalexin export by ABCG36 conferring pathogen resistance. As a consequence, phospho-dead mutants of ABCG36, as well as qsk1 and abcg36 alleles, are hypersensitive to infection with the root pathogen Fusarium oxysporum, caused by elevated fungal progression. Our findings indicate a direct regulatory circuit between a receptor kinase and an ABC transporter that functions to control transporter substrate preference during plant growth and defense balance decisions.

Novel gene loci associated with susceptibility or cryptic quantitative resistance to Pyrenopeziza brassicae in Brassica napus

Quantitative disease resistance (QDR) controls the association of the light leaf spot pathogen with Brassica napus; four QDR loci that were in linkage disequilibrium and eight gene expression markers were identified. Quantitative disease resistance (QDR) can provide durable control of pathogens in crops in contrast to resistance (R) gene-mediated resistance which can break down due to pathogen evolution. QDR is therefore a desirable trait in crop improvement, but little is known about the causative genes, and so it is difficult to incorporate into breeding programmes. Light leaf spot, caused by Pyrenopeziza brassicae, is an important disease of oilseed rape (canola, Brassica napus). To identify new QDR gene loci, we used a high-throughput screening pathosystem with P. brassicae on 195 lines of B. napus combined with an association transcriptomics platform. We show that all resistance against P. brassicae was associated with QDR and not R gene-mediated. We used genome-wide association analysis with an improved B. napus population structure to reveal four gene loci significantly (P = 0.0001) associated with QDR in regions showing linkage disequilibrium. On chromosome A09, enhanced resistance was associated with heterozygosity for a cytochrome P450 gene co-localising with a previously described locus for seed glucosinolate content. In addition, eight significant gene expression markers with a false discovery rate of 0.001 were associated with QDR against P. brassicae. For seven of these, expression was positively correlated with resistance, whereas for one, a HXXXD-type acyl-transferase, negative correlation indicated a potential susceptibility gene. The study identifies novel QDR loci for susceptibility and resistance, including novel cryptic QDR genes associated with heterozygosity, that will inform future crop improvement.

Cadmium accumulation regulated by a rice heavy-metal importer is harmful for host plant and leaf bacteria

INTRODUCTION

Cadmium (Cd), one of the major toxic heavy metals, causes severe deleterious effects on all living organisms from prokaryotes to eukaryotes. Cadmium deposition affects bacterial diversity and bacterial population in soil. Cadmium accumulation in plants is mainly controlled by transporters and the resulting Cd enrichment gives rise to phytotoxicity.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to mine transporters that control Cd import or accumulation in rice and uncover the underlying mechanisms that how accumulated Cd poses risks to host plant and leaf bacteria.

METHODS

RNA-seq analysis, histochemical assays, and elemental quantification were carried out to reveal the biological roles of OsABCG43 for Cd import. Pathogen inoculation, IC₅₀ value, and bacterial virulence assays were conducted to disclose the effects of Cd on leaf bacteria.

RESULTS

OsABCG43 is characterized as a Cd importer controlling Cd accumulation in rice. OsABCG43 was induced under Cd stress and specifically expressed in the vasculature of leaves and roots. Overexpression of OsABCG43 caused Cd accumulation which inhibits photosynthesis and development and alters the antioxidant system, resulting in phytotoxicity. Moreover, overexpression of OsABCG43 resulted in retarded plant growth and enhanced rice sensitivity to Cd stress. Numerous differentially expressed genes were identified via RNA-seq analysis between the OsABCG43-overexpressing plants and wild type, which functioned in Cd or reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis. In addition, OsABCG43 transcripts were induced by leaf bacteria Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Xoc) and X. oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo). The enriched Cd directly impaired the formation of virulence factors for the leaf bacteria, preventing colonization or proliferation of Xoc or Xoo in rice leaves.

CONCLUSION

This work reveals that OsABCG43 is expressed specifically in the vascular and plasma membrane-localized OsABCG43 functions as a Cd importer. OsABCG43-mediated import of Cd is harmful for both rice and the corresponding leaf bacteria.

Comprehensive comparative assessment of the Arabidopsis thaliana MLO2-calmodulin interaction by various in vitro and in vivo protein-protein interaction assays

Mildew resistance locus o (MLO) proteins are heptahelical integral membrane proteins of which some isoforms act as susceptibility factors for the fungal powdery mildew pathogen. In many angiosperm plant species, loss-of-function mlo mutants confer durable broad-spectrum resistance against the powdery mildew disease. Barley Mlo is known to interact via a cytosolic carboxyl-terminal domain with the intracellular calcium sensor calmodulin (CAM) in a calcium-dependent manner. Site-directed mutagenesis has revealed key amino acid residues in the barley Mlo calcium-binding domain (CAMBD) that, when mutated, affect the MLO-CAM association. We here tested the respective interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana MLO2 and CAM2 using seven different types of in vitro and in vivo protein-protein interaction assays. In each assay, we deployed a wild-type version of either the MLO2 carboxyl terminus (MLO2 CT ), harboring the CAMBD, or the MLO2 full-length protein and corresponding mutant variants in which two key residues within the CAMBD were substituted by non-functional amino acids. We focused in particular on the substitution of two hydrophobic amino acids (LW/RR mutant) and found in most protein-protein interaction experiments reduced binding of CAM2 to the corresponding MLO2/MLO2 CT LW/RR mutant variants in comparison to the respective wild-type versions. However, the Ura3-based yeast split-ubiquitin system and in planta bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays failed to indicate reduced CAM2 binding to the mutated CAMBD. Our data shed further light on the interaction of MLO and CAM proteins and provide a comprehensive comparative assessment of different types of protein-protein interaction assays with wild-type and mutant versions of an integral membrane protein.

Identification of Saccharum CaM gene family and function characterization of ScCaM1 during cold and oxidant exposure in Pichia pastoris

BACKGROUND

Calmodulin (CaM) plays an essential role in binding calcium ions and mediating the interpretation of Ca²⁺ signals in plants under various stresses. However, the evolutionary relationship of CaM family proteins in Saccharum has not been elucidated.

OBJECTIVE

To deduce and explore the evolution and function of Saccharum CaM family.

METHODS

A total of 104 typical CaMs were obtained from Saccharum spontaneum and other 18 plant species. The molecular characteristics and evolution of those CaM proteins were analyzed. A typical CaM gene, ScCaM1, was subsequently cloned from sugarcane (Saccharum spp. hybrid). Its expression patterns in different tissues and under various abiotic stresses were assessed by quantitative real-time PCR. Then the green fluorescent protein was used to determine the subcellular localization of ScCaM1. Finally, the function of ScCaM1 was evaluated via heterologous yeast expression systems.

RESULTS

Three typical CaM members (SsCaM1, SsCaM2, and SsCaM3) were identified from the S. spontaneum genome database. CaMs were originated from the two last common ancestors before the origin of angiosperms. The number of CaM family members did not correlate to the genome size but correlated with allopolyploidization events. The ScCaM1 was more highly expressed in buds and roots than in other tissues. The expression patterns of ScCaM1 suggested that it was involved in responses to various abiotic stresses in sugarcane via different hormonal signaling pathways. Noteworthily, its expression levels appeared relatively stable during the cold exposure in the cold-tolerant variety but significantly suppressed in the cold-susceptible variety. Moreover, the recombinant yeast (Pichia pastoris) overexpressing ScCaM1 grew better than the wild-type yeast strain under cold and oxidative stresses. It was revealed that the ScCaM1 played a positive role in reactive oxygen species scavenging and conferred enhanced cold and oxidative stress tolerance to cells.

CONCLUSION

This study provided comprehensive information on the CaM gene family in Saccharum and would facilitate further investigation of their functional characterization.

Calcium decoders and their targets: The holy alliance that regulate cellular responses in stress signaling

Calcium (Ca²⁺) signaling is versatile communication network in the cell. Stimuli perceived by cells are transposed through Ca²⁺-signature, and are decoded by plethora of Ca²⁺ sensors present in the cell. Calmodulin, calmodulin-like proteins, Ca²⁺-dependent protein kinases and calcineurin B-like proteins are major classes of proteins that decode the Ca²⁺ signature and serve in the propagation of signals to different parts of cells by targeting downstream proteins. These decoders and their targets work together to elicit responses against diverse stress stimuli. Over a period of time, significant attempts have been made to characterize as well as summarize elements of this signaling machinery. We begin with a structural overview and amalgamate the newly identified Ca²⁺ sensor protein in plants. Their ability to bind Ca²⁺, undergo conformational changes, and how it facilitates binding to a wide variety of targets is further embedded. Subsequently, we summarize the recent progress made on the functional characterization of Ca²⁺ sensing machinery and in particular their target proteins in stress signaling. We have focused on the physiological role of Ca²⁺, the Ca²⁺ sensing machinery, and the mode of regulation on their target proteins during plant stress adaptation. Additionally, we also discuss the role of these decoders and their mode of regulation on the target proteins during abiotic, hormone signaling and biotic stress responses in plants. Finally, here, we have enumerated the limitations and challenges in the Ca²⁺ signaling. This article will greatly enable in understanding the current picture of plant response and adaptation during diverse stimuli through the lens of Ca²⁺ signaling.

Preinvasive nonhost resistance of Arabidopsis against melanized appressorium-mediated entry of multiple nonadapted Colletotrichum fungi

Nonhost plants effectively block a vast number of nonadapted fungal pathogens at the preinvasive stage. On the host plants, adapted fungal pathogens such as Colletotrichum species invade into plant epidermal cell by penetration peg developed from melanized appressorium, followed by invasive hyphal extension. I reported nonadapted Colletotrichum fungi that showed an increased rate of melanized appressorium-mediated entry (MAE) into the pen2 mutant of nonhost Arabidopsis thaliana (hereafter Arabidopsis). It was also found that other MAE-type nonadapted Colletotrichum fungi with no penetration into the pen2 mutant invaded Arabidopsis in the presence of additional mutations such as edr1, gsh1, eds5, cas, and chup1 in the pen2 background. Thus, many immune components contribute to the preinvasive nonhost resistance (NHR) of Arabidopsis against Colletotrichum MAE, and PEN2-related defense takes priority over other defense pathways. Here, I show that among the above nonadapted fungi, Colletotrichum nymphaeae PL1-1-b exhibited relatively lower incompatibility with the nonhost Arabidopsis with increased MAE in each single mutant of edr1, gsh1, eds5, and cas, although other nonadapted fungi almost never invaded these single mutants. Based on the relationships between Colletotrichum MAE and the Arabidopsis immune-related components, Colletotrichum-Arabidopsis incompatibility and multilayered immunity in the preinvasive NHR of Arabidopsis are discussed in this study.

Pathogen Resistance Depending on Jacalin-Dirigent Chimeric Proteins Is Common among Poaceae but Absent in the Dicot Arabidopsis as Evidenced by Analysis of Homologous Single-Domain Proteins

MonocotJRLs are Poaceae-specific two-domain proteins that consist of a jacalin-related lectin (JRL) and a dirigent (DIR) domain which participate in multiple developmental processes, including disease resistance. For OsJAC1, a monocotJRL from rice, it has been confirmed that constitutive expression in transgenic rice or barley plants facilitates broad-spectrum disease resistance. In this process, both domains of OsJAC1 act cooperatively, as evidenced from experiments with artificially separated JRL- or DIR-domain-containing proteins. Interestingly, these chimeric proteins did not evolve in dicotyledonous plants. Instead, proteins with a single JRL domain, multiple JRL domains or JRL domains fused to domains other than DIR domains are present. In this study, we wanted to test if the cooperative function of JRL and DIR proteins leading to pathogen resistance was conserved in the dicotyledonous plant Arabidopsis thaliana. In Arabidopsis, we identified 50 JRL and 24 DIR proteins, respectively, from which seven single-domain JRL and two single-domain DIR candidates were selected. A single-cell transient gene expression assay in barley revealed that specific combinations of the Arabidopsis JRL and DIR candidates reduced the penetration success of barley powdery mildew. Strikingly, one of these pairs, AtJAX1 and AtDIR19, is encoded by genes located next to each other on chromosome one. However, when using natural variation and analyzing Arabidopsis ecotypes that express full-length or truncated versions of AtJAX1, the presence/absence of the full-length AtJAX1 protein could not be correlated with resistance to the powdery mildew fungus Golovinomyces orontii. Furthermore, an analysis of the additional JRL and DIR candidates in a bi-fluorescence complementation assay in Nicotiana benthamiana revealed no direct interaction of these JRL/DIR pairs. Since transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing OsJAC1-GFP also did not show increased resistance to G. orontii, it was concluded that the resistance mediated by the synergistic activities of DIR and JRL proteins is specific for members of the Poaceae, at least regarding the resistance against powdery mildew. Arabidopsis lacks the essential components of the DIR-JRL-dependent resistance pathway.

Opposite roles of MAPKKK17 and MAPKKK21 against Tetranychus urticae in Arabidopsis

After recognizing a biotic stress, plants activate signalling pathways to fight against the attack. Typically, these signalling pathways involve the activation of phosphorylation cascades mediated by Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPKs). In the Arabidopsis thaliana-Tetranychus urticae plant-herbivore model, several Arabidopsis MAP kinases are induced by the mite attack. In this study, we demonstrate the participation of the MEKK-like kinases MAPKKK17 and MAPKKK21. Leaf damage caused by the mite was assessed using T-DNA insertion lines. Differential levels of damage were found when the expression of MAPKKK17 was increased or reduced. In contrast, reduced expression of MAPKKK21 resulted in less damage caused by the mite. Whereas the expression of several genes associated with hormonal responses did not suffer significant variations in the T-DNA insertion lines, the expression of one of these kinases depends on the expression of the other one. In addition, MAPKKK17 and MAPKKK21 are coexpressed with different sets of genes and encode proteins with low similarity in the C-terminal region. Overall, our results demonstrate that MAPKKK17 and MAPKKK21 have opposite roles. MAPKKK17 and MAPKKK21 act as positive and negative regulators, respectively, on the plant response. The induction of MAPKKK17 and MAPKKK21 after mite infestation would be integrated into the bulk of signalling pathways activated to balance the response of the plant to a biotic stress.

Tissue-specific mRNA profiling of the Brassica napus-Sclerotinia sclerotiorum interaction uncovers novel regulators of plant immunity

White mold is caused by the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and leads to rapid and significant loss in plant yield. Among its many brassicaceous hosts, including Brassica napus (canola) and Arabidopsis, the response of individual tissue layers directly at the site of infection has yet to be explored. Using laser microdissection coupled with RNA sequencing, we profiled the epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular leaf tissue layers of B. napus in response to S. sclerotiorum. High-throughput tissue-specific mRNA sequencing increased the total number of detected transcripts compared with whole-leaf assessments and provided novel insight into the conserved and specific roles of ontogenetically distinct leaf tissue layers in response to infection. When subjected to pathogen infection, the epidermis, mesophyll, and vasculature activate both specific and shared gene sets. Putative defense genes identified through transcription factor network analysis were then screened for susceptibility against necrotrophic, hemi-biotrophic, and biotrophic pathogens. Arabidopsis deficient in PR5-like RECEPTOR KINASE (PR5K) mRNA levels were universally susceptible to all pathogens tested and were further characterized to identify putative interacting partners involved in the PR5K signaling pathway. Together, these data provide insight into the complexity of the plant defense response directly at the site of infection.

bHLH010/089 Transcription Factors Control Pollen Wall Development via Specific Transcriptional and Metabolic Networks in Arabidopsis thaliana

The pollen wall is a specialized extracellular cell wall that protects male gametophytes from various environmental stresses and facilitates pollination. Here, we reported that bHLH010 and bHLH089 together are required for the development of the pollen wall by regulating their specific downstream transcriptional and metabolic networks. Both the exine and intine structures of bhlh010 bhlh089 pollen grains were severely defective. Further untargeted metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses revealed that the accumulation of pollen wall morphogenesis-related metabolites, including polysaccharides, glyceryl derivatives, and flavonols, were significantly changed, and the expression of such metabolic enzyme-encoding genes and transporter-encoding genes related to pollen wall morphogenesis was downregulated in bhlh010 bhlh089 mutants. Among these downstream target genes, CSLB03 is a novel target with no biological function being reported yet. We found that bHLH010 interacted with the two E-box sequences at the promoter of CSLB03 and directly activated the expression of CSLB03. The cslb03 mutant alleles showed bhlh010 bhlh089–like pollen developmental defects, with most of the pollen grains exhibiting defective pollen wall structures.

Emerging Roles of Motile Epidermal Chloroplasts in Plant Immunity

Plant epidermis contains atypical small chloroplasts. However, the physiological role of this organelle is unclear compared to that of large mesophyll chloroplasts, the well-known function of which is photosynthesis. Although knowledge of the involvement of chloroplasts in the plant immunity has been expanded to date, the differences between the epidermal and mesophyll chloroplasts are beyond the scope of this study. Given the role of the plant epidermis as a barrier to environmental stresses, including pathogen attacks, and the immune-related function of chloroplasts, plant defense research on epidermal chloroplasts is an emerging field. Recent studies have revealed the dynamic movements of epidermal chloroplasts in response to fungal and oomycete pathogens. Furthermore, epidermal chloroplast-associated proteins and cellular events that are tightly linked to epidermal resistance against pathogens have been reported. In this review, I have focused on the recent progress in epidermal chloroplast-mediated plant immunity.

Activation of the VQ Motif-Containing Protein Gene VQ28 Compromised Nonhost Resistance of Arabidopsis thaliana to Phytophthora Pathogens

Nonhost resistance refers to resistance of a plant species to all genetic variants of a non-adapted pathogen. Such resistance has the potential to become broad-spectrum and durable crop disease resistance. We previously employed Arabidopsis thaliana and a forward genetics approach to identify plant mutants susceptible to the nonhost pathogen Phytophthora sojae, which resulted in identification of the T-DNA insertion mutant esp1 (enhanced susceptibility to Phytophthora). In this study, we report the identification of VQ motif-containing protein 28 (VQ28), whose expression was highly up-regulated in the mutant esp1. Stable transgenic A. thaliana plants constitutively overexpressing VQ28 compromised nonhost resistance (NHR) against P. sojae and P. infestans, and supported increased infection of P. parasitica. Transcriptomic analysis showed that overexpression of VQ28 resulted in six differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that are involved in the response to abscisic acid (ABA). High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) detection showed that the contents of endogenous ABA, salicylic acid (SA), and jasmonate (JA) were enriched in VQ28 overexpression lines. These findings suggest that overexpression of VQ28 may lead to an imbalance in plant hormone homeostasis. Furthermore, transient overexpression of VQ28 in Nicotiana benthamiana rendered plants more susceptible to Phytophthora pathogens. Deletion mutant analysis showed that the C-terminus and VQ-motif were essential for plant susceptibility. Taken together, our results suggest that VQ28 negatively regulates plant NHR to Phytophthora pathogens.

Purification of MAP-kinase protein complexes and identification of candidate components by XL-TAP-MS

The purification of low-abundance protein complexes and detection of in vivo protein-protein interactions in complex biological samples remains a challenging task. Here, we devised crosslinking and tandem affinity purification coupled to mass spectrometry (XL-TAP-MS), a quantitative proteomics approach for analyzing tandem affinity-purified, crosslinked protein complexes from plant tissues. We exemplarily applied XL-TAP-MS to study the MKK2-Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MPK4) signaling module in Arabidopsis thaliana. A tandem affinity tag consisting of an in vivo-biotinylated protein domain flanked by two hexahistidine sequences was adopted to allow for the affinity-based isolation of formaldehyde-crosslinked protein complexes under fully denaturing conditions. Combined with 15N stable isotopic labeling and tandem MS we captured and identified a total of 107 MKK2-MPK4 module-interacting proteins. Consistent with the role of the MPK signaling module in plant immunity, many of the module-interacting proteins are involved in the biotic and abiotic stress response of Arabidopsis. Validation of binary protein-protein interactions by in planta split-luciferase assays and in vitro kinase assays disclosed several direct phosphorylation targets of MPK4. Together, the XL-TAP-MS approach purifies low abundance protein complexes from biological samples and discovers previously unknown protein-protein interactions.

D6 protein kinase in root xylem benefiting resistance to Fusarium reveals infection and defense mechanisms in tung trees

Fusarium oxysporum, a global soil-borne pathogen, causes severe disease in various cultivated plants. The mechanism underlying infection and resistance remains largely elusive. Vernicia fordii, known as the tung tree, suffers from disease caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. fordiis (Fof-1), while its sister species V. montana displays high resistance to Fof-1. To investigate the process of infection and resistance ability, we demonstrated that Fof-1 can penetrate the epidermis of root hairs and then centripetally invade the cortex and phloem in both species. Furthermore, Fof-1 spread upwards through the root xylem in susceptible V. fordii trees, whereas it failed to infect the root xylem in resistant V. montana trees. We found that D6 PROTEIN KINASE LIKE 2 (VmD6PKL2) was specifically expressed in the lateral root xylem and was induced after Fof-1 infection in resistant trees. Transgenic analysis in Arabidopsis and tomato revealed that VmD6PKL2 significantly enhanced resistance in both species, whereas the d6pkl2 mutant displayed reduced resistance against Fof-1. Additionally, VmD6PKL2 was identified to interact directly with synaptotagmin (VmSYT3), which is specifically expressed in the root xylem and mediates the negative regulation responding to Fof-1. Our data suggested that VmD6PKL2 could act as a resistance gene against Fof-1 through suppression of VmSYT3-mediated negative regulation in the lateral root xylem of the resistant species. These findings provide novel insight into Fusarium wilt resistance in plants.

Disclosure of salicylic acid and jasmonic acid-responsive genes provides a molecular tool for deciphering stress responses in soybean

Hormones orchestrate the physiology of organisms. Measuring the activity of defense hormone-responsive genes can help understanding immune signaling and facilitate breeding for plant health. However, different from model species like Arabidopsis, genes that respond to defense hormones salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA) have not been disclosed in the soybean crop. We performed global transcriptome analyses to fill this knowledge gap. Upon exogenous application, endogenous levels of SA and JA increased in leaves. SA predominantly activated genes linked to systemic acquired resistance and defense signaling whereas JA mainly activated wound response-associated genes. In general, SA-responsive genes were activated earlier than those responding to JA. Consistent with the paradigm of biotrophic pathogens predominantly activating SA responses, free SA and here identified most robust SA marker genes GmNIMIN1, GmNIMIN1.2 and GmWRK40 were induced upon inoculation with Phakopsora pachyrhizi, whereas JA marker genes did not respond to infection with the biotrophic fungus. Spodoptera exigua larvae caused a strong accumulation of JA-Ile and JA-specific mRNA transcripts of GmBPI1, GmKTI1 and GmAAT whereas neither free SA nor SA-marker gene transcripts accumulated upon insect feeding. Our study provides molecular tools for monitoring the dynamic accumulation of SA and JA, e.g. in a given stress condition.

Calmodulin7: recent insights into emerging roles in plant development and stress

Analyses of the function of Arabidopsis Calmodulin7 (CAM7) in concert with multiple regulatory proteins involved in various signal transduction processes. Calmodulin (CaM) plays various regulatory roles in multiple signaling pathways in eukaryotes. Arabidopsis CALMODULIN 7 (CAM7) is a unique member of the CAM family that works as a transcription factor in light signaling pathways. CAM7 works in concert with CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1 and ELONGATED HYPOCOTYL 5, and plays an important role in seedling development. Further, it is involved in the regulation of the activity of various Ca²⁺-gated channels such as cyclic nucleotide gated channel 6 (CNGC6), CNGC14 and auto-inhibited Ca²⁺ ATPase 8. Recent studies further indicate that CAM7 is also an integral part of multiple signaling pathways including hormone, immunity and stress. Here, we review the recent advances in understanding the multifaceted role of CAM7. We highlight the open-ended questions, and also discuss the diverse aspects of CAM7 characterization that need to be addressed for comprehensive understanding of its cellular functions.

Chemokine-like MDL proteins modulate flowering time and innate immunity in plants

Human macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is an atypical chemokine implicated in intercellular signaling and innate immunity. MIF orthologs (MIF/D-DT-like proteins, MDLs) are present throughout the plant kingdom, but remain experimentally unexplored in these organisms. Here, we provide an in planta characterization and functional analysis of the three-member gene/protein MDL family in Arabidopsis thaliana. Subcellular localization experiments indicated a nucleo-cytoplasmic distribution of MDL1 and MDL2, while MDL3 is localized to peroxisomes. Protein–protein interaction assays revealed the in vivo formation of MDL1, MDL2, and MDL3 homo-oligomers, as well as the formation of MDL1-MDL2 hetero-oligomers. Functionally, Arabidopsismdl mutants exhibited a delayed transition from vegetative to reproductive growth (flowering) under long-day conditions, but not in a short-day environment. In addition, mdl mutants were more resistant to colonization by the bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola. The latter phenotype was compromised by the additional mutation of SALICYLIC ACID INDUCTION DEFICIENT 2 (SID2), a gene implicated in the defense-induced biosynthesis of the key signaling molecule salicylic acid. However, the enhanced antibacterial immunity was not associated with any constitutive or pathogen-induced alterations in the levels of characteristic phytohormones or defense-associated metabolites. Interestingly, bacterial infection triggered relocalization and accumulation of MDL1 and MDL2 at the peripheral lobes of leaf epidermal cells. Collectively, our data indicate redundant functionality and a complex interplay between the three chemokine-like Arabidopsis MDL proteins in the regulation of both developmental and immune-related processes. These insights expand the comparative cross-kingdom analysis of MIF/MDL signaling in human and plant systems.

Protein Phosphorylation Changes During Systemic Acquired Resistance in Arabidopsis thaliana

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) in plants is a defense response that provides resistance against a wide range of pathogens at the whole-plant level following primary infection. Although the molecular mechanisms of SAR have been extensively studied in recent years, the role of phosphorylation that occurs in systemic leaves of SAR-induced plants is poorly understood. We used a data-independent acquisition (DIA) phosphoproteomics platform based on high-resolution mass spectrometry in an Arabidopsis thaliana model to identify phosphoproteins related to SAR establishment. A total of 8011 phosphorylation sites from 3234 proteins were identified in systemic leaves of Pseudomonas syringae pv. maculicola ES4326 (Psm ES4326) and mock locally inoculated plants. A total of 859 significantly changed phosphoproteins from 1119 significantly changed phosphopeptides were detected in systemic leaves of Psm ES4326 locally inoculated plants, including numerous transcription factors and kinases. A variety of defense response-related proteins were found to be differentially phosphorylated in systemic leaves of Psm ES4326 locally inoculated leaves, suggesting that these proteins may be functionally involved in SAR through phosphorylation or dephosphorylation. Significantly changed phosphoproteins were enriched mainly in categories related to response to abscisic acid, regulation of stomatal movement, plant-pathogen interaction, MAPK signaling pathway, purine metabolism, photosynthesis-antenna proteins, and flavonoid biosynthesis. A total of 28 proteins were regulated at both protein and phosphorylation levels during SAR. RT-qPCR analysis revealed that changes in phosphorylation levels of proteins during SAR did not result from changes in transcript abundance. This study provides comprehensive details of key phosphoproteins associated with SAR, which will facilitate further research on the molecular mechanisms of SAR.

Molecular genetics of leaf rust resistance in wheat and barley

The demand for cereal grains as a main source of energy continues to increase due to the rapid increase in world population. The leaf rust diseases of cereals cause significant yield losses, posing challenges for global food security. The deployment of resistance genes has long been considered as the most effective and sustainable way to control cereal leaf rust diseases. While genetic resistance has reduced the impact of these diseases in agriculture, losses still occur due to the ability of the respective rust pathogens to change and render resistance genes ineffective plus the slow pace at which resistance genes are discovered and characterized. This article highlights novel recently developed strategies based on advances in genome sequencing that have accelerated gene isolation by overcoming the complexity of cereal genomes. The leaf rust resistance genes cloned so far from wheat and barley belong to various protein families, including nucleotide binding site/leucine-rich repeat receptors and transporters. We review recent studies that are beginning to reveal the defense mechanisms conferred by the leaf rust resistance genes identified to date in cereals and their roles in either pattern-triggered immunity or effector-triggered immunity.

CaCML13 Acts Positively in Pepper Immunity Against Ralstonia solanacearum Infection Forming Feedback Loop with CabZIP63

Ca²⁺-signaling—which requires the presence of calcium sensors such as calmodulin (CaM) and calmodulin-like (CML) proteins—is crucial for the regulation of plant immunity against pathogen attack. However, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive, especially the roles of CMLs involved in plant immunity remains largely uninvestigated. In the present study, CaCML13, a calmodulin-like protein of pepper that was originally found to be upregulated by Ralstonia solanacearum inoculation (RSI) in RNA-seq, was functionally characterized in immunity against RSI. CaCML13 was found to target the whole epidermal cell including plasma membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. We also confirmed that CaCML13 was upregulated by RSI in pepper roots by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). The silencing of CaCML13 significantly enhanced pepper plants’ susceptibility to RSI accompanied with downregulation of immunity-related CaPR1, CaNPR1, CaDEF1 and CabZIP63. In contrast, CaCML13 transient overexpression induced clear hypersensitivity-reaction (HR)-mimicked cell death and upregulation of the tested immunity-related genes. In addition, we also revealed that the G-box-containing CaCML13 promoter was bound by CabZIP63 and CaCML13 was positively regulated by CabZIP63 at transcriptional level. Our data collectively indicate that CaCML13 act as a positive regulator in pepper immunity against RSI forming a positive feedback loop with CabZIP63.

Plasma membrane receptor-like kinases and transporters are associated with 2,4-D resistance in wild radish

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Resistance to the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) appears to be due to a complex, multifaceted mechanism possibly involving enhanced constitutive plant defence and alterations in auxin signalling. Based on a previous gene expression analysis highlighting the plasma membrane as being important for 2,4-D resistance, this study aimed to identify the components of the leaf plasma membrane proteome that contribute to resistance.

METHODS

Isobaric tagging of peptides was used to compare the plasma membrane proteomes of a 2,4-D-susceptible and a 2,4-D-resistant wild radish population under control and 2,4-D-treated conditions. Eight differentially abundant proteins were then targeted for quantification in the plasma membranes of 13 wild radish populations (two susceptible, 11 resistant) using multiple reaction monitoring.

KEY RESULTS

Two receptor-like kinases of unknown function (L-type lectin domain-containing receptor kinase IV.1-like and At1g51820-like) and the ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCB19, an auxin efflux transporter, were identified as being associated with auxinic herbicide resistance. The variability between wild radish populations suggests that the relative contributions of these candidates are different in the different populations.

CONCLUSIONS

To date, no receptor-like kinases have been reported to play a role in 2,4-D resistance. The lectin-domain-containing kinase may be involved in perception of 2,4-D at the plasma membrane, but its ability to bind 2,4-D and the identity of its signalling partner(s) need to be confirmed experimentally. ABCB19 is known to export auxinic compounds, but its role in 2,4-D resistance in wild radish appears to be relatively minor.

Analysing the genetic architecture of clubroot resistance variation in Brassica napus by associative transcriptomics

Clubroot is a destructive soil-borne pathogen of Brassicaceae that causes significant recurrent reductions in yield of cruciferous crops. Although there is some resistance in oilseed rape (a crop type of the species Brassica napus), the genetic basis of that resistance is poorly understood. In this study, we used an associative transcriptomics approach to elucidate the genetic basis of resistance to clubroot pathotype ECD 17/31/31 across a genetic diversity panel of 245 accessions of B. napus. A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) association analysis was performed with 256,397 SNPs distributed across the genome of B. napus and combined with transcript abundance data of 53,889 coding DNA sequence (CDS) gene models. The SNP association analysis identified two major loci (on chromosomes A2 and A3) controlling resistance and seven minor loci. Within these were a total of 86 SNP markers. Altogether, 392 genes were found in these regions. Another 21 genes were implicated as potentially involved in resistance using gene expression marker (GEM) analysis. After GO enrichment analysis and InterPro functional analysis of the identified genes, 82 candidate genes were identified as having roles in clubroot resistance. These results provide useful information for marker-assisted breeding which could lead to acceleration of pyramiding of multiple clubroot resistance genes in new varieties.

A feedback loop between CaWRKY41 and H2O2 coordinates the response to Ralstonia solanacearum and excess cadmium in pepper

WRKY transcription factors have been implicated in both plant immunity and plant responses to cadmium (Cd); however, the mechanism underlying the crosstalk between these processes is unclear. Here, we characterized the roles of CaWRKY41, a group III WRKY transcription factor, in immunity against the pathogenic bacterium Ralstonia solanacearum and Cd stress responses in pepper (Capsicum annuum). CaWRKY41 was transcriptionally up-regulated in response to Cd exposure, R. solanacearum inoculation, and H2O2 treatment. Virus-induced silencing of CaWRKY41 increased Cd tolerance and R. solanacearum susceptibility, while heterologous overexpression of CaWRKY41 in Arabidopsis impaired Cd tolerance, and enhanced Cd and zinc (Zn) uptake and H2O2 accumulation. Genes encoding reactive oxygen species-scavenging enzymes were down-regulated in CaWRKY41-overexpressing Arabidopsis plants, whereas genes encoding Zn transporters and enzymes involved in H2O2 production were up-regulated. Consistent with these findings, the ocp3 (overexpressor of cationic peroxidase 3) mutant, which has elevated H2O2 levels, displayed enhanced sensitivity to Cd stress. These results suggest that a positive feedback loop between H2O2 accumulation and CaWRKY41 up-regulation coordinates the responses of pepper to R. solanacearum inoculation and Cd exposure. This mechanism might reduce Cd tolerance by increasing Cd uptake via Zn transporters, while enhancing resistance to R. solanacearum.

Genes involved in nonhost disease resistance as a key to engineer durable resistance in crops

Most potential pathogens fail to establish virulence for a plethora of plants found in nature. This intrinsic property to resist pathogen virulence displayed by organisms without triggering canonical resistance (R) genes has been termed nonhost resistance (NHR). While host resistance involves recognition of pathogen elicitors such as avirulence factors by bona fide R proteins, mechanism of NHR seems less obvious, often involving more than one gene. We can generally describe NHR in two steps: 1) pre-invasive resistance, either passive or active, which can restrict the pathogen from entering the host, and 2) post-invasive resistance, an active defense response that often results in hypersensitive response like programmed cell death and reactive oxygen species accumulation. While PAMP-triggered-immunity (PTI) is generally effective against nonhost pathogens, effector-triggered-immunity (ETI) can be effective against both host and nonhost pathogens. Prolonged interactions between adapted pathogens and their resistant host plants results in co-evolution, which can lead to new pathogen strains that can be virulent and cause disease on supposedly resistant host. In this context, engineering durable resistance by manipulating genes involved in NHR is an attractive approach for sustainable agriculture. Several genes involved in NHR have been characterized for their role in plant defense. In this review, we report genes involved in NHR identified to date and highlight a few examples where genes involved in NHR have been used to confer resistance in crop plants against economically important diseases.

Temporal proteomics of Arabidopsis plasma membrane during cold- and de-acclimation

Freezing stress is one of the most important limiting factors of plant survival. Plants have developed a freezing adaptation mechanism upon sensing low temperatures (cold acclimation). Compositional changes in the plasma membrane, one of the initial sites of freezing injury, is prerequisite of achieving cold acclimation and have been investigated in several plant species. Conversely, the cold dehardening process at elevated temperatures (de-acclimation) has not yet been fully characterized and few studies have addressed the importance of the plasma membrane in the de-acclimation process. In the present study, we conducted shotgun proteomics with label-free semiquantification on plasma membrane fractions of Arabidopsis leaves during cold acclimation and de-acclimation. We consequently obtained a list of 873 proteins with significantly changed proteins in response to the two processes. Although the cold-acclimation-responsive proteins were globally returned to non-acclimated levels by de-acclimation, several representative cold-acclimation-responsive proteins tended to remain at higher abundance during de-acclimation process. Taken together, our results suggest plants deharden right after cold acclimation to restart growth and development but some cold-acclimation-induced changes of the plasma membrane may be maintained under de-acclimation to cope with the threat of sudden freezing during de-acclimation process. SIGNIFICANCE: Plant freezing tolerance can be enhanced by low temperature treatment (cold acclimation), while elevated temperatures right after cold acclimation can result in the dehardening of freezing tolerance (de-acclimation). However, the de-acclimation process, particularly its relevance to the plasma membrane as the primary site of freezing injury, has not been elucidated. In the present study, a comprehensive proteomic analysis of the plasma membrane during cold acclimation and de-acclimation was carried out as a first step to elucidating how plants respond to rising temperatures. Cold acclimation induced a number of proteomic changes as reported in previous studies, but most proteins, in general, immediately returned to NA levels during de-acclimation treatment for two days. However, the abundances of stress-related proteins (e.g. LTI29, COR78 and TIL) decreased slower than other functional proteins during de-acclimation. Therefore, plants harden during cold acclimation by aborting growth and development and accumulating stress-responsive proteins but seem to deharden quickly under subsequent elevated temperature to resume these processes while guarding against the threat of sudden temperature drops.

Phytophthora infestans RXLR effector SFI5 requires association with calmodulin for PTI/MTI suppressing activity

Pathogens secrete effector proteins to interfere with plant innate immunity, in which Ca2+ /calmodulin (CaM) signalling plays key roles. Thus far, few effectors have been identified that directly interact with CaM for defence suppression. Here, we report that SFI5, an RXLR effector from Phytophthora infestans, suppresses microbe-associated molecular pattern (MAMP)-triggered immunity (MTI) by interacting with host CaMs. We predicted the CaM-binding site in SFI5 using in silico analysis. The interaction between SFI5 and CaM was tested by both in vitro and in vivo assays. MTI suppression by SFI5 and truncated variants were performed in a tomato protoplast system. We found that both the predicted CaM-binding site and the full-length SFI5 protein interact with CaM in the presence of Ca2+ . MTI responses, such as FRK1 upregulation, reactive oxygen species accumulation, and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation were suppressed by truncated SFI5 proteins containing the C-terminal CaM-binding site but not by those without it. The plasma membrane localization of SFI5 and its ability to enhance infection were also perturbed by loss of the CaM-binding site. We conclude that CaM-binding is required for localization and activity of SFI5. We propose that SFI5 suppresses plant immunity by interfering with immune signalling components after activation by CaMs.

Towards Understanding Plant Calcium Signaling through Calmodulin-Like Proteins: A Biochemical and Structural Perspective

Ca2+ ions play a key role in a wide variety of environmental responses and developmental processes in plants, and several protein families with Ca2+-binding domains have evolved to meet these needs, including calmodulin (CaM) and calmodulin-like proteins (CMLs). These proteins have no catalytic activity, but rather act as sensor relays that regulate downstream targets. While CaM is well-studied, CMLs remain poorly characterized at both the structural and functional levels, even if they are the largest class of Ca2+ sensors in plants. The major structural theme in CMLs consists of EF-hands, and variations in these domains are predicted to significantly contribute to the functional versatility of CMLs. Herein, we focus on recent advances in understanding the features of CMLs from biochemical and structural points of view. The analysis of the metal binding and structural properties of CMLs can provide valuable insight into how such a vast array of CML proteins can coexist, with no apparent functional redundancy, and how these proteins contribute to cellular signaling while maintaining properties that are distinct from CaM and other Ca2+ sensors. An overview of the principal techniques used to study the biochemical properties of these interesting Ca2+ sensors is also presented.

Expression analysis of transporter genes for screening candidate monolignol transporters using Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspensions during tracheary element differentiation

The mechanism of monolignol transportation from the cytosol to the apoplast is still unclear despite being an essential step of lignification. Recently, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters were suggested to be involved in monolignol transport. However, there are no reliable clues to the transporters of the major lignin monomers coniferyl and synapyl alcohol. In this study, the lignification progress of Arabidopsis cultured cells during tracheary element differentiation was monitored. The expression of selected transporter genes, as well as lignification and cell-wall formation related genes as references, in differentiating cultured cell samples harvested at 2-day intervals was analyzed by real-time PCR and the data were statistically processed. The cell wall formation transcription factor MYB46, programmed-cell death related gene XCP1 and lignin polymerization peroxidase AtPrx25 were classified into the same cluster. Furthermore, the cluster closest to the abovementioned cluster contained the lignin synthesis transcription factor MYB58 and the Arabidopsis ABC transporters ABCG11, ABCG22, ABCG36 and ABCG29. This result suggested that these four ABC transporters may be involved in lignification. In the expression analysis, unexpectedly, the lignification-related genes CAD5 and C4H were not included in the same cluster as MYB58 and AtPrx25. The expression data also suggested that the lignification of tracheary elements in the culture, where lignification ratio finally reached to around 40%, continued after cell death because lignification actively progressed after programmed cell death-related gene started to be expressed.

Suppression or Activation of Immune Responses by Predicted Secreted Proteins of the Soybean Rust Pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi

Rust fungi, such as the soybean rust pathogen Phakopsora pachyrhizi, are major threats to crop production. They form specialized haustoria that are hyphal structures intimately associated with host-plant cell membranes. These haustoria have roles in acquiring nutrients and secreting effector proteins that manipulate host immune systems. Functional characterization of effector proteins of rust fungi is important for understanding mechanisms that underlie their virulence and pathogenicity. Hundreds of candidate effector proteins have been predicted for rust pathogens, but it is not clear how to prioritize these effector candidates for further characterization. There is a need for high-throughput approaches for screening effector candidates to obtain experimental evidence for effector-like functions, such as the manipulation of host immune systems. We have focused on identifying effector candidates with immune-related functions in the soybean rust fungus P. pachyrhizi. To facilitate the screening of many P. pachyrhizi effector candidates (named PpECs), we used heterologous expression systems, including the bacterial type III secretion system, Agrobacterium infiltration, a plant virus, and a yeast strain, to establish an experimental pipeline for identifying PpECs with immune-related functions and establishing their subcellular localizations. Several PpECs were identified that could suppress or activate immune responses in nonhost Nicotiana benthamiana, N. tabacum, Arabidopsis, tomato, or pepper plants.

A Critical View on ABC Transporters and Their Interacting Partners in Auxin Transport

Different subclasses of ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters have been implicated in the transport of native variants of the phytohormone auxin. Here, the putative, individual roles of key members belonging to the ABCB, ABCD and ABCG families, respectively, are highlighted and the knowledge of their assumed expression and transport routes is reviewed and compared with their mutant phenotypes. Protein-protein interactions between ABC transporters and regulatory components during auxin transport are summarized and their importance is critically discussed. There is a focus on the functional interaction between members of the ABCB family and the FKBP42, TWISTED DWARF1, acting as a chaperone during plasma membrane trafficking of ABCBs. Further, the mode and relevance of functional ABCB-PIN interactions is diagnostically re-evaluated. A new nomenclature describing precisely the most likely ABCB-PIN interaction scenarios is suggested. Finally, available tools for the detection and prediction of ABC transporter interactomes are summarized and the potential of future ABC transporter interactome maps is highlighted.

Current Understandings of Plant Nonhost Resistance

Nonhost resistance, a resistance of plant species against all nonadapted pathogens, is considered the most durable and efficient immune system of plants but yet remains elusive. The underlying mechanism of nonhost resistance has been investigated at multiple levels of plant defense for several decades. In this review, we have comprehensively surveyed the latest literature on nonhost resistance in terms of preinvasion, metabolic defense, pattern-triggered immunity, effector-triggered immunity, defense signaling, and possible application in crop protection. Overall, we summarize the current understanding of nonhost resistance mechanisms. Pre- and postinvasion is not much deviated from the knowledge on host resistance, except for a few specific cases. Further insights on the roles of the pattern recognition receptor gene family, multiple interactions between effectors from nonadapted pathogen and plant factors, and plant secondary metabolites in host range determination could expand our knowledge on nonhost resistance and provide efficient tools for future crop protection using combinational biotechnology approaches. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2017 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license .

LrABCF1, a GCN-type ATP-binding cassette transporter from Lilium regale, is involved in defense responses against viral and fungal pathogens

The L. regale ATP-binding cassette transporter gene, LrABCF1 belonging to GCN subfamily, functions as a positive regulator of plant defense against Cucumber mosaic virus, Tobacco rattle virus , and Botrytis cinerea in petunia. ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are essential for membrane translocation in diverse biological processes, such as plant development and defense response. Here, a general control non-derepressible (GCN)-type ABC transporter gene, designated LrABCF1, was identified from Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV)-induced cDNA library of L. regale. LrABCF1 was up-regulated upon inoculation with CMV and Lily mottle virus (LMoV). Salicylic acid (SA) and ethylene (ET) application and treatments with abiotic stresses such as cold, high salinity, and wounding increased the transcript abundances of LrABCF1. Constitutive overexpression of LrABCF1 in petunia (Petunia × hybrida) resulted in an impairment of plant growth and development. LrABCF1 overexpression conferred reduced susceptibility to CMV, Tobacco rattle virus (TRV), and B. cinerea infection in transgenic petunia plants, accompanying by elevated transcripts of PhGCN2 and a few defense-related genes in SA-signaling pathway. Our data indicate that LrABCF1 positively modulates viral and fungal resistance.

Molecular Soybean-Pathogen Interactions

Soybean hosts a wide variety of pathogens that cause significant yield losses. The importance of soybean as a major oilseed crop has led to research focused on its interactions with pathogens, such as Soybean mosaic virus, Pseudomonas syringae, Phytophthora sojae, Phakopsora pachyrhizi, and Heterodera glycines. Pioneering work on soybean's interactions with these organisms, which represent the five major pathogen groups (viruses, bacteria, oomycetes, fungi, and nematodes), has contributed to our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying virulence and immunity. These mechanisms involve conserved and unique features that validate the need for research in both soybean and homologous model systems. In this review, we discuss identification of effectors and their functions as well as resistance gene-mediated recognition and signaling. We also point out areas in which model systems and recent advances in resources and tools have provided opportunities to gain deeper insights into soybean-pathogen interactions.

Innate immune memory in plants

The plant innate immune system comprises local and systemic immune responses. Systemic plant immunity develops after foliar infection by microbial pathogens, upon root colonization by certain microbes, or in response to physical injury. The systemic plant immune response to localized foliar infection is associated with elevated levels of pattern-recognition receptors, accumulation of dormant signaling enzymes, and alterations in chromatin state. Together, these systemic responses provide a memory to the initial infection by priming the remote leaves for enhanced defense and immunity to reinfection. The plant innate immune system thus builds immunological memory by utilizing mechanisms and components that are similar to those employed in the trained innate immune response of jawed vertebrates. Therefore, there seems to be conservation, or convergence, in the evolution of innate immune memory in plants and vertebrates.

Biotrophy at Its Best: Novel Findings and Unsolved Mysteries of the Arabidopsis-Powdery Mildew Pathosystem

It is generally accepted in plant-microbe interactions research that disease is the exception rather than a common outcome of pathogen attack. However, in nature, plants with symptoms that signify colonization by obligate biotrophic powdery mildew fungi are omnipresent. The pervasiveness of the disease and the fact that many economically important plants are prone to infection by powdery mildew fungi drives research on this interaction. The competence of powdery mildew fungi to establish and maintain true biotrophic relationships renders the interaction a paramount example of a pathogenic plant-microbe biotrophy. However, molecular details underlying the interaction are in many respects still a mystery. Since its introduction in 1990, the Arabidopsis-powdery mildew pathosystem has become a popular model to study molecular processes governing powdery mildew infection. Due to the many advantages that the host Arabidopsis offers in terms of molecular and genetic tools this pathosystem has great capacity to answer some of the questions of how biotrophic pathogens overcome plant defense and establish a persistent interaction that nourishes the invader while in parallel maintaining viability of the plant host.

Big Data in Plant Science: Resources and Data Mining Tools for Plant Genomics and Proteomics

In modern plant biology, progress is increasingly defined by the scientists' ability to gather and analyze data sets of high volume and complexity, otherwise known as "big data". Arguably, the largest increase in the volume of plant data sets over the last decade is a consequence of the application of the next-generation sequencing and mass-spectrometry technologies to the study of experimental model and crop plants. The increase in quantity and complexity of biological data brings challenges, mostly associated with data acquisition, processing, and sharing within the scientific community. Nonetheless, big data in plant science create unique opportunities in advancing our understanding of complex biological processes at a level of accuracy without precedence, and establish a base for the plant systems biology. In this chapter, we summarize the major drivers of big data in plant science and big data initiatives in life sciences with a focus on the scope and impact of iPlant, a representative cyberinfrastructure platform for plant science.