The priming molecule β-aminobutyric acid is naturally present in plants and is induced by stress

β-Aminobutyric acid promotes stress tolerance, physiological adjustments, as well as broad epigenetic changes at DNA and RNA nucleobases in field elms (Ulmus minor)

BACKGROUND

β-Aminobutyric acid (BABA) has been successfully used to prime stress resistance in numerous plant species; however, its effectiveness in forest trees has been poorly explored thus far. This study aimed to investigate the influence of BABA on morphological, physiological, and epigenetic parameters in field elms under various growth conditions. Epigenetic changes were assessed in both DNA and RNA through the use of reversed-phase ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled with sensitive mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

The presented results confirm the influence of BABA on the development, physiology, and stress tolerance in field elms. However, the most important findings are related to the broad epigenetic changes promoted by this amino acid, which involve both DNA and RNA. Our findings confirm, for the first time, that BABA influences not only well-known epigenetic markers in plants, such as 5-methylcytosine, but also several other non-canonical nucleobases, such as 5-hydroxymethyluracil, 5-formylcytosine, 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, N6-methyladenine, uracil (in DNA) and thymine (in RNA). The significant effect on the levels of N6-methyladenine, the main bacterial epigenetic marker, is particularly noteworthy. In this case, the question arises as to whether this effect is due to epigenetic changes in the microbiome, the plant genome, or both.

CONCLUSIONS

The plant phenotype is the result of complex interactions between the plant's DNA, the microbiome, and the environment. We propose that different types of epigenetic changes in the plant and microbiome may play important roles in the largely unknown memory process that enables plants to adapt faster to changing environmental conditions.

Priming of Immune System in Tomato by Treatment with Low Concentration of L-Methionine

Various metabolites, including phytohormones, phytoalexins, and amino acids, take part in the plant immune system. Herein, we analyzed the effects of L-methionine (Met), a sulfur-containing amino acid, on the plant immune system in tomato. Treatment with low concentrations of Met enhanced the resistance of tomato to a broad range of diseases caused by the hemi-biotrophic bacterial pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato (Pst) and the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea (Bc), although it did not induce the production of any antimicrobial substances against these pathogens in tomato leaf tissues. Analyses of gene expression and phytohormone accumulation indicated that Met treatment alone did not activate the defense signals mediated by salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene. However, the salicylic acid-responsive defense gene and the jasmonic acid-responsive gene were induced more rapidly in Met-treated plants after infection with Pst and Bc, respectively. These findings suggest that low concentrations of Met have a priming effect on the phytohormone-mediated immune system in tomato.

Emerging Trends in Non-Protein Amino Acids as Potential Priming Agents: Implications for Stress Management Strategies and Unveiling Their Regulatory Functions

Plants endure the repercussions of environmental stress. As the advancement of global climate change continues, it is increasingly crucial to protect against abiotic and biotic stress effects. Some naturally occurring plant compounds can be used effectively to protect the plants. By externally applying priming compounds, plants can be prompted to trigger their defensive mechanisms, resulting in improved immune system effectiveness. This review article examines the possibilities of utilizing exogenous alpha-, beta-, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (AABA, BABA, and GABA), which are non-protein amino acids (NPAAs) that are produced naturally in plants during instances of stress. The article additionally presents a concise overview of the studies' discoveries on this topic, assesses the particular fields in which they might be implemented, and proposes new avenues for future investigation.

Non-proteinogenic amino acids mitigate oxidative stress and enhance the resistance of common bean plants against Sclerotinia sclerotiorum

White mold, caused by the necrotrophic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, is a challenging disease to common bean cultivation worldwide. In the current study, two non-proteinogenic amino acids (NPAAs), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and ß-alanine, were suggested as innovative environmentally acceptable alternatives for more sustainable management of white mold disease. In vitro, GABA and ß-alanine individually demonstrated potent dose-dependent fungistatic activity and effectively impeded the radial growth and development of S. sclerotiorum mycelium. Moreover, the application of GABA or ß-alanine as a seed treatment followed by three root drench applications efficiently decreased the disease severity, stimulated plant growth, and boosted the content of photosynthetic pigments of treated S. sclerotiorum-infected plants. Furthermore, although higher levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide anion (O2 •-), and malondialdehyde (MDA) indicated that S. sclerotiorum infection had markedly triggered oxidative stress in infected bean plants, the exogenous application of both NPAAs significantly reduced the levels of the three studied oxidative stress indicators. Additionally, the application of GABA and ß-alanine increased the levels of both non-enzymatic (total soluble phenolics and flavonoids), as well as enzymatic (catalase [CAT], peroxidases [POX], and polyphenol oxidase [PPO]) antioxidants in the leaves of S. sclerotiorum-infected plants and improved their scavenging activity and antioxidant efficiency. Applications of GABA and ß-alanine also raised the proline and total amino acid content of infected bean plants. Lastly, the application of both NPAAs upregulated the three antioxidant-related genes PvCAT1, PvCuZnSOD1, and PvGR. Collectively, the fungistatic activity of NPAAs, coupled with their ability to alleviate oxidative stress, enhance antioxidant defenses, and stimulate plant growth, establishes them as promising eco-friendly alternatives for white mold disease management for sustainable bean production.

Profiling of 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid and selected phytohormones in Arabidopsis using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

BACKGROUND

Gaseous phytohormone ethylene levels are directly influenced by the production of its immediate non-volatile precursor 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC). Owing to the strongly acidic character of the ACC molecule, its quantification has been difficult to perform. Here, we present a simple and straightforward validated method for accurate quantification of not only ACC levels, but also major members of other important phytohormonal classes - auxins, cytokinins, jasmonic acid, abscisic acid and salicylic acid from the same biological sample.

RESULTS

The presented technique facilitates the analysis of 15 compounds by liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. It was optimized and validated for 10 mg of fresh weight plant material. The extraction procedure is composed of a minimal amount of necessary steps. Accuracy and precision were the basis for evaluating the method, together with process efficiency, recovery and matrix effects as validation parameters. The examined compounds comprise important groups of phytohormones, their active forms and some of their metabolites, including six cytokinins, four auxins, two jasmonates, abscisic acid, salicylic acid and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid. The resulting method was used to examine their contents in selected Arabidopsis thaliana mutant lines.

CONCLUSION

This profiling method enables a very straightforward approach for indirect ethylene study and explores how it interacts, based on content levels, with other phytohormonal groups in plants.

Join the green team: Inducers of plant immunity in the plant disease sustainable control toolbox

BACKGROUND

Crops are constantly attacked by various pathogens. These pathogenic microorganisms, such as fungi, oomycetes, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes, threaten global food security by causing detrimental crop diseases that generate tremendous quality and yield losses worldwide. Chemical pesticides have undoubtedly reduced crop damage; however, in addition to increasing the cost of agricultural production, the extensive use of chemical pesticides comes with environmental and social costs. Therefore, it is necessary to vigorously develop sustainable disease prevention and control strategies to promote the transition from traditional chemical control to modern green technologies. Plants possess sophisticated and efficient defense mechanisms against a wide range of pathogens naturally. Immune induction technology based on plant immunity inducers can prime plant defense mechanisms and greatly decrease the occurrence and severity of plant diseases. Reducing the use of agrochemicals is an effective way to minimize environmental pollution and promote agricultural safety.

AIM OF REVIEW

The purpose of this workis to offer valuable insights into the current understanding and future research perspectives of plant immunity inducers and their uses in plant disease control, ecological and environmental protection, and sustainable development of agriculture.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

In this work, we have introduced the concepts of sustainable and environment-friendly concepts of green disease prevention and control technologies based on plant immunity inducers. This article comprehensively summarizes these recent advances, emphasizes the importance of sustainable disease prevention and control technologies for food security, and highlights the diverse functions of plant immunity inducers-mediated disease resistance. The challenges encountered in the potential applications of plant immunity inducers and future research orientation are also discussed.

Integrated microbiota-host-metabolome approaches reveal adaptive ruminal changes to prolonged high-grain feeding and phytogenic supplementation in cattle

Diets rich in readily fermentable carbohydrates primarily impact microbial composition and activity, but can also impair the ruminal epithelium barrier function. By combining microbiota, metabolome, and gene expression analysis, we evaluated the impact of feeding a 65% concentrate diet for 4 weeks, with or without a phytogenic feed additive (PFA), on the rumen ecosystem of cattle. The breaking point for rumen health seemed to be the second week of high grain (HG) diet, with a dysbiosis characterized by reduced alpha diversity. While we did not find changes in histological evaluations, genes related with epithelial proliferation (IGF-1, IGF-1R, EGFR, and TBP) and ZO-1 were affected by the HG feeding. Integrative analyses allowed us to define the main drivers of difference for the rumen ecosystem in response to a HG diet, identified as ZO-1, MyD88, and genus Prevotella 1. PFA supplementation reduced the concentration of potentially harmful compounds in the rumen (e.g. dopamine and 5-aminovaleric acid) and increased the tolerance of the epithelium toward the microbiota by altering the expression of TLR-2, IL-6, and IL-10. The particle-associated rumen liquid microbiota showed a quicker adaptation potential to prolonged HG feeding compared to the other microenvironments investigated, especially by the end of the experiment.

Managing Postharvest Losses of Vegetables and Fruits: A Methodological Review

Vegetables and fruits are highly perishable agricultural commodities cultivated all over the world. However, inadequate handling practices have led to significant postharvest losses of these agricultural commodities, as well as the wastage of valuable resources, such as time and money. Hence, it can be observed that cultivators often experience significant financial setbacks as a result of inadequate comprehension regarding the nature and origins of these losses, insufficient preservation practices, and ineffective approaches to transportation and marketing. In addition, the utilization of suitable chemical agents during both the pre- and postharvest phases has the potential to prolong the shelf life of agricultural products. This preservation technique safeguards vegetables and fruits from pathogenic organisms and other forms of environmental harm, thereby enabling their availability for an extended duration. Therefore, this review proposes a methodology for managing fruits and vegetables postharvest to minimize losses and optimize returns.

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Supplementation Boosts the Phytohormonal Profile in 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus'-Infected Citrus

The devastating citrus disease, Huanglongbing (HLB), is associated with 'Candidatus Liberibacter sp.' and transmitted by citrus psyllids. Unfortunately, HLB has no known sustainable cure yet. Herein, we proposed γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as a potential eco-friendly therapeutic solution to HLB. Herein, we used GC/MS-based targeted metabolomics combined with gene expression to investigate the role of GABA in citrus response against HLB and to better understand its relationship(s) with different phytohormones. GABA supplementation via root drench boosts the accumulation of endogenous GABA in the leaves of both healthy and 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-infected trees. GABA accumulation benefits the activation of a multi-layered defensive system via modulating the phytohormone levels and regulating the expression of their biosynthesis genes and some pathogenesis-related proteins (PRs) in both healthy and 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-infected plants. Moreover, our findings showed that GABA application stimulates auxin biosynthesis in 'Ca. L. asiaticus'-infected plants via the activation of the indole-3-pyruvate (I3PA) pathway, not via the tryptamine (TAM)-dependent pathway, to enhance the growth of HLB-affected trees. Likewise, GABA accumulation was associated with the upregulation of SA biosynthesis genes, particularly the PAL-dependent route, resulting in higher SA levels that activated CsPR1, CsPR2, CsPR5, and CsWRKY70, which are prominent to activation of the SA-mediated pathway. Additionally, higher GABA levels were correlated with an enhanced JA profile and linked with both CsPR3 and CsPR4, which activates the JA-mediated pathway. Collectively, our findings suggest that exogenous GABA application might be a promising alternative and eco-friendly strategy that helps citrus trees battle HLB.

Elevated CO2 alters photosynthesis, growth and susceptibility to powdery mildew of oak seedlings

Elevated CO2 (eCO2) is a determinant factor of climate change and is known to alter plant processes such as physiology, growth and resistance to pathogens. Quercus robur, a tree species integrated in most forest regeneration strategies, shows high vulnerability to powdery mildew (PM) disease at the seedling stage. PM is present in most oak forests and it is considered a bottleneck for oak woodland regeneration. Our study aims to decipher the effect of eCO2 on plant responses to PM. Oak seedlings were grown in controlled environment at ambient (aCO2, ∼400 ppm) and eCO2 (∼1000 ppm), and infected with Erysiphe alphitoides, the causal agent of oak PM. Plant growth, physiological parameters and disease progression were monitored. In addition, to evaluate the effect of eCO2 on induced resistance (IR), these parameters were assessed after treatments with IR elicitor β-aminobutyric acid (BABA). Our results show that eCO2 increases photosynthetic rates and aerial growth but in contrast, reduces root length. Importantly, under eCO2 seedlings were more susceptible to PM. Treatments with BABA protected seedlings against PM and this protection was maintained under eCO2. Moreover, irrespectively of the concentration of CO2, BABA did not significantly change aerial growth but resulted in longer radicular systems, thus mitigating the effect of eCO2 in root shortening. Our results demonstrate the impact of eCO2 in plant physiology, growth and defence, and warrant further biomolecular studies to unravel the mechanisms by which eCO2 increases oak seedling susceptibility to PM.

Induced resistance to rice sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani Kühn) by β-amino-butyric acid conjugate of phenazine-1-carboxylic acid

Rice sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kühn is a major fungal disease that plagues commercially grown rice. Occurring mainly in leaf sheaths and leaves, the disease leads to great losses in food production. β-amino-butyric acid (BABA) has been demonstrated to activate an induced resistance response and is a potent inducer of broad-spectrum disease resistance in different plant species. In this study, β-amino-butyric acid conjugate of phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) with prominent induced resistance to rice sheath blight was tested. The in vitro fungicidal activity, as well as in vivo efficacy, systemicity, induced resistance and defense enzyme activity of BABA conjugate of PCA against R. solani in rice seedlings was systematically evaluated. The results indicated that in vitro fungicidal activity of PCA-β-aminobutyric acid (4e) against R. solani was lower than that of PCA, but in vivo curative ability of 4e was the highest among all tested compounds. The systemicity tests in rice seedlings revealed that PCA did not possess phloem mobility, while 4e exhibited moderate phloem mobility but much lower thanα-amino-butyric acid conjugate of PCA (4d). In addition, Compound 4e showed the highest induced activity against rice sheath blight. The observed effects of defense enzymes help to explain this high level of induced activity. The current research results indicate that in rice seedlings, BABA conjugate of PCA induce observable resistance to rice sheath blight and exhibit moderate phloem mobility, which could be used as an induced resistance fungicide against rice sheath blight in commercial rice production. The BABA conjugate of PCA might provide a useful example of induced resistance to R. solani.

Chemical priming of plant defense responses to pathogen attacks

Plants can acquire an improved resistance against pathogen attacks by exogenous application of natural or artificial compounds. In a process called chemical priming, application of these compounds causes earlier, faster and/or stronger responses to pathogen attacks. The primed defense may persist over a stress-free time (lag phase) and may be expressed also in plant organs that have not been directly treated with the compound. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the signaling pathways involved in chemical priming of plant defense responses to pathogen attacks. Chemical priming in induced systemic resistance (ISR) and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is highlighted. The roles of the transcriptional coactivator NONEXPRESSOR OF PR1 (NPR1), a key regulator of plant immunity, induced resistance (IR) and salicylic acid signaling during chemical priming are underlined. Finally, we consider the potential usage of chemical priming to enhance plant resistance to pathogens in agriculture.

The Bacterial Volatile Organic Compound N,N-Dimethylhexadecylamine Induces Long-Lasting Developmental and Immune Responses throughout the Life Cycle of Arabidopsis thaliana

N,N-dimethylhexadecylamine (DMHDA) is a bacterial volatile organic compound that affects plant growth and morphogenesis and is considered a cross-kingdom signal molecule. Its bioactivity involves crosstalk with the cytokinin and jasmonic acid (JA) pathways to control stem cell niches and induce iron deficiency adaptation and plant defense. In this study, through genetic analysis, we show that the DMHDA-JA-Ethylene (ET) relations determine the magnitude of the defensive response mounted during the infestation of Arabidopsis plants by the pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea. The Arabidopsis mutants defective in the JA receptor CORONATINE INSENSITIVE 1 (coi1-1) showed a more severe infestation when compared to wild-type plants (Col-0) that were partially restored by DMHDA supplements. Moreover, the oversensitivity manifested by ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 2 (ein2) by B. cinerea infestation could not be reverted by the volatile, suggesting a role for this gene in DMHDA reinforcement of immunity. Growth of Col-0 plants was inhibited by DMHDA, but ein2 did not. Noteworthy, Arabidopsis seeds treated with DMHDA produced more vigorous plants throughout their life cycle. These data are supportive of a scenario where plant perception of a bacterial volatile influences the resistance to a fungal phytopathogen while modulating plant growth.

Priming crop plants with rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus Spenn, syn Rosmarinus officinalis L.) extract triggers protective defense response against pathogens

Plant bioactive compounds provide novel straightforward approaches to control plant diseases. Rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus)-derived extracts carry many prominent pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial and antioxidant, mainly due to its phenolic compounds, rosmarinic acid (RA), carnosic acid and carnosol. However, the effects of these extracts on plant diseases are still unknown, which constrains its potential application as bioprotectant in the agricultural production. In this study we demonstrate the antiviral effect of the aqueous rosemary extract (ARE) against tobacco necrosis virus strain A (TNVA) in ARE-treated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants. Our results show that ARE-treatment enhances plant defense response, contributing to reduce virus replication and systemic movement in tobacco plants. RA, the main phenolic compound detected in this extract, is one of the main inducers of TNVA control. The ARE-induced protection in TNVA-infected plants was characterized by the expression of H₂O₂ scavengers and defense-related genes, involving salicylic acid- and jasmonic acid-regulated pathways. Furthermore, treatment with ARE in lemon (Citrus limon) and soybean (Glycine max) leaves protects the plants against Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri and Diaporthe phaseolorum var. meridionalis, respectively. Additionally, ARE treatment also promotes growth and development, suggesting a biostimulant activity in soybean. These results open the way for the potential use of ARE as a bioprotective agent in disease management.

Decrypting the multi-functional biological activators and inducers of defense responses against biotic stresses in plants

Plant diseases are still the main problem for the reduction in crop yield and a threat to global food security. Additionally, excessive usage of chemical inputs such as pesticides and fungicides to control plant diseases have created another serious problem for human and environmental health. In view of this, the application of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for controlling plant disease incidences has been identified as an eco-friendly approach for coping with the food security issue. In this review, we have identified different ways by which PGPRs are capable of reducing phytopathogenic infestations and enhancing crop yield. PGPR suppresses plant diseases, both directly and indirectly, mediated by microbial metabolites and signaling components. Microbial synthesized anti-pathogenic metabolites such as siderophores, antibiotics, lytic enzymes, hydrogen cyanide, and several others act directly on phytopathogens. The indirect mechanisms of reducing plant disease infestation are caused by the stimulation of plant immune responses known as initiation of systemic resistance (ISR) which is mediated by triggering plant immune responses elicited through pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The ISR triggered in the infected region of the plant leads to the development of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) throughout the plant making the plant resistant to a wide range of pathogens. A number of PGPRs including Pseudomonas and Bacillus genera have proven their ability to stimulate ISR. However, there are still some challenges in the large-scale application and acceptance of PGPR for pest and disease management. Further, we discuss the newly formulated PGPR inoculants possessing both plant growth-promoting activities and plant disease suppression ability for a holistic approach to sustaining plant health and enhancing crop productivity.

Simultaneous determination of all aminobutyric acids by chiral derivatization and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Aminobutyric acids include eight structural or stereoisomers that exhibit a wide range of biological activities. Recent evidence on some low abundant isomers have increased the demand for highly selective analysis of all the isomers; however, simultaneous separation of all the aminobutyric acid isomers has not been successful yet, except for a specialized method that uses multiple separation columns and a split of samples. In this study, we developed a new analytical method using chiral derivatization and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to separate all the aminobutyric acid isomers in a single separation column. All the diastereomeric derivatives were resolved in a C18 column, and the derivatives showed characteristic fragmentation patterns in tandem mass spectrometry. By using the method, we analyzed the isomers in the Arabidopsis thaliana seeds and revealed the existence of three low abundant isomers, i.e., D-, L-β-aminoisobutyric acid, and D-β-aminobutyric acid. The proposed method uses a commercially available chiral derivatizing reagent and a broadly used column; therefore, it can be widely used in biological and food analyses.

Small Signals Lead to Big Changes: The Potential of Peptide-Induced Resistance in Plants

The plant immunity system is being revisited more and more and new elements and roles are attributed to participating in the response to biotic stress. The new terminology is also applied in an attempt to identify different players in the whole scenario of immunity: Phytocytokines are one of those elements that are gaining more attention due to the characteristics of processing and perception, showing they are part of a big family of compounds that can amplify the immune response. This review aims to highlight the latest findings on the role of phytocytokines in the whole immune response to biotic stress, including basal and adaptive immunity, and expose the complexity of their action in plant perception and signaling events.

Free Amino Acids and Biogenic Amines Profiling and Variation in Wild and Sub-Endemic Cardueae Species from Sardinia and Corse

The cardueae are a common species in the Mediterranean area where they grow spontaneously and are traditionally employed as food and for health purposes. In this work, five Cardueae, including two sub-endemic species (four Carduus and three Ptilostemon casabonae (L.) Greuter samples from different locations) were collected from Sardinia and the Corse islands. All the considered plants are characteristic of the area, in particular the sub-endemic species C. cephalanthus and P. casabonae. This work aims to obtain, for the first time, the amino compounds profile (primary metabolites) of these little-studied species to detect for any similarities and differences among the different samples using statistical analyses. A recently developed method was employed, where diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate (DEEMM) derivatives are detected in a neutral loss scan mode using high performance liquid chromatography in tandem with a mass spectrometry technique. In total, 42 amino compounds were detected, of which 33 were fully identified and semi-quantified. Overall, the results show that DEEMM-derivatized amino compounds are qualitatively similar among the considered samples. Nonetheless, a discrimination at the genus level is possible. This work adds more information regarding the phytochemical composition regarding the primary metabolites of the considered samples, their discriminations and the search for compounds with potential health benefits.

β-Aminobutyric acid induced phytotoxicity and effectiveness against nematode is stereomer-specific and dose-dependent in tomato

β-Aminobutyric acid (BABA) induces resistance to a/biotic stress but is associated with phytotoxicity in some plant species. There are two enantiomers of BABA, the R and S enantiomers. We evaluated the phytotoxicity caused by the RS BABA (racemic mixture of R and S BABA), evaluating the dose-response effect and different modes of application on tomato. Results show that RS BABA-induced phytotoxicity in tomato is dose-dependent and stronger with foliar applications than with soil drench. We further evaluated the phytotoxicity of the two enantiomers separately and observed that BABA-induced phytotoxicity is stereomer-specific. In comparison with less phytotoxic effects induced by S BABA, R BABA induces dose-dependent and systemic phytotoxic symptoms. To investigate the possible physiological causes of this phytotoxicity, we measured levels of oxidative stress and anthocyanins and validated the findings with gene expression analyses. Our results show that high doses of RS and R BABA induce hydrogen peroxide, lipid peroxidation, and anthocyanin accumulation in tomato leaves, while this response is milder and more transient upon S BABA application. Next, we evaluated BABA induced resistance against root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita in tomato. BABA-induced resistance was found to be stereomer-specific and dependent on dose and mode of application. R or RS BABA multiple soil drench application at low doses induces resistance to nematodes with less phytotoxic effects. Taken together, our data provide useful knowledge on how BABA can be applied in crop production by enhancing stress tolerance and limiting phytotoxicity.

Transcriptional profiling of defense responses to Botrytis cinerea infection in leaves of Fragaria vesca plants soil-drenched with β-aminobutyric acid

Grey mold caused by the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea can affect leaves, flowers, and berries of strawberry, causing severe pre- and postharvest damage. The defense elicitor β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) is reported to induce resistance against B. cinerea and many other pathogens in several crop plants. Surprisingly, BABA soil drench of woodland strawberry (Fragaria vesca) plants two days before B. cinerea inoculation caused increased infection in leaf tissues, suggesting that BABA induce systemic susceptibility in F. vesca. To understand the molecular mechanisms involved in B. cinerea susceptibility in leaves of F. vesca plants soil drenched with BABA, we used RNA sequencing to characterize the transcriptional reprogramming 24 h post-inoculation. The number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in infected vs. uninfected leaf tissue in BABA-treated plants was 5205 (2237 upregulated and 2968 downregulated). Upregulated genes were involved in pathogen recognition, defense response signaling, and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites (terpenoid and phenylpropanoid pathways), while downregulated genes were involved in photosynthesis and response to auxin. In control plants not treated with BABA, we found a total of 5300 DEGs (2461 upregulated and 2839 downregulated) after infection. Most of these corresponded to those in infected leaves of BABA-treated plants but a small subset of DEGs, including genes involved in 'response to biologic stimulus', 'photosynthesis' and 'chlorophyll biosynthesis and metabolism', differed significantly between treatments and could play a role in the induced susceptibility of BABA-treated plants.

A single amino acid transporter controls the uptake of priming-inducing beta-amino acids and the associated tradeoff between induced resistance and plant growth

Selected β-amino acids, such as β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) and R-β-homoserine (RBH), can prime plants for resistance against a broad spectrum of diseases. Here, we describe a genome-wide screen of fully annotated Arabidopsis thaliana T-DNA insertion lines for impaired in RBH-induced immunity (iri) mutants against the downy mildew pathogen Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis, yielding 104 lines that were partially affected and four lines that were completely impaired in RBH-induced resistance (IR). We confirmed the iri1-1 mutant phenotype with an independent T-DNA insertion line in the same gene, encoding the high-affinity amino acid transporter LYSINE HISTIDINE TRANSPORTER 1 (LHT1). Uptake experiments with yeast cells expressing LHT1 and mass spectrometry-based quantification of RBH and BABA in leaves of lht1 mutant and LHT1 overexpression lines revealed that LHT1 acts as the main transporter for cellular uptake and systemic distribution of RBH and BABA. Subsequent characterization of lht1 mutant and LHT1 overexpression lines for IR and growth responses revealed that the levels of LHT1-mediated uptake determine the tradeoff between IR and plant growth by RBH and BABA.

L-Aspartate and L-Glutamine Inhibit Beta-Aminobutyric Acid-Induced Resistance in Tomatoes

Plant diseases caused by pathogens lead to economic and agricultural losses, while plant resistance is defined by robustness and timing of defence response. Exposure to microbial-associated molecular patterns or specific chemical compounds can promote plants into a primed state with more robust defence responses. β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) is an endogenous stress metabolite that induces resistance, thereby protecting various plants' diverse stresses by induction of non-canonical activity after binding into aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (AspRS). In this study, by integrating BABA-induced changes in selected metabolites and transcript data, we describe the molecular processes involved in BABA-induced resistance (BABA-IR) in tomatoes. BABA significantly restricted the growth of the pathogens P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 and was related to the accumulation of transcripts for pathogenesis-related proteins and jasmonic acid signalling but not salicylic acid signalling in Arabidopsis. The resistance was considerably reduced by applying amino acids L-Asp and L-Gln when L-Gln prevents general amino acid inhibition in plants. Analysis of amino acid changes suggests that BABA-IR inhibition by L-Asp is due to its rapid metabolisation to L-Gln and not its competition with BABA for the aspartyl-tRNA synthetase (AspRS) binding site. Our results showed differences between the effect of BABA on tomatoes and other model plants. They highlighted the importance of comparative studies between plants of agronomic interest subjected to treatment with BABA.

Amino acids and their derivatives mediating defense priming and growth tradeoff

Plant response to pathogens attacks generally comes at the expense of growth. Defense priming is widely accepted as an efficient strategy used for augmenting resistance with reduced fitness in terms of growth and yield. Plant-derived small molecules, both primary as well as secondary metabolites, can function as activators to prime plant defense. Amino acids and their derivatives regulate numerous aspects of plant growth and development, and biotic and abiotic stress responses. In this review, we discuss the recent progress in understanding the roles of amino acids and related molecules in defense priming and their link with plant growth. We also highlight some of the outstanding questions and provide an outlook on the prospects of 'engineering' the tradeoff between defense and growth in plants.

Immune priming in plants: from the onset to transgenerational maintenance

Enhancing plant resistance against pests and diseases by priming plant immunity is an attractive concept for crop protection because it provides long-lasting broad-spectrum protection against pests and diseases. This review provides a selected overview of the latest advances in research on the molecular, biochemical and epigenetic drivers of plant immune priming. We review recent findings about the perception and signalling mechanisms controlling the onset of priming by the plant stress metabolite β-aminobutyric acid. In addition, we review the evidence for epigenetic regulation of long-term maintenance of priming and discuss how stress-induced reductions in DNA hypomethylation at transposable elements can prime defence genes. Finally, we examine how priming can be exploited in crop protection and articulate the opportunities and challenges of translating research results from the Arabidopsis model system to crops.

Glycine Betaine and β-Aminobutyric Acid Mitigate the Detrimental Effects of Heat Stress on Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis) Seedlings with Improved Photosynthetic Performance and Antioxidant System

Heat stress is one of the major abiotic factors that limit the growth, development, and productivity of plants. Both glycine betaine (GB) and β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) have received considerable attention due to their roles in stimulating tolerance to diverse abiotic stresses. In order to understand how GB and BABA biostimulants alleviate heat stress in a cool-weather Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis) plant, we investigated the GB- and BABA-primed heat-stressed plants in terms of their morpho-physiological and biochemical traits. Priming with GB (15 mM) and BABA (0.2 mM) was conducted at the third leaf stage by applying foliar sprays daily for 5 days before 5 days of heat stress (45 °C in 16 h light/35 °C in 8 h dark) on Chinese cabbage seedlings. The results indicate that GB and BABA significantly increased chlorophyll content, and the parameters of both gas exchange and chlorophyll fluorescence, of Chinese cabbage under heat stress. Compared with the unprimed heat-stressed control, the dry weights of GB- and BABA-primed plants were significantly increased by 36.36% and 45.45%, respectively. GB and BABA priming also greatly mitigated membrane damage, as indicated by the reduction in malondialdehyde (MDA) and electrolyte leakage through the elevation of proline content, and increased activity levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD), catalase (CAT), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX). Taken together, GB and BABA have great potential to enhance the thermotolerance of Chinese cabbage through higher photosynthesis performance, osmoprotection, and antioxidant enzyme activity.

Long-Lasting Defence Priming by β-Aminobutyric Acid in Tomato Is Marked by Genome-Wide Changes in DNA Methylation

Exposure of plants to stress conditions or to certain chemical elicitors can establish a primed state, whereby responses to future stress encounters are enhanced. Stress priming can be long-lasting and likely involves epigenetic regulation of stress-responsive gene expression. However, the molecular events underlying priming are not well understood. Here, we characterise epigenetic changes in tomato plants primed for pathogen resistance by treatment with β-aminobutyric acid (BABA). We used whole genome bisulphite sequencing to construct tomato methylomes from control plants and plants treated with BABA at the seedling stage, and a parallel transcriptome analysis to identify genes primed for the response to inoculation by the fungal pathogen, Botrytis cinerea. Genomes of plants treated with BABA showed a significant reduction in global cytosine methylation, especially in CHH sequence contexts. Analysis of differentially methylated regions (DMRs) revealed that CHH DMRs were almost exclusively hypomethylated and were enriched in gene promoters and in DNA transposons located in the chromosome arms. Genes overlapping CHH DMRs were enriched for a small number of stress response-related gene ontology terms. In addition, there was significant enrichment of DMRs in the promoters of genes that are differentially expressed in response to infection with B. cinerea. However, the majority of genes that demonstrated priming did not contain DMRs, and nor was the overall distribution of methylated cytosines in primed genes altered by BABA treatment. Hence, we conclude that whilst BABA treatment of tomato seedlings results in characteristic changes in genome-wide DNA methylation, CHH hypomethylation appears only to target a minority of genes showing primed responses to pathogen infection. Instead, methylation may confer priming via in-trans regulation, acting at a distance from defence genes, and/or by targeting a smaller group of regulatory genes controlling stress responses.

Response of tomatoes primed by mycorrhizal colonization to virulent and avirulent bacterial pathogens

Most plants interact with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, which enhance disease resistance in the host plant. Because the effects of resistance against bacterial pathogens are poorly understood, we investigated the effects of mycorrhizal colonization on virulent and avirulent pathogens using phytopathological and molecular biology techniques. Tomato plants colonized by Gigaspora margarita acquired resistance not only against the fungal pathogen, Botrytis cinerea, but also against a virulent bacterial pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 (Pst). In G. margarita-colonized tomato, salicylic acid (SA)- and jasmonic acid (JA)-related defense genes were expressed more rapidly and strongly compared to those in the control plants when challenged by Pst, indicating that the plant immunity system was primed by mycorrhizal colonization. Gene expression analysis indicated that primed tomato plants responded to the avirulent pathogen, Pseudomonas syringae pv. oryzae, more rapidly and strongly compared to the control plant, where the effect on the JA-mediated signals was stronger than in the case with Pst. We found that the resistance induced by mycorrhizal colonization was effective against both fungal and bacterial pathogens including virulent and avirulent pathogens. Moreover, the activation of both SA- and JA-mediated signaling pathways can be enhanced in the primed plant by mycorrhizal colonization.

Innovating the Synergistic Assets of β-Amino Butyric Acid (BABA) and Selenium Nanoparticles (SeNPs) in Improving the Growth, Nitrogen Metabolism, Biological Activities, and Nutritive Value of Medicago interexta Sprouts

In view of the wide traditional uses of legume sprouts, several strategies have been approved to improve their growth, bioactivity, and nutritive values. In this regard, the present study aimed at investigating how priming with selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs, 25 mg L^-1) enhanced the effects of β-amino butyric acid (BABA, 30 mM) on the growth, physiology, nitrogen metabolism, and bioactive metabolites of Medicago interexta sprouts. The results have shown that the growth and photosynthesis of M. interexta sprouts were enhanced by the treatment with BABA or SeNPs, being higher under combined treatment. Increased photosynthesis provided the precursors for the biosynthesis of primary and secondary metabolites. In this regard, the combined treatment had a more pronounced effect on the bioactive primary metabolites (essential amino acids), secondary metabolites (phenolics, GSH, and ASC), and mineral profiles of the investigated sprouts than that of sole treatments. Increased amino acids were accompanied by increased nitrogen metabolism, i.e., nitrate reductase, glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), glutamate synthase (GOGAT), glutamine synthase (GS), cysteine synthesis serine acetyltransferase, arginase, threonine synthase, and methionine synthase. Further, the antioxidant capacity (FRAP), the anti-diabetic activities (i.e., α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition activities), and the glycemic index of the tested sprouts were more significantly improved by the combined treatment with BABA and SeNPs than by individual treatment. Overall, the combined effect of BABA and SeNPs could be preferable to their individual effects on plant growth and bioactive metabolites.

N-3-Oxo-Octanoyl Homoserine Lactone Primes Plant Resistance Against Necrotrophic Pathogen Pectobacterium carotovorum by Coordinating Jasmonic Acid and Auxin-Signaling Pathways

Many Gram-negative bacteria use small signal molecules, such as N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs), to communicate with each other and coordinate their collective behaviors. Recently, increasing evidence has demonstrated that long-chained quorum-sensing signals play roles in priming defense responses in plants. Our previous work indicated that a short-chained signal, N-3-oxo-octanoyl homoserine lactone (3OC8-HSL), enhanced Arabidopsis resistance to the hemi-biotrophic bacteria Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 through priming the salicylic acid (SA) pathway. Here, we found that 3OC8-HSL could also prime resistance to the necrotrophic bacterium Pectobacterium carotovorum ssp. carotovorum (Pcc) through the jasmonic acid (JA) pathway, and is dependent on auxin responses, in both Chinese cabbage and Arabidopsis. The subsequent Pcc invasion triggered JA accumulation and increased the down-stream genes' expressions of JA synthesis genes (LOX, AOS, and AOC) and JA response genes (PDF1.2 and VSP2). The primed state was not observed in the Arabidopsis coi1-1 and jar1-1 mutants, which indicated that the primed resistance to Pcc was dependent on the JA pathway. The 3OC8-HSL was not transmitted from roots to leaves and it induced indoleacetic acid (IAA) accumulation and the DR5 and SAUR auxin-responsive genes' expressions in seedlings. When Arabidopsis and Chinese cabbage roots were pretreated with exogenous IAA (10 μM), the plants had activated the JA pathway and enhanced resistance to Pcc, which implied that the JA pathway was involved in AHL priming by coordinating with the auxin pathway. Our findings provide a new strategy for the prevention and control of soft rot in Chinese cabbage and provide theoretical support for the use of the quorum-sensing AHL signal molecule as a new elicitor.

Altitudinal Variation of Metabolites, Mineral Elements and Antioxidant Activities of Rhodiola crenulata (Hook.f. & Thomson) H.Ohba

Rhodiolacrenulata (Hook.f. & Thomson) H.Ohba is an alpine medicinal plant that can survive in extreme high altitude environments. However, its changes to extreme high altitude are not yet clear. In this study, the response of Rhodiola crenulata to differences in altitude gradients was investigated through chemical, ICP-MS and metabolomic methods. A targeted study of Rhodiola crenulata growing at three vertical altitudes revealed that the contents of seven elements Ca, Sr, B, Mn, Ni, Cu, and Cd, the phenolic components, the ascorbic acid, the ascorbic acid/dehydroascorbate ratio, and the antioxidant capacity were positively correlated with altitude, while the opposite was true for total ascorbic acid content. Furthermore, 1165 metabolites were identified: flavonoids (200), gallic acids (30), phenylpropanoids (237), amino acids (100), free fatty acids and glycerides (56), nucleotides (60), as well as other metabolites (482). The differential metabolite and biomarker analyses suggested that, with an increasing altitude: (1) the shikimic acid-phenylalanine-phenylpropanoids-flavonoids pathway was enhanced, with phenylpropanoids upregulating biomarkers much more than flavonoids; phenylpropanes and phenylmethanes upregulated, and phenylethanes downregulated; the upregulation of quercetin was especially significant in flavonoids; upregulation of condensed tannins and downregulation of hydrolyzed tannins; upregulation of shikimic acids and amino acids including phenylalanine. (2) significant upregulation of free fatty acids and downregulation of glycerides; and (3) upregulation of adenosine phosphates. Our findings provide new insights on the responses of Rhodiola crenulata to extreme high altitude adversity.

Alterations in Sucrose and Phenylpropanoid Metabolism Affected by BABA-Primed Defense in Postharvest Grapes and the Associated Transcriptional Mechanism

Defense elicitors can induce fruit disease resistance to control postharvest decay but may incur quality impairment. Our present work aimed to investigate the resistance against Botrytis cinerea induced by the elicitor β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) and to elucidate the specific transcriptional mechanism implicated in defense-related metabolic regulations. The functional dissection results demonstrated that, after inoculation with the fungal necrotroph B. cinerea, a suite of critical genes encoding enzymes related to the sucrose metabolism and phenylpropanoid pathway in priming defense in grapes were transcriptionally induced by treatment with 10 mM BABA. In contrast, more UDP-glucose, a shared precursor of phenylpropanoid and sucrose metabolism, may be redirected to the phenylpropanoid pathway for the synthesis of phytoalexins, including trans-resveratrol and ɛ-viniferin, in 100 mM BABA-treated grapes, resulting in direct resistance but compromised soluble sugar contents. An R2R3-type MYB protein from Vitis vinifera, VvMYB44, was isolated and characterized. VvMYB44 expression was significantly induced upon the grapes expressed defensive reaction. Subcellular localization, yeast two-hybrid, and coimmunoprecipitation assays revealed that the nuclear-localized VvMYB44 physically interacted with the salicylic acid-responsive transcription coactivator NPR1 in vivo for defense expression. In addition, VvMYB44 directly bound to the promoter regions of sucrose and phenylpropanoid metabolism-related genes and transactivated their expression, thus tipping the balance of antifungal compound accumulation and soluble sugar maintenance. Hence, these results suggest that 2R-type VvMYB44 might be a potential positive participant in BABA-induced priming defense in grape berries that contributes to avoiding the excessive consumption of soluble sugars during the postharvest storage.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Derivatization-targeted analysis of amino compounds in plant extracts in neutral loss acquisition mode by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Amino compounds, such as amino acids and biogenic amines, are important metabolites that can be found in diverse natural matrices. The most common method for amino compound analysis nowadays is reversed-phase liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (RPLC-MS/MS). However, due to the polar and the basic nature of amines, their RPLC retention is often insufficient or peaks are tailing. Derivatization is a way to overcome the issue and in the present work amino compounds are derivatized with diethyl ethoxymethylenemalonate (DEEMM) and analyzed by a RPLC triple quadrupole MS system in neutral loss scan (NLS) mode (loss of 46). This allows to target all compounds in the sample that undergo derivatization with DEEMM, so that the amino compound profile of the sample is obtained. To the best of our knowledge, the NLS acquisition mode has never been employed to target amino compounds after DEEMM derivatization. In the first part of the study, eight amino acids (arginine, aspartic acid, threonine, proline, tyrosine, tryptophan, phenylalanine and isoleucine) were employed as model compounds for method optimization, with good results in terms of DEEMM derivatives detection and repeatability. The developed method was successfully applied to a complex extract from the plant species Carduus nutans subsp. macrocephalus (Desf.) Nyman, with 18 amino acids and 3 other amines being identified. The proposed approach could be employed for straightforward identification of known and unknown amino compounds in different types of matrices.

The rise, fall and resurrection of chemical-induced resistance agents

Since the discovery that the plant immune system could be augmented for improved deployment against biotic stressors through the exogenous application of chemicals that lead to induced resistance (IR), many such IR-eliciting agents have been identified. Initially it was hoped that these chemical IR agents would be a benign alternative to traditional chemical biocides. However, owing to low efficacy and/or a realization that their benefits sometimes come at the cost of growth and yield penalties, chemical IR agents fell out of favour and were seldom used as crop protection products. Despite the lack of interest in agricultural use, researchers have continued to explore the efficacy and mechanisms of chemical IR. Moreover, as we move away from the approach of 'zero tolerance' toward plant pests and pathogens toward integrated pest management, chemical IR agents could have a place in the plant protection product list. In this review, we chart the rise and fall of chemical IR agents, and then explore a variety of strategies used to improve their efficacy and remediate their negative adverse effects. © 2021 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Unravelling Plant Responses to Stress-The Importance of Targeted and Untargeted Metabolomics

Climate change and an increasing population, present a massive global challenge with respect to environmentally sustainable nutritious food production. Crop yield enhancements, through breeding, are decreasing, whilst agricultural intensification is constrained by emerging, re-emerging, and endemic pests and pathogens, accounting for ~30% of global crop losses, as well as mounting abiotic stress pressures, due to climate change. Metabolomics approaches have previously contributed to our knowledge within the fields of molecular plant pathology and plant-insect interactions. However, these remain incredibly challenging targets, due to the vast diversity in metabolite volatility and polarity, heterogeneous mixtures of pathogen and plant cells, as well as rapid rates of metabolite turn-over. Unravelling the systematic biochemical responses of plants to various individual and combined stresses, involves monitoring signaling compounds, secondary messengers, phytohormones, and defensive and protective chemicals. This demands both targeted and untargeted metabolomics approaches, as well as a range of enzymatic assays, protein assays, and proteomic and transcriptomic technologies. In this review, we focus upon the technical and biological challenges of measuring the metabolome associated with plant stress. We illustrate the challenges, with relevant examples from bacterial and fungal molecular pathologies, plant-insect interactions, and abiotic and combined stress in the environment. We also discuss future prospects from both the perspective of key innovative metabolomic technologies and their deployment in breeding for stress resistance.

Dual function of VvWRKY18 transcription factor in the β-aminobutyric acid-activated priming defense in grapes

Induction of phytoalexin production after invading pathogens is recognized as an essential aspect of the plant-induced resistance. The WRKY family includes plant-specific transcriptional factors associated with plant defense responses, but the comprehensive mechanisms are poorly understood. Here, we attempted to elaborate the regulatory function of VvWRKY18 from the group IIa of WRKY transcription factor (TF) from Vitis vinifera, in the regulation of β-aminobutyric acid (BABA)-activated stilbene phytoalexins biosynthesis and PATHOGENESIS-RELATED (PR) genes expressions in grapes. BABA at 10 mmol L^-1 triggered a priming protection in grapes and conferred a potentiation of the expression levels of VvWRKY18, VvNPR1, and several salicylic acid (SA)-responsive genes, which was accompanied by enhanced stilbene production upon Botrytis cinerea infection. In addition, a physical interaction between VvWRKY18 and the regulatory protein VvNPR1 was detected in vivo and in vitro by yeast-2-hybrid (Y2H), pull-down and co-immunoprecipitation assay (Co-IP) assays. Furthermore, yeast-1-hybrid (Y1H) and dual-luciferase reporter (DLR) assays indicated that VvWRKY18 activated the transcription of STILBENE SYNTHASE (STS) genes, including VvSTS1 and VvSTS2, by directly binding the W-box elements within the specific promoters and resultantly enhancing stilbene phytoalexins biosynthesis. Further investigation demonstrated that heterologous expression of VvWRKY18 elevated the transcriptions of STS and PR genes, thus contributing to potentiating the defense of transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plants and resultantly inhibiting B. cinerea invasion. Hence, VvWRKY18 serves as a singular effector involved in the synthesis of stilbene phytoalexins in grapes and its interaction with VvNPR1 provided DNA binding ability required for VvNPR1 to initiate systemic acquired resistance (SAR) defense.

C4 Bacterial Volatiles Improve Plant Health

Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) associated with plant roots can trigger plant growth promotion and induced systemic resistance. Several bacterial determinants including cell-wall components and secreted compounds have been identified to date. Here, we review a group of low-molecular-weight volatile compounds released by PGPR, which improve plant health, mostly by protecting plants against pathogen attack under greenhouse and field conditions. We particularly focus on C4 bacterial volatile compounds (BVCs), such as 2,3-butanediol and acetoin, which have been shown to activate the plant immune response and to promote plant growth at the molecular level as well as in large-scale field applications. We also disc/ uss the potential applications, metabolic engineering, and large-scale fermentation of C4 BVCs. The C4 bacterial volatiles act as airborne signals and therefore represent a new type of biocontrol agent. Further advances in the encapsulation procedure, together with the development of standards and guidelines, will promote the application of C4 volatiles in the field.

Shaping the leaf microbiota: plant-microbe-microbe interactions

The aerial portion of a plant, namely the leaf, is inhabited by pathogenic and non-pathogenic microbes. The leaf's physical and chemical properties, combined with fluctuating and often challenging environmental factors, create surfaces that require a high degree of adaptation for microbial colonization. As a consequence, specific interactive processes have evolved to establish a plant leaf niche. Little is known about the impact of the host immune system on phyllosphere colonization by non-pathogenic microbes. These organisms can trigger plant basal defenses and benefit the host by priming for enhanced resistance to pathogens. In most disease resistance responses, microbial signals are recognized by extra- or intracellular receptors. The interactions tend to be species specific and it is unclear how they shape leaf microbial communities. In natural habitats, microbe-microbe interactions are also important for shaping leaf communities. To protect resources, plant colonizers have developed direct antagonistic or host manipulation strategies to fight competitors. Phyllosphere-colonizing microbes respond to abiotic and biotic fluctuations and are therefore an important resource for adaptive and protective traits. Understanding the complex regulatory host-microbe-microbe networks is needed to transfer current knowledge to biotechnological applications such as plant-protective probiotics.

Antifungal action and induction of resistance by β-aminobutyric acid against Penicillium digitatum to control green mold in orange fruit

Green mold, caused by Penicillium digitatum, is the most economically important postharvest disease of orange fruit worldwide. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) treatment on the inhibition of P. digitatum both in orange fruit and in vitro as well as the possible mechanisms of action. BABA at 125 mM significantly inhibited mycelial growth, spore germination, and germ tube elongation of P. digitatum by 93.3, 90.3, and 90.5%, respectively. The relative electrical conductivity of mycelium was increased for a period of 0-36 h after treated with BABA at 125 mM. Furthermore, BABA caused a high level of malondialdehyde (MDA) in P. digitatum mycelia during four days of incubation. The ergosterol content in the plasma membrane of P. digitatum was significantly lower in BABA-treated mycelia. Also, protein and sugar leakage were increased with BABA treatment compared with that in the control. Besides, BABA caused a considerable reduction in the total lipid content of P. digitatum mycelia at 125 mM. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of P. digitatum treated with BABA at 125 mM showed shrunken, distorted, and collapsed mycelia. The application of BABA at 125 mM in orange fruit inoculated with P. digitatum suppressed disease incidence and disease severity by 74.6 and 77.3%, respectively, compared to untreated fruit. Moreover, the activity of defense-related enzymes, including peroxidase (POD), polyphenoloxidase (PPO), and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) were significantly enhanced in the orange fruit treated with BABA at 125 mM.

Priming Soybean cv. Primus Leads to Successful Systemic Defense Against the Root-Lesion Nematode, Pratylenchus penetrans

Root lesion nematodes, Pratylenchus penetrans, are major pests of legumes with little options for their control. We aimed to prime soybean cv. Primus seedlings to improve basic defense against these nematodes by root application of N-3-oxo-tetradecanoyl-L-homoserine lactone (oxo-C14-HSL). The invasion of soybean roots by P. penetrans was significantly reduced in plants that were pre-treated with the oxo-C14-HSL producing rhizobacterium Ensifer meliloti strain ExpR+, compared to non-inoculated plants or plants inoculated with the nearly isogenic strain E. meliloti AttM with plasmid-mediated oxo-C14-HSL degradation. The nematodes were more clustered in the root tissues of plants treated with the AttM strain or the control compared to roots treated with the ExpR+ strain. In split-root systems primed on one side with strain ExpR+, root invasion was reduced on the opposite side compared to non-primed plants indicating a systemic plant response to oxo-C14-HSL. No additional local effect was detected, when inoculating nematodes on the ExpR+ primed side. Removal of oxo-C14-HSL after root exposure resulted in reduced root invasion compared to non-primed plants when the nematodes were added 3, 7, or 15 days later. Thus, probably the plant memorized the priming stimulus. Similarly, the plants were primed by compounds released from the surface of the nematodes. HPLC analysis of the root extracts of oxo-C14-HSL treated and untreated plants revealed that priming resulted in enhanced phytoalexin synthesis upon P. penetrans challenge. Without root invading nematodes, the phytoalexin concentrations of primed and non-primed plants did not significantly differ, indicating that priming did not lead to a persistently increased stress level of the plants. Upon nematode invasion, the phytoalexins coumestrol, genistein, and glyceollin increased in concentration in the roots compared to control plants without nematodes. Glyceollin synthesis was significantly more triggered by nematodes in primed plants compared to non-primed plants. The results indicated that the priming of soybean plants led to a more rapid and strong defense induction upon root invasion of nematodes.

Heat Shock Protein HSP24 Is Involved in the BABA-Induced Resistance to Fungal Pathogen in Postharvest Grapes Underlying an NPR1-Dependent Manner

Although heat shock proteins (HSPs), a family of ubiquitous molecular chaperones, are well characterized in heat stress-related responses, their function in plant defense remains largely unclear. Here, we report the role of VvHSP24, a class B HSP from Vitis vinifera, in β-aminobutyric acid (BABA)-induced priming defense against the necrotrophic fungus Botrytis cinerea in grapes. Grapes treated with 10 mmol L^-1 BABA exhibited transiently increased transcript levels of VvNPR1 and several SA-inducible genes, including PR1, PR2, and PR5. Additionally, phytoalexins accumulated upon inoculation with the gray mold fungus B. cinerea, which coincided with the action of a priming mode implicated in pathogen-driven resistance. Intriguingly, electrophoretic mobility shift (EMSA), yeast two-hybrid (Y2H) and His pull-down assays demonstrated that the nuclear chaperone VvHSP24 cannot modulate the transcript of PR genes but does directly interact with VvNPR1 in vivo or in vitro. Furthermore, we found that VvHSP24 overexpression enhanced the transcript levels of NPR1 and SA-responsive genes (PR1, PR2, and PR5) and increased the resistance of transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana to B. cinerea compared with wildtype Col-0. An opposite trend between CRISPR mutants of AtHSFB1 (the orthologous gene of VvHSP24 in Arabidopsis) and wildtype plants was observed. Hence, our results suggest that VvHSP24 has a potential role in NPR1-dependent plant resistance to fungal pathogen. BABA-induced priming defense in grapes may require posttranslational modification of the chaperone VvHSP24 to activate VvNPR1 transcript, leading to PR gene expressions and resistance phenotypes.

Pure Organic Active Compounds Against Abiotic Stress: A Biostimulant Overview

Biostimulants (BSs) are probably one of the most promising alternatives nowadays to cope with yield losses caused by plant stress, which are intensified by climate change. Biostimulants comprise many different compounds with positive effects on plants, excluding pesticides and chemical fertilisers. Usually mixtures such as lixiviates from proteins or algal extracts have been used, but currently companies are interested in more specific compounds that are capable of increasing tolerance against abiotic stress. Individual application of a pure active compound offers researchers the opportunity to better standarise formulations, learn more about the plant defence process itself and assist the agrochemical industry in the development of new products. This review attempts to summarise the state of the art regarding various families of organic compounds and their mode/mechanism of action as BSs, and how they can help maximise agricultural yields under stress conditions aggravated by climate change.

β-aminobutyric acid induces priming defence against Botrytis cinerea in grapefruit by reducing intercellular redox status that modifies posttranslation of VvNPR1 and its interaction with VvTGA1

Either NPR1 or TGA1 serve as master redox-sensitive transcriptional regulators for the transcription of PR genes in plants. The redox modification of the two co-activators involved in BABA-induced priming resistance against Botrytis cinerea in grapes was examined in this study. The results showed that 10 mmol L^-1 BABA could effectively trigger a priming defense in grapes as manifested by augmented expression levels of PR genes upon inoculation with B. cinerea. Moreover, transcriptome profiling analysis revealed that all of the sets of key genes in the enzymatic ROS scavenging system, the PPP and AsA-GSH cycle were in harmony and were transcriptionally induced in BABA-primed grapes with pathogenic infection; in addition, this enhanced expression caused the accelerated accumulation of reductive substances, namely, AsA, GSH and NADPH, resulting in reduced intercellular conditions. Under reduced conditions, the interaction of VvTGA1 and VvNPR1 in the Y2H assay implied that VvTGA1 can provide the DNA binding capacity required by VvNPR1 for activation of VvPR genes. Consequently, the transactivation of VvNPR1 by the promoters of VvPR1, VvPR2 and VvPR5 was determined via a DLR assay, and it induced the transcription of the VvPR genes. In parallel, the redox-modified reducing condition achieved with an abundant supply of reductive substances was closely associated with the translocation of NPR1 for interaction with TGA in the nucleus. Thus, the posttranslational modification and subsequent interaction of the two redox-sensitive co-activators of VvNPR1 and VvTGA1 under reduced conditions may be responsible for BABA-induced priming for effective disease resistance in grapes.

Analysis of amino acids, hydroxy acids, and amines in CR chondrites

The abundances, relative distributions, and enantiomeric and isotopic compositions of amines, amino acids, and hydroxy acids in Miller Range (MIL) 090001 and MIL 090657 meteorites were determined. Chiral distributions and isotopic compositions confirmed that most of the compounds detected were indigenous to the meteorites and not the result of terrestrial contamination. Combined with data in the literature, suites of these compounds have now been analyzed in a set of six CR chondrites, spanning aqueous alteration types 2.0-2.8. Amino acid abundances ranged from 17 to 3300 nmol g^-1 across the six CRs; hydroxy acid abundances ranged from 180 to 1800 nmol g^-1; and amine abundances ranged from 40 to 2100 nmol g^-1. For amino acids and amines, the weakly altered chondrites contained the highest abundances, whereas hydroxy acids were most abundant in the more altered CR2.0 chondrite. Because water contents in the meteorites are orders of magnitude greater than soluble organics, synthesis of hydroxy acids, which requires water, may be less affected by aqueous alteration than amines and amino acids that require nitrogen-bearing precursors. Two chiral amino acids that were plausibly extraterrestrial in origin were present with slight enantiomeric excesses: L-isovaline (~10% excess) and D-β-amino-n-butyric acid (~9% excess); further studies are needed to verify that the chiral excess in the latter compound is truly extraterrestrial in origin. The isotopic compositions of compounds reported here did not reveal definitive links between the different compound classes such as common synthetic precursors, but will provide a framework for further future in-depth analyses.

The IBI1 Receptor of β-Aminobutyric Acid Interacts with VOZ Transcription Factors to Regulate Abscisic Acid Signaling and Callose-Associated Defense

External and internal signals can prime the plant immune system for a faster and/or stronger response to pathogen attack. β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) is an endogenous stress metabolite that induces broad-spectrum disease resistance in plants. BABA perception in Arabidopsis is mediated by the aspartyl tRNA synthetase IBI1, which activates priming of multiple immune responses, including callose-associated cell wall defenses that are under control by abscisic acid (ABA). However, the immediate signaling components after BABA perception by IBI1, as well as the regulatory role of ABA therein, remain unknown. Here, we have studied the early signaling events controlling IBI1-dependent BABA-induced resistance (BABA-IR), using untargeted transcriptome and protein interaction analyses. Transcriptome analysis revealed that IBI1-dependent expression of BABA-IR against the biotrophic oomycete Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis is associated with suppression of ABA-inducible abiotic stress genes. Protein interaction studies identified the VOZ1 and VOZ2 transcription factors (TFs) as IBI1-interacting partners, which are transcriptionally induced by ABA but suppress pathogen-induced expression of ABA-dependent genes. Furthermore, we show that VOZ TFs require nuclear localization for their contribution to BABA-IR by mediating augmented expression of callose-associated defense. Collectively, our study indicates that the IBI1-VOZ signaling module channels pathogen-induced ABA signaling toward cell wall defense while simultaneously suppressing abiotic stress-responsive genes.

Pre- and postharvest measures used to control decay and mycotoxigenic fungi in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during storage

Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), a worldwide, staple food crop, is susceptible to postharvest rots caused by a variety of fungal pathogens, including Fusarium spp., Alternaria spp., Phytophthora infestans, Helminthosporium solani, Rhizoctonia solani, and Colletotrichum coccodes. Rots resulting from infections by these pathogens cause a significant reduction in potato quality and marketable yield. Importantly, some of these decay fungi also produce mycotoxins that represent a potential risk to human health. In the present review, an overview and discussion are provided on the epidemiology and pathogenesis of decay fungi, especially Fusarium spp., that include recent data derived from genomic and phylogenetic analyses. The biosynthesis and functional role of fungitoxic metabolites such as trichothecene mycotoxins and fusaric acid, produced in rotted potatoes are also reviewed. Advances in pre- and postharvest measures for rot management, especially eco-friendly methods including physical control, biological control, the use of natural compounds, and other agricultural management practices are also reviewed. Lastly, novel approaches to control potato dry rot such as the use of mycoviruses and CRISPR technology are highlighted.

Fructans Prime ROS Dynamics and Botrytis cinerea Resistance in Arabidopsis

Naturally derived molecules can be used as priming or defense stimulatory agents to protect against biotic stress. Fructans have gained strong interest due to their ability to induce resistance in a number of crop species. In this study, we set out to establish the role of fructan-induced immunity against the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea in Arabidopsis thaliana. We show that both inulin- and levan-type fructans from different sources can enhance Arabidopsis resistance against B. cinerea. We found that inulin from chicory roots and levan oligosaccharides from the exopolysaccharide-producing bacterium Halomonas smyrnensis primed the NADPH-oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst in response to the elicitors flg22, derived from the bacterial flagellum, and oligogalacturonides (OGs), derived from the host cell wall. Neither induced a direct ROS burst typical of elicitors. We also found a primed response after infection with B. cinerea for H2O2 accumulation and the activities of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase. Sucrose accumulated as a consequence of fructan priming, and glucose and sucrose levels increased in fructan-treated plants after infection with B. cinerea. This study shows that levan-type fructans, specifically from bacterial origin, can prime plant defenses and that both inulin and levan oligosaccharide-mediated priming is associated with changes in ROS dynamics and sugar metabolism. Establishing fructan-induced immunity in Arabidopsis is an important step to further study the underlying mechanisms since a broad range of biological resources are available for Arabidopsis.

A New Active Substance Derived from Lyzed Willaertia magna C2c Maky Cells to Fight Grapevine Downy Mildew

Downy mildew of grapevine is one of the most destructive grapevine diseases worldwide. Nowadays, downy mildew control relies almost exclusively on the use of chemical pesticides, including copper products, which are efficient but controversial due to their environmental toxicity. Natural plant protection products have become important solutions in the quest for the sustainable production of food and pest management. However, most biocontrol agents currently on the market, such as biofungicides or elicitors, have a limited efficacy; thus, they cannot replace chemical compounds in full. Our innovation is a natural active substance, which is a lysate of the amoeba Willaertia magna C2c Maky. This active substance is not only able to elicit grapevine defenses, but it also demonstrates direct fungicidal activity against Plasmopara viticola. The efficacy of this new natural substance was demonstrated both in a greenhouse and in a field. The amoeba lysate provided up to 77% protection to grapevine bunches in the field in a natural and safe way.

The isoleucic acid triad: distinct impacts on plant defense, root growth, and formation of reactive oxygen species

Isoleucic acid (ILA), a branched-chain amino acid-related 2-hydroxycarboxylic acid, occurs ubiquitously in plants. It enhances pathogen resistance and inhibits root growth of Arabidopsis. The salicylic acid (SA) glucosyltransferase UGT76B1 is able to conjugate ILA. Here, we investigate the role of ILA in planta in Arabidopsis and reveal a triad of distinct responses to this small molecule. ILA synergistically co-operates with SA to activate SA-responsive gene expression and resistance in a UGT76B1-dependent manner in agreement with the observed competitive ILA-dependent repression of SA glucosylation by UGT76B1. However, ILA also shows an SA-independent stress response. Nitroblue tetrazolium staining and pharmacological experiments indicate that ILA induces superoxide formation of the wild type and of an SA-deficient (NahG sid2) line. In contrast, the inhibitory effect of ILA on root growth is independent of both SA and superoxide induction. These effects of ILA are specific and distinct from its isomeric compound leucic acid and from the amino acid isoleucine. Leucic acid and isoleucine do not induce expression of defense marker genes or superoxide production, whereas both compounds inhibit root growth. All three responses to ILA are also observed in Brassica napus.