Role of B cell receptor signaling in IL-10 production by normal and malignant B-1 cells

Unveiling genetic signatures associated with resilience to neonatal diarrhea in lambs through two GWAS approaches

Neonatal diarrhea presents a significant global challenge due to its multifactorial etiology, resulting in high morbidity and mortality rates, and substantial economic losses. While molecular-level studies on genetic resilience/susceptibility to neonatal diarrhea in farm animals are scarce, prior observations indicate promising research directions. Thus, the present study utilizes two genome-wide association approaches, pKWmEB and MLM, to explore potential links between genetic variations in innate immunity and neonatal diarrhea in Karacabey Merino lambs. Analyzing 707 lambs, including 180 cases and 527 controls, revealed an overall prevalence rate of 25.5%. The pKWmEB analysis identified 13 significant SNPs exceeding the threshold of ≥ LOD 3. Moreover, MLM detected one SNP (s61781.1) in the SLC22A8 gene (p-value, 1.85eE-7), which was co-detected by both methods. A McNemar's test was conducted as the final assessment to identify whether there are any major effective markers among the detected SNPs. Results indicate that four markers-oar3_OAR1_122352257, OAR17_77709936.1, oar3_OAR18_17278638, and s61781.1-have a substantial impact on neonatal diarrhea prevalence (odds ratio: 2.03 to 3.10; statistical power: 0.88 to 0.99). Therefore, we propose the annotated genes harboring three of the associated markers, TIAM1, YDJC, and SLC22A8, as candidate major genes for selective breeding against neonatal diarrhea.

B-1 cells in immunotoxicology: Mechanisms underlying their response to chemicals and particles

Since their discovery nearly 40 years ago, B-1 cells have continued to challenge the boundaries between innate and adaptive immunity, as well as myeloid and lymphoid functions. This B-cell subset ensures early immunity in neonates before the development of conventional B (B-2) cells and respond to immune injuries throughout life. B-1 cells are multifaceted and serve as natural- and induced-antibody-producing cells, phagocytic cells, antigen-presenting cells, and anti-/pro-inflammatory cytokine-releasing cells. This review retraces the origin of B-1 cells and their different roles in homeostatic and infectious conditions before focusing on pollutants comprising contact-sensitivity-inducing chemicals, endocrine disruptors, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) ligands, and reactive particles.

B cell receptor-induced IL-10 production from neonatal mouse CD19+CD43- cells depends on STAT5-mediated IL-6 secretion

Newborns are unable to reach the adult-level humoral immune response partly due to the potent immunoregulatory role of IL-10. Increased IL-10 production by neonatal B cells has been attributed to the larger population of IL-10-producting CD43⁺ B-1 cells in neonates. Here, we show that neonatal mouse CD43^- non-B-1 cells also produce substantial amounts of IL-10 following B cell antigen receptor (BCR) activation. In neonatal mouse CD43^- non-B-1 cells, BCR engagement activated STAT5 under the control of phosphorylated forms of signaling molecules Syk, Btk, PKC, FAK, and Rac1. Neonatal STAT5 activation led to IL-6 production, which in turn was responsible for IL-10 production in an autocrine/paracrine fashion through the activation of STAT3. In addition to the increased IL-6 production in response to BCR stimulation, elevated expression of IL-6Rα expression in neonatal B cells rendered them highly susceptible to IL-6-mediated STAT3 phosphorylation and IL-10 production. Finally, IL-10 secreted from neonatal mouse CD43^- non-B-1 cells was sufficient to inhibit TNF-α secretion by macrophages. Our results unveil a distinct mechanism of IL-6-dependent IL-10 production in BCR-stimulated neonatal CD19⁺CD43^- B cells.

Role of B cells as antigen presenting cells

B cells have been long studied for their role and function in the humoral immune system. Apart from generating antibodies and an antibody-mediated memory response against pathogens, B cells are also capable of generating cell-mediated immunity. It has been demonstrated by several groups that B cells can activate antigen-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells, and can have regulatory and cytotoxic effects. The function of B cells as professional antigen presenting cells (APCs) to activate T cells has been largely understudied. This, however, requires attention as several recent reports have demonstrated the importance of B cells within the tumor microenvironment, and B cells are increasingly being evaluated as cellular therapies. Antigen presentation through B cells can be through antigen-specific (B cell receptor (BCR) dependent) or antigen non-specific (BCR independent) mechanisms and can be modulated by a variety of intrinsic and external factors. This review will discuss the pathways and mechanisms by which B cells present antigens, and how B cells differ from other professional APCs.

TCL1A, B Cell Regulation and Tolerance in Renal Transplantation

Despite much progress in the management of kidney transplantation, the need for life-long immunosuppressive therapies remains a major issue representing many risks for patients. Operational tolerance, defined as allograft acceptance without immunosuppression, has logically been subject to many investigations with the aim of a better understanding of post-transplantation mechanisms and potentially how it would be induced in patients. Among proposed biomarkers, T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma protein 1A (TCL1A) has been observed as overexpressed in the peripheral blood of operational tolerant patients in several studies. TCL1A expression is restricted to early B cells, also increased in the blood of tolerant patients, and showing regulatory properties, notably through IL-10 secretion for some subsets. TCL1A has first been identified as an oncogene, overexpression of which is associated to the development of T and B cell cancer. TCL1A acts as a coactivator of the serine threonine kinase Akt and through other interactions favoring cell survival, growth, and proliferation. It has also been identified as interacting with others major actors involved in B cells differentiation and regulation, including IL-10 production. Herein, we reviewed known interactions and functions of TCL1A in B cells which could involve its potential role in the set up and maintenance of renal allograft tolerance.

Interleukin-10 suppression enhances T-cell antitumor immunity and responses to checkpoint blockade in chronic lymphocytic leukemia

T-cell dysfunction is a hallmark of B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL), where CLL cells downregulate T-cell responses through regulatory molecules including programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) and Interleukin-10 (IL-10). Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) aims to restore T-cell function by preventing the ligation of inhibitory receptors like PD-1. However, most CLL patients do not respond well to this therapy. Thus, we investigated whether IL-10 suppression could enhance antitumor T-cell activity and responses to ICB. Since CLL IL-10 expression depends on Sp1, we utilized a novel, better tolerated analogue of the Sp1 inhibitor mithramycin (MTM_ox32E) to suppress CLL IL-10. MTM_ox32E treatment inhibited mouse and human CLL IL-10 production and maintained T-cell effector function in vitro. In the Eμ-Tcl1 mouse model, treatment reduced plasma IL-10 and CLL burden and increased CD8⁺ T-cell proliferation, effector and memory cell prevalence, and interferon-γ production. When combined with ICB, suppression of IL-10 improved responses to anti-PD-L1 as shown by a 4.5-fold decrease in CLL cell burden compared to anti-PD-L1 alone. Combination therapy also produced more interferon-γ⁺, cytotoxic effector KLRG1⁺, and memory CD8⁺ T-cells, and fewer exhausted T-cells. Since current therapies for CLL do not target IL-10, this provides a novel strategy to improve immunotherapies.

Tropisetron balances immune responses via TLR2, TLR4 and JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway in LPS-stimulated PBMCs

Numerous documents have been stated that tropisetron, an antagonist of the 5-HT3 receptor and α7nAChR agonist, modulates immune responses. However, the mechanistic basis for this aspect of tropisetron action is largely unknown. Here, the immuno-modulatory effects of tropisetron are investigated, focusing on the possible molecular targets and the mechanisms. Aside from the well-characterized role in immune signalling, JAK2/STAT3, TLR2 and TLR4 are signal transducers linked to both immuno-modulatory actions of acetylcholine and serotonin. Therefore, we evaluated their involvement in the immunoregulatory effects of tropisetron. To test the hypothesis, we assessed the expression of pro-/anti-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17 and IL-10 following tropisetron treatment in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) derived from healthy subjects. Tropisetron up-regulates the transcription of TLR2, TLR4, JAK2 and STAT3 genes. Tropisetron also increases the expression of target pro-inflammatory cytokines, although considerably suppresses the pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-17 and TNF-α) levels in media. Tropisetron notably promotes both IL-10 gene expression and secretion. These findings confirm the antiphlogistic properties of tropisetron. The present data also shed light on a new aspect of tropisetron immune-modulatory action that engaged TLR2, TLR4 and JAK2/STAT3 signalling cascades.

Characteristics of Immunoglobulin M Type Antibodies of Different Origins from the Immunologic and Clinical Viewpoints and Their Application in Controlling Antibody-Mediated Allograft Rejection

Antibody-mediated allograft rejection (AMR) hinders patient prognosis after organ transplantation. Current studies concerning AMR have mainly focused on the diagnostic value of immunoglobulin G (IgG)-type donor-specific antihuman leukocyte antigen antibodies (DSAs), primarily because of their antigen specificity, whereas the clinical significance of immunoglobulin M (IgM)-type DSAs has not been thoroughly investigated in the context of organ transplantation because of their nonspecificity against antigens. Although consensus regarding the clinical significance and role of IgM antibodies is not clear, as discussed in this review, recent findings strongly suggest that they also have a huge potential in novel diagnostic as well as therapeutic application for the prevention of AMR. Most serum IgM antibodies are known to comprise natural antibodies with low affinity toward antigens, and this is derived from B-1 cells (innate B cells). However, some of the serum IgM-type antibodies reportedly also produced by B-2 cells (conventional B cells). The latter are known to have a high affinity for donor-specific antigens. In this review, we initially discuss how IgM-type antibodies of different origins participate in the pathology of various diseases, directly or through cell surface receptors, complement activation, or cytokine production. Then, we discuss the clinical applicability of B-1 and B-2 cell-derived IgM-type antibodies for controlling AMR with reference to the involvement of IgM antibodies in various pathological conditions.

Endothelial dysfunction in patients with lymphoproliferative disorders and its changes in the course of polychemotherapy

The article is dedicated to contemporary views on the change of endothelial function in the patients with lymphoproliferative disorders prior to, and in the process of, chemotherapeutic treatment. Considering that possibilities of standard examination do not always help identifying subclinical endothelial dysfunction, it is necessary to use specific methods, in particular, to determine the levels of endothelin-1 and vascular endothelial growth factor to monitor endothelial function. The objective of this review is to identify problems and prospects for recognizing early subclinical changes of endothelial function in the patients with lymphoproliferative disorders before and after chemotherapy. Assessing presence and severity of endothelial dysfunction may be useful for determining subclinical stages of cardiovascular damage, stratifying the risk of the patients with confirmed cardiovascular disease, and reducing the likelihood of cardio- and endotheliotoxic effects in patients long after chemotherapy. That is why early detection and immediate therapy of cardiovascular toxicity is currently the most important task in the patients with lymphoproliferative disorders, receiving chemotherapy.

Immune dysfunction complexity in chronic lymphocytic leukemia ‒ an issue to consider when designing novel therapeutic strategies

A complex interplay between chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells and different constituents of the immune system generally results in immune tolerance. As targeted therapies are gaining a critical role in the therapeutic landscape of this disease, their impact on the already perturbed immune milieu needs to be considered. This review addresses the issues of basic immune dysfunction in CLL which is further complicated by the effects of a number of novel targeted therapies used for this malignancy. These new approaches may simultaneously facilitate both anti- and pro-cancer activity, potentially compromising the depth of response to therapy. Current evidence suggests that exploiting combination therapy could potentially overcome at least part of these deleterious effects, thereby prolonging response to treatment and helping to restore immune activity.

Clinico-Biological Implications of Modified Levels of Cytokines in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: A Possible Therapeutic Role

B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) is the main cause of mortality among hematologic diseases in Western nations. B-CLL is correlated with an intense alteration of the immune system. The altered functions of innate immune elements and adaptive immune factors are interconnected in B-CLL and are decisive for its onset, evolution, and therapeutic response. Modifications in the cytokine balance could support the growth of the leukemic clone via a modulation of cellular proliferation and apoptosis, as some cytokines have been reported to be able to affect the life of B-CLL cells in vivo. In this review, we will examine the role played by cytokines in the cellular dynamics of B-CLL patients, interpret the contradictions sometimes present in the literature regarding their action, and evaluate the possibility of manipulating their production in order to intervene in the natural history of the disease.

2019 Russell Ross Memorial Lecture in Vascular Biology: B Lymphocyte-Mediated Protective Immunity in Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis-the major underlying pathology of cardiovascular disease-is characterized by accumulation and subsequent oxidative modification of lipoproteins within the artery wall, leading to inflammatory cell infiltration and lesion formation that can over time result in arterial stenosis, ischemia, and downstream adverse events. The contribution of innate and adaptive immunity to atherosclerosis development is well established, and B cells have emerged as important modulators of both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects in atherosclerosis. Murine B cells can broadly be divided into 2 subsets: (1) B-2 cells, which are bone marrow derived and include conventional follicular and marginal zone B cells, and (2) B-1 cells, which are largely fetal liver derived and persist in adults through self-renewal. B-cell subsets are developmentally, functionally, and phenotypically distinct with unique subset-specific contributions to atherosclerosis development. Mechanisms whereby B cells regulate vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis will be discussed with a particular emphasis on B-1 cells. B-1 cells have a protective role in atherosclerosis that is mediated in large part by IgM antibody production. Accumulating evidence over the last several years has pointed to a previously underappreciated heterogeneity in B-1 cell populations, which may have important implications for understanding atherosclerosis development and potential targeted therapeutic approaches. This heterogeneity within atheroprotective innate B-cell subsets will be highlighted.

Prognostic significance of aberrant CD5 expression in B-cell leukemia

Aberrant expression of CD5 (as a T-cell marker) is seen in some leukemia and lymphoma of B lineage origin. Given that the signaling resulting from the expression of this marker plays an essential role in the development of leukemia and lymphoma, evaluating the expression of this marker is of paramount importance. Therefore, our goal in this study was to investigate the prognostic importance of CD5 expression in B-cell leukemia and lymphoma. We evaluate CD5 expression in normal and leukemic B-cells by identifying relevant literature through a PubMed search (1998-2018) of English language papers using the terms: ‘CD5,’ ‘B-cell,’ ‘Leukemia,’ and ‘Lymphoma.’ We are doing this thorough comparison of results from CD5 positive and negative cases to make a correct decision about prognostic importance of CD5 expression in these malignancies. In a number of B-cell malignancies, CD5 is expressed in varying degrees. Due to the different origins and characteristics of these malignancies, the results of CD5 expression evaluations are heterogeneous and impossible to generalize. However, CD5 expression is sometimes associated with clinicopathologic findings, more invasive clinical course, and even resistance to treatment (specifically in DLBCL) among CD5- positive patients, which appears to be a function of CD5 signaling and its downstream factors such as STAT3. Depending on the type of malignancy, CD5 expression is associated with good or bad prognosis, which can be used as an auxiliary prognostic factor to assess the clinical course of B-cell malignancies. Moreover, the difference in expression levels of CD5 in a variety of B-cell malignancies allows for differential diagnosis of these malignancies, which can be helpful when diagnosis is difficult.

Are B cells altered in the decidua of women with preterm or term labor?

PROBLEM

The immunophenotype of B cells at the maternal-fetal interface (decidua) in labor at term and preterm labor is poorly understood.

METHOD OF STUDY

Decidual tissues were obtained from women with preterm or term labor and from non-labor gestational age-matched controls. Immunophenotyping of decidual B cells was performed using multicolor flow cytometry.

RESULTS

(a) In the absence of acute or chronic chorioamnionitis, total B cells were more abundant in the decidua parietalis of women who delivered preterm than in those who delivered at term, regardless of the presence of labor; (b) decidual transitional and naïve B cells were the most abundant B-cell subsets; (c) decidual B1 B cells were increased in women with either labor at term or preterm labor and chronic chorioamnionitis compared to those without this placental lesion; (d) decidual transitional B cells were reduced in women with preterm labor compared to those without labor; (e) naïve, class-switched, and non-class-switched B cells in the decidual tissues underwent mild alterations with the process of preterm labor; (f) decidual plasmablasts seemed to increase in women with either labor at term or preterm labor with chronic chorioamnionitis; and (g) decidual B cells expressed high levels of interleukin (IL)-12, IL-6, and/or IL-35.

CONCLUSION

Total B cells are not increased with the presence of preterm or term labor; yet, specific subsets (B1 and plasmablasts) undergo alterations in women with chronic chorioamnionitis. Therefore, B cells are solely implicated in the pathological process of preterm labor in a subset of women with chronic inflammation of the placenta. These findings provide insight into the immunology of the maternal-fetal interface in preterm and term labor.

TLR Signaling Is Activated in Lymph Node-Resident CLL Cells and Is Only Partially Inhibited by Ibrutinib

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is a malignancy of mature B cells driven by B-cell receptor (BCR) signaling and activated primarily in the lymph node. The Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) inhibitor ibrutinib effectively inhibits BCR-dependent proliferation and survival signals and has emerged as a breakthrough therapy for CLL. However, complete remissions are uncommon and are achieved only after years of continuous therapy. We hypothesized that other signaling pathways that sustain CLL cell survival are only partially inhibited by ibrutinib. In normal B cells, Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling cooperates with BCR signaling to activate prosurvival NF-κB. Here, we show that an experimentally validated gene signature of TLR activation is overexpressed in lymph node-resident CLL cells compared with cells in the blood. Consistent with TLR activation, we detected phosphorylation of NF-κB, STAT1, and STAT3 in lymph node-resident CLL cells and in cells stimulated with CpG oligonucleotides in vitro. CpG promoted IRAK1 degradation, secretion of IL10, and extended survival of CLL cells in culture. CpG-induced TLR signaling was significantly inhibited by both an IRAK1/4 inhibitor and ibrutinib. Although inhibition of TLR signaling was incomplete with either drug, the combination achieved superior results, including more effective inhibition of TLR-mediated survival signaling. Our data suggest an important role for TLR signaling in CLL pathogenesis and in sustaining the viability of CLL cells during ibrutinib therapy. The combination of ibrutinib with a TLR pathway inhibitor could provide superior antitumor activity and should be investigated in clinical studies. SIGNIFICANCE: CLL relies on the concomitant cooperation of B-cell receptor and Toll-like receptor signaling; inhibition of both pathways is superior to inhibition of either pathway alone. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT: http://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/canres/79/2/360/F1.large.jpg.

Cells, cytokines, chemokines, and cancer stress: A biobehavioral study of patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia

BACKGROUND

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is the most prevalent adult leukemia, with profound disease-related cellular, humoral, and innate immune suppression. The objective of this study was to study the correlations between stress and disease-specific, negative prognostic cellular, cytokine, and chemokine markers in patients with CLL.

METHODS

A single-group, observational design was used. Patients with relapsed/refractory CLL (N = 96) who were entering a phase 2 trial of an experimental therapy (ibrutinib) were studied. Before the first dose, a validated self-report measure of stress (the Impact of Event Scale) was completed, and blood was drawn for absolute lymphocyte counts (ALCs) and for cytokine and chemokine enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Multiple linear regression models tested stress as a concurrent predictor of ALCs; of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor α [TNFα], a proliferation-inducing ligand [APRIL], B-cell activating factor [BAFF], interleukin 6 [IL-6], IL-10, IL-16, and vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]); and of the chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 3 (CCL3).

RESULTS

Controlling for relevant demographic variables, comorbidities, CLL genetic risk (deletion of the short arm of chromosome 17 [del17p]), and correlates of inflammation, stress predicted higher ALCs (P < .05), and higher levels of TNFα (P < .05), IL-16 (P < .01), and CCL3 (P < .05). Stress was not associated with APRIL, BAFF, IL-6, IL-10, or VEGF.

CONCLUSIONS

Novel biobehavioral data from patients with relapsed/refractory CLL demonstrate that stress is related to heightened levels of cellular, cytokine, and chemokine markers associated previously with progressive disease in CLL. The current results indicate that stress is related to immune and inflammatory processes that contribute to cancer cell proliferation and survival. These data provide a first look into these processes. Cancer 2018. © 2018 American Cancer Society.

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia cells acquire regulatory B-cell properties in response to TLR9 and CD40 activation

Circulating chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells share phenotypic features with certain subsets of regulatory B-cells (Bregs). The latter cells have been reported to negatively regulate immune cell responses, mostly by provision of IL-10. The purpose of the current study was to identify and delineate Breg properties of CLL cells. B-cells and T-cells were obtained from the peripheral blood of untreated CLL patients diagnosed according to the 2008 Guidelines of the International Workshop on Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia. Co-culture assays were used to examine the ability of CLL cells to suppress autologous T-cell immune responses. IL-10 potency of CLL cells was assessed following stimulation with activators of the toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) or CD40 and was correlated with the inhibitory activity of the cells. TLR9-activated CLL cells were found to increase the frequency of CD4+CD25hiFOXp3+ regulatory T-cells (Tregs) and to inhibit autologous CD4+ T-cell proliferation. This signaling cascade proved to control IL-10 generation in CLL cells, which in turn promoted the inhibition of T-cell proliferation by CLL cells. However, CD40 activation of CLL cells, while exhibiting a similar ability to augment Treg frequency, did not either affect IL-10 generation or T-cell proliferation. In conclusion, CLL cells demonstrate a unique clonal quality of adopting Breg properties which promote modulation of T-cell characteristics. TLR9 appears to be a potent activator of regulatory abilities in CLL cells, possibly contributing to preferential immune escape of TLR9-responsive cells.

Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia-Derived IL-10 Suppresses Antitumor Immunity

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) patients progressively develop an immunosuppressive state. CLL patients have more plasma IL-10, an anti-inflammatory cytokine, than healthy controls. In vitro human CLL cells produce IL-10 in response to BCR cross-linking. We used the transgenic Eμ-T cell leukemia oncogene-1 (TCL1) mouse CLL model to study the role of IL-10 in CLL associated immunosuppression. Eμ-TCL mice spontaneously develop CLL because of a B cell-specific expression of the oncogene, TCL1. Eμ-TCL1 mouse CLL cells constitutively produce IL-10, which is further enhanced by BCR cross-linking, CLL-derived IL-10 did not directly affect survival of murine or human CLL cells in vitro. We tested the hypothesis that the CLL-derived IL-10 has a critical role in CLL disease in part by suppressing the host immune response to the CLL cells. In IL-10R^-/- mice, wherein the host immune cells are unresponsive to IL-10-mediated suppressive effects, there was a significant reduction in CLL cell growth compared with wild type mice. IL-10 reduced the generation of effector CD4 and CD8 T cells. We also found that activation of BCR signaling regulated the production of IL-10 by both murine and human CLL cells. We identified the transcription factor, Sp1, as a novel regulator of IL-10 production by CLL cells and that it is regulated by BCR signaling via the Syk/MAPK pathway. Our results suggest that incorporation of IL-10 blocking agents may enhance current therapeutic regimens for CLL by potentiating host antitumor immune response.

IL-10 production by CLL cells is enhanced in the anergic IGHV mutated subset and associates with reduced DNA methylation of the IL10 locus

Chronic lymphocytic leukemias (CLLs) with unmutated (U-CLL) or mutated (M-CLL) IGHV have variable features of immunosuppression, possibly influenced by those CLL cells activated to produce interleukin 10 (IL-10). The two subsets differ in their levels of anergy, defined by low surface immunoglobulin M levels/signaling capacity, and in their DNA methylation profile, particularly variable in M-CLL. We have now found that levels of IL-10 produced by activated CLL cells were highly variable. Levels were higher in M-CLL than in U-CLL and correlated with anergy. DNA methylation analysis of IL10 locus revealed two previously uncharacterized 'variably methylated regions' (CLL-VMRs1/2) in the gene body, but similarly low methylation in the promoter of both U-CLL and M-CLL. CLL-VMR1/2 methylation was lower in M-CLL than in U-CLL and inversely correlated with IL-10 induction. A functional signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) binding site in CLL-VMR2 was confirmed by proximity ligation and luciferase assays, whereas inhibition of SYK-mediated STAT3 activation resulted in suppression of IL10. The data suggest epigenetic control of IL-10 production. Higher tumor load may compensate the reduced IL-10 production in U-CLL, accounting for clinical immunosuppression in both subsets. The observation that SYK inhibition also suppresses IL-10 provides a potential new rationale for therapeutic targeting and immunological rescue by SYK inhibitors in CLL.

Human immunodeficiency virus type-1 induces a regulatory B cell-like phenotype in vitro

Individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) usually show a general dysregulation and hyper-activation of the immune system. A direct influence of HIV-1 particles on B-cell phenotypes and functions has been previously described. However, the consequences of B-cell dysregulation are still poorly understood. We evaluated the phenotypic changes in primary B cells after direct contact with HIV-1 particles in comparison with different types of stimuli. The functionality of treated B cells was challenged in co-culture experiments with autologous CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. We demonstrated that HIV-1 induces a phenotypic change in B cells towards a regulatory B-cell phenotype, showing a higher level of IL-10, TGF-β1, EBI3 or IL-12(p35) mRNA expression and acquiring an immunosuppressive profile. The acquisition of a Breg phenotype was confirmed by co-culture experiments where HIV-treated B cells reduced the proliferation and the TNFα production of CD4+ or CD8+ T cells. This suppressive ability of HIV-treated B cells was dependent on cell-to-cell contact between these B cells and effector cells. To our knowledge, these data provide the first evidence that HIV-1 can directly induce a regulatory B cell-like immunosuppressive phenotype, which could have the ability to impair specific immune responses. This dysregulation could constitute one of the mechanisms underlying unsuccessful efforts to develop an efficient vaccine against HIV-1.

Murine LRBA deficiency causes CTLA-4 deficiency in Tregs without progression to immune dysregulation

Inherited mutations in lipopolysaccharide-responsive beige-like anchor (LRBA) cause a recessive human immune dysregulation syndrome with memory B-cell and antibody deficiency (common variable immunodeficiency), inflammatory bowel disease, enlarged spleen and lymph nodes, accumulation of activated T cells and multiple autoimmune diseases. To understand the pathogenesis of the syndrome, C57BL/6 mice carrying a homozygous truncating mutation in Lrba were produced using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene targeting. These mice revealed that LRBA has a critical, cell-autonomous role in promoting cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) accumulation within CD4 effector T cells and FOXP3⁺ T-regulatory cells (Tregs). In young mice, or in chimeric mice where only half of the T cells are LRBA deficient, low CTLA-4 was the only detectable abnormality in Tregs, whereas in old mice FOXP3 was also decreased. Low CTLA-4 did not translate into increased CD86 on B cells unless the LRBA-deficient mice were immunised, and neither immunisation nor chronic lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus infection precipitated immune dysregulation. LRBA deficiency did not alter antigen-specific B-cell activation, germinal centre (GC) formation, isotype switching or affinity maturation. Paradoxically, CD86 was decreased on GC B cells in LRBA-deficient mice, pointing to compensatory mechanisms for controlling CD86 in the face of low CTLA-4. These results add to the experimental rationale for treating LRBA deficiency with the CTLA4-Ig fusion protein, Abatacept, and pose questions about the limitations of laboratory experiments in mice to reproduce human disease in natura.

Functional studies of chronic lymphocytic leukemia B cells expressing β2-integrin type complement receptors CR3 and CR4

The expression and role of CR3 (CD11b/CD18) and CR4 (CD11c/CD18) in B cells are not yet explored in contrast to myeloid cells, where these β₂-integrin type receptors are known to participate in various cellular functions, including phagocytosis, adherence and migration. Here we aimed to reveal the expression and role of CR3 and CR4 in human B cells. In B cells of healthy donors CR3 and CR4 are scarcely expressed. However, two patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) characterized by a peculiar immune-phenotype containing both CD5-positive and CD5-negative B cell populations made possible to study these molecules in distinct B cell subsets. We found that CD11b and CD11c were expressed on both CD5-positive and CD5-negative B cells, albeit to different extents. Our data suggest that these receptors are involved in spreading, since this activity of CpG-activated B cells on fibrinogen could be partially blocked by monoclonal antibodies specific for CD11b or CD11c. CpG-stimulation lead to proliferation of both CD5-positive and CD5-negative B cells of the patients with a less pronounced effect on the CD5-positive cells. In contrast to normal B cells, CLL B cells of both patients reacted to CpG-stimulation with robust IL-10 production. The concomitant, suboptimal stimulus via the BCR and TLR9 exerted either a synergistic enhancing effect or resulted in inhibition of proliferation and IL-10 production of patients' B cells. Our data obtained studying B cells of leukemic patients point to the role of CR3 and probably CR4 in the interaction of tumor cells with the microenvironment and suggest the involvement of IL-10 producing B cells in the pathologic process.

Macrophage regulation of B cell proliferation

Unlike organized lymphoid tissue, the tumor microenvironment (TME) often includes a high proportion of immunosuppressive macrophages. We model the TME by culturing peritoneal cavity (PerC) cells that naturally have a high macrophage to lymphocyte ratio. Prior studies revealed that, following TCR ligation, PerC T cell proliferation is suppressed due to IFNγ-triggered inducible nitric oxide synthase expression. In this study we assessed the ability of PerC B cells to respond to surrogate activating signals in the presence of high numbers of macrophages. Surface IgM (BCR) ligation led to cyclooxygenase-mediated, and TLR-4 ligation to IL10-mediated, suppression of PerC B cell proliferation. In contrast, PerC B cells had a robust response to CD40 ligation, which could overcome the suppression generated by the BCR or TLR-4 response. However, the CD40 response was suppressed by concurrent TCR ligation. These results reveal the challenges of promoting B and T cell responses in macrophage-rich conditions that model the TME.

An Overview of B-1 Cells as Antigen-Presenting Cells

The role of B cells as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) has been extensively studied, mainly in relation to the activation of memory T cells. Considering the B cell subtypes, the role of B-1 cells as APCs is beginning to be explored. Initially, it was described that B-1 cells are activated preferentially by T-independent antigens. However, some reports demonstrated that these cells are also involved in a T-dependent response. The aim of this review is to summarize information about the ability of B-1 cells to play a role as APCs and to briefly discuss the role of the BCR and toll-like receptor signals in this process. Furthermore, some characteristics of B-1 cells, such as natural IgM production and phagocytic ability, could interfere in the participation of these cells in the onset of an adaptive response.