Paracellular non-electrolyte permeation during fluid transport across rabbit gall-bladder epithelium

Interaction between transcellular and paracellular water transport pathways through Aquaporin 5 and the tight junction complex

To investigate potential physiological interactions between the transcellular and paracellular pathways of water transport, we asked whether targeted deletion of Aquaporin 5 (AQP5), the major transcellular water transporter in salivary acinar cells, affected paracellular transport of 4-kDa FITC-labeled dextran (FITC-D), which is transported through the paracellular but not the transcellular route. After i.v. injection of FITC-D into either AQP5 wild-type or AQP5-/- mice and saliva collection for fixed time intervals, we show that the relative amount of FITC-D transported in the saliva of AQP5-/- mice is half that in matched AQP5+/+ mice, indicating a 2-fold decrease in permeability of the paracellular barrier in mice lacking AQP5. We also found a significant difference in the proportion of transcellular vs. paracellular transport between male and female mice. Freeze-fracture electron microscopy revealed an increase in the number of tight junction strands of both AQP5+/+ and AQP5-/- male mice after pilocarpine stimulation but no change in strand number in female mice. Average acinar cell volume was increased by approximately 1.4-fold in glands from AQP5-/- mice, suggesting an alteration in the volume-sensing machinery of the cell. Western blots revealed that expression of Claudin-7, Claudin-3, and Occludin, critical proteins that regulate the permeability of the tight junction barrier, were significantly decreased in AQP5-/- compared with AQP5+/+ salivary glands. These findings reveal the existence of a gender-influenced molecular mechanism involving AQP5 that allows transcellular and paracellular routes of water transport to act in conjunction.

The Role of Aquaporin Water Channels in Fluid Secretion by the Exocrine Pancreas

The mammalian exocrine pancreas secretes a near-isosmotic fluid over a wide osmolarity range. The role of aquaporin (AQP) water channels in this process is now becoming clearer. AQP8 water channels, which were initially cloned from rat pancreas, are expressed at the apical membrane of pancreatic acinar cells and contribute to their osmotic permeability. However, the acinar cells secrete relatively little fluid and there is no obvious defect in pancreatic function in AQP8 knockout mice. Most of the fluid secreted by the pancreas is generated by ductal epithelial cells, which comprise only a small fraction of the gland mass. In the human pancreas, secretion occurs mainly in the intercalated ducts, where the epithelial cells express abundant AQP1 and AQP5 at the apical membrane and AQP1 alone at the basolateral membrane. In the rat and mouse, fluid secretion occurs mainly in the interlobular ducts where AQP1 and AQP5 are again co-localized at the apical membrane but appear to be expressed at relatively low levels. Nonetheless, the transepithelial osmotic permeability of rat interlobular ducts is sufficient to support near-isosmotic fluid secretion at observed rates. Furthermore, apical, but not basolateral, application of Hg(2+) significantly reduces the transepithelial osmotic permeability, suggesting that apical AQP1 and AQP5 may contribute significantly to fluid secretion. The apparently normal fluid output of the pancreas in AQP1 knockout mice may reflect the presence of AQP5 at the apical membrane.

AQP and the control of fluid transport in a salivary gland

Experiments were performed with the perfused rat submandibular gland in vitro to investigate the nature of the coupling between transported salt and water by varying the osmolarity of the source bath and observing the changes in secretory volume flow. Glands were submitted to hypertonic step changes by changing the saline perfusate to one containing different levels of sucrose. The flow rate responded by falling to a lower value, establishing a new steady-state flow. The rate changes did not correspond to those expected from a system in which fluid production is due to simple osmotic equilibration, but were much larger. The changes were fitted to a model in which fluid production is largely paracellular, the rate of which is controlled by an osmosensor system in the basal membrane. The same experiments were done with glands from rats that had been bred to have very low levels of AQP5 (the principal aquaporin of the salivary acinar cell) in which little AQP5 is expressed at the basal membrane. In these rats, salivary secretion rates after hypertonic challenges were small and best modelled by simple osmotic equilibration. In rats which had intermediate AQP5 levels the changes in flow rate were similar to those of normal rats although their AQP5 levels were reduced.Finally, perfused normal glands were subject to retrograde ductal injection of salines containing different levels of Hg(2+) ions (0, 10 and 100 microM: ) which would act as inhibitors of AQP5 at the apical acinar membrane. The overall flow rates were progressively diminished with rising Hg(2+) concentration, but after hypertonic challenge the changes in flow rates were unchanged and similar to those of normal rats. All these results are difficult to explain by a cellular osmotic model but can be explained by a model in which paracellular flow is controlled by an osmosensor (presumably AQP5) present on the basal membrane.

What are aquaporins for?

The prime function of aquaporins (AQPs) is generally believed to be that of increasing water flow rates across membranes by raising their osmotic or hydraulic permeability. In addition, this applies to other small solutes of physiological importance. Notable applications of this 'simple permeability hypothesis' (SPH) have been epithelial fluid transport in animals, water exchanges associated with transpiration, growth and stress in plants, and osmoregulation in microbes. We first analyze the need for such increased permeabilities and conclude that in a range of situations at the cellular, subcellular and tissue levels the SPH cannot satisfactorily account for the presence of AQPs. The analysis includes an examination of the effects of the genetic elimination or reduction of AQPs (knockouts, antisense transgenics and null mutants). These either have no effect, or a partial effect that is difficult to explain, and we argue that they do not support the hypothesis beyond showing that AQPs are involved in the process under examination. We assume that since AQPs are ubiquitous, they must have an important function and suggest that this is the detection of osmotic and turgor pressure gradients. A mechanistic model is proposed--in terms of monomer structure and changes in the tetrameric configuration of AQPs in the membrane--for how AQPs might function as sensors. Sensors then signal within the cell to control diverse processes, probably as part of feedback loops. Finally, we examine how AQPs as sensors may serve animal, plant and microbial cells and show that this sensor hypothesis can provide an explanation of many basic processes in which AQPs are already implicated. Aquaporins are molecules in search of a function; osmotic and turgor sensors are functions in search of a molecule.

Paracellular fluid transport by epithelia

The evidence that a major fraction of water crosses the paracellular route during isotonic fluid transfer is reviewed together with a description of the theory and experimental results derived from extracellular probe studies. Four transporting epithelia which have been studied using the method are gallbladder, intestine, Malpighian tubule, and salivary gland. It is concluded that paracellular probe flows are not due to simple convection generated by osmotic flow through the junctions but are generated by active fluid transport within the junction: a mechano-osmotic process. The geometry of the pathway involved would indicate that some salt accompanies the paracellular fluid, representing a hypo-osmotic flow. Transport of salt by the cell route, which may be accompanied by some water, represents a hypertonic flow. The problem then becomes one of balancing the two to produce an isotonic transportate. We suggest, using recent data from knockout mice, that some aquaporins are functioning in different epithelial tissues as osmo-comparators within a feedback loop that regulates the paracellular fluid flow rate. This results in an overall quasi-isotonic transport by the epithelium. The model is applied to forward-facing systems such as proximal tubule and backward-facing systems such as exocrine glands.

The paracellular component of water flow in the rat submandibular salivary gland

1. The pathway of water flow during salivary secretion by the isolated, perfused rat submandibular gland was examined using a family of homologous radiodextran molecules as probes of paracellular fluid transfer. 2. The secretion/perfusate ratio (S/P) of the secreted probes versus molecular radius during fluid secretion evoked by ACh could be resolved into two components: one that fitted a free-diffusion (Stokes-Einstein) curve and indicated diffusion through large channels, and a convective component that was linearly related to radius. 3. The convective component had a cut-off point at 0.5 nm (5 A) radius and an S/P intercept of near 1.0 at the radius of water, which indicates that most of the volume flow was paracellular. 4. The nature of such a paracellular flow is discussed together with the possible integration of this volume flow with the cellular transport of ions, resulting in an isotonic primary secretion from the gland.

Structural correlates of the transepithelial water transport

Transepithelial permeability is one of the fundamental problems in cell biology. Epithelial cell layers protect the organism from its environment and form a selective barrier to the exchange of molecules between the lumen of an organ and an underlying tissue. This chapter discusses some problems and analyzes the participation of intercellular junctions in the paracellular transport of water, migration of intramembrane particles in the apical membrane during its permeability changes for isotonic fluid in cells of leaky epithelia, insertion of water channels into the apical membrane and their cytoplasmic sources in cells of tight epithelia under ADH (antidiuretic hormone)-induced water flows, the osmoregulating function of giant vacuoles in the transcellular fluxes of hypotonic fluid across tight epithelia, and the role of actin filaments and microtubules in the transcellular transport of water across epithelia.

Routes and mechanism of fluid transport by epithelia

The mechanism of fluid transport by leaky epithelia and the route taken by the transported fluid are in dispute. A consideration of current mathematical models for coupling of solutes and water, as well as the methodologies for the study of fluid transport, shows that local osmosis best accounts for water movement. Although it seems virtually certain that the tight junctions are water permeable, the fraction of absorbed fluid that crosses the tight junction cannot yet be determined with confidence.

The paracellular channel for water secretion in the upper segment of the Malpighian tubule of Rhodnius prolixus

Lumen to bath J12/C1 and bath to lumen J21/C2 fluxes per unit concentration of 19 probes with diameters (dm) ranging from 3.0-30.0 A (water, urea, erythritol, mannitol, sucrose, raffinose and 13 dextrans with dm 9.1-30.0 A) were measured during volume secretion (Jv) in the upper segment of the Malpighian Tubule of Rhodnius by perfusing lumen and bath with 14C or 3H-labeled probes. Jnet = (J12/C1-J21/C2) was studied as a function of Jv.Jv was varied by using different concentrations of 5-hydroxy tryptamine. Jnet for 3H-water was not different from Jv. We found: (i) A strong correlation between Jnet and Jv for 8 probes dm = 3.0-11.8 A (group a probes), indicating that the convective component of Jnet is more important than its diffusive component and than unstirred layers effects which are negligible. Therefore group a probes are solvent dragged as they cross the epithelium. (ii) There is no correlation between Jnet and Jv for 11 probes with dm = 11.8-30 A (group b). Therefore these probes must cross the epithelium by diffusion and not by solvent drag. (iii) In a plot of Jnet/Jv vs. dm group a probes show a steep linear relation with a slope = -0.111, while for group b probes the slope is -0.002. Thus there is a break between groups a and b in this plot. We tried to fit the data with models for restricted diffusion and convention through cylindrical or parallel slit pathways. We conclude that (i) group a probes are dragged by water through an 11.0 A-wide slit. (ii) Most of Jv must follow an extracellular noncytosolic pathway. (iii) Group b probes must diffuse through a 42 A-wide slit. (iv) A cylindrical pathway does not fit the data.

Decanoic acid induced enhancement of rectal absorption of hydrophilic compounds in rats

The enhancing effect of decanoic acid (C10) on the rectal absorption of phenolsulfonphtalein (PSP) was analyzed with a pharmacokinetic model. The transfer index of PSP from the rectal lumen to the epithelial layer in the presence of C10 was proportional to the product of the C10 disappearance rate from the rectal lumen and its calcium ion sequestration capacity. The enhancement of rectal PSP absorption by different doses of C10 was also predictable by using a permeability index, Pa, of PSP, which was defined as a proportionality constant relating transfer index and the product value described above. The Pa values of various hydrophilic compounds with different molecular weights were also estimated from their rectal bioavailability in the presence of C10. A linear relationship was observed between Pa values and reciprocal values of the square root of individual molecular weight. These findings suggest that the Pa index is related to the permeant's diffusion coefficient through paracellular aqueous openings formed by C10.

A mechanism for isotonic fluid flow through the tight junctions of Necturus gallbladder epithelium

During isotonic fluid flow, Necturus gallbladder epithelium mediates net fluxes of paracellular probes by a convective process. We show here that the paracellular system is modeled by permeation through three populations of channels: (i) convective parallel-sided ones of width 7.7 nm (ii) small diffusive ones of radius approximately 0.6 nm, and (ii) large diffusive ones of radius exceeding 50 nm. The reflexion coefficient of the convective channels is very low and the calculated osmotic flow rate is close to zero when compared with the observed fluid absorptive rate of 2 x 10(-6) cm/sec. Analysis reveals that the convective channels behave as though closed to back-diffusion of probes; if this is due to solvent drag then very high fluid velocities are required, acting through minute areas. There are no transjunctional gradients that could drive the flow, and so the fluid must be propelled through the channel by components of the junction. We propose a mechanism based upon an active junctional peristalsis which allows discrimination on the basis of molecular size, in which the channels are always occluded at some point and so back-diffusion cannot occur. There is no local gradient of salt distal to the junctions and therefore the osmotic permeability of the membranes is irrelevant. High fluid velocities are not required, and the flow can occur over a substantial fraction of the junction. The mechanism must involve motile and contractile elements associated with the junction for which there is already considerable evidence.

Convective fluid flow through the paracellular system of Necturus gall-bladder epithelium as revealed by dextran probes

1. Bidirectional paracellular fluxes using radioactive dextrans as inert molecular probes have been measured across Necturus gall-bladder epithelium during conditions of normal fluid absorption. There is a net flux at all radii analysed (0.4-2.2 nm) in the direction of fluid absorption. 2. The net flux is substantial at all radii within the range. The data extraplate to 2 x 10(-6) cm s-1 at zero probe radius, which is very close to the rate of epithelial fluid absorption. 3. The unstirred layers at the epithelial faces during transport have been determined; their contribution to the net fluxes is negligible. 4. Two possible mechanisms for the net flow of probes are considered: (i) that the probes diffuse across the junctions and are then entrained in a local osmotic flow along the interspaces and subepithelium; (ii) that the probes are entrained in volume flow across the junctions and the emergent solution subsequently passes through the interspaces and subepithelium. Model calculations clearly rule out mechanism (i) in which the maximum net flow obtainable is less than 10% of that observed. In addition the presence of leak paths shunting the junctions is not compatible with the observed fluxes. With mechanism (ii) the net flows are correctly predicted with all the fluid flow being transjunctional. The fluid absorption is therefore entirely paracellular. 5. The slope of the net flow curve shows no apparent change in magnitude over the range of the probe radii, indicating that effectively only one population of convective channels is present with parallel walls separated by about 7.7 nm. This agrees with the width previously determined by electron microscopy. 6. If the fluid absorption is junctional then the cellular route offers little if any relative contribution. The hydraulic conductivity of the junctions is not high enough, or the osmotic permeability of the membranes low enough, to accommodate this by osmosis and therefore the junctional fluid absorption must be non-osmotic.

Differences in the enhancing effects of sodium caprate on colonic and jejunal drug absorption

We examined the enhancing effect of sodium caprate (C10) on the jejunal absorption of a poorly absorbed drug, cefmetazole, in rats, in comparison with its colonic absorption (Pharm. Res. 5, 341-346, 1988). Jejunal absorption was significantly enhanced by C10, but to a smaller extent than colonic absorption. Membrane perturbation, caused by the interaction between C10 and membrane proteins or lipids, was shown to increase transcellular drug permeability, as reported in the colon. Paracellular permeabilities, obtained from the permeabilities of water-soluble nonelectrolytes of various molecular weights, showed a two-phase pattern against their free diffusion coefficients, suggesting the existence of at least two pore routes similar to those in the colon. C10 increased paracellular permeability in the colon but not in the jejunum. Impedance analysis and voltage clamp technique in the jejunum showed no significant effect of C10 on paracellular permeability, such as found in the colon. Accordingly, the difference in the effects of C10 on the jejunal and colonic absorption of cefmetazole was due mainly to the difference in its effects on the paracellular pathway.

Role of paracellular pathway in nonelectrolyte permeation across rat colon epithelium enhanced by sodium caprate and sodium caprylate

The enhancing effects of 0.25% sodium caprate (C10) and sodium caprylate (C8) on the paracellular permeation of seven water-soluble nonelectrolytes (inulin, polyethylene glycol 900, mannitol, erythritol, glycerol, thiourea, and urea) across the isolated rat colonic epithelium were examined using the Ussing-type chamber technique. The paracellular changes were also measured by impedance analysis. In both the presence and the absence of enhancers, the permeation clearances (Pm) for inulin (12-15 A in molecular radius) to erythritol (3.2 A) increased linearly with the increase in their free diffusion coefficients (Dfr), showing the existence of a paracellular shunt pathway unrestricted to any molecular size. Glycerol (2.9 A), thiourea (2.6 A), and urea (2.3 A) had higher clearances than the expected linear values, showing the existence of a restricted paracellular or transcellular pathway. Both C10 and C8 increased the permeabilities in the two pathways, but C10 was more effective than C8. The increase in the permeabilities via the shunt pathway caused by the enhancers was greater than that via the restricted pathway, and thus, the two-phase pattern in the relationship of Pm and Dfr was similar to that in the absence of enhancers. The transcellular permeabilities for urea and thiourea, which were obtained from the efflux experiments, were increased by the enhancers. However, the relative increase caused by C10 was smaller than that of the paracellular-restricted permeabilities. The paracellular changes probably were due to the increase in pore area per unit diffusive path length.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Transepithelial transport of nonelectrolytes in the rabbit mandibular salivary gland

The characteristics of nonelectrolyte secretion by the rabbit mandibular salivary gland have been investigated in an in vitro, perfused preparation. The concentrations of 14C-labeled nonelectrolytes were measured in saliva samples collected over a range of flow rates during the secretory response of the gland to continuous acetylcholine infusion. Of the nine nonelectrolytes studied, the two particularly lipid-soluble molecules, ethanol and antipyrine, appeared in the saliva at approximately the same concentration as in the perfusate, regardless of the secretory flow rate. The more polar molecules (urea, ethanediol, thiourea, glycerol, erythritol, mannitol and sucrose) appeared at saliva/perfusate concentration ratios (phi) which showed a strong dependence on flow. With the exception of thiourea, this could be attributed to the combined contributions of diffusion and solvent drag. For the polar nonelectrolytes, estimates have been obtained of both the permeability coefficients of the gland (P) and the solvent-drag filtration coefficients (1 - sigma). The relation between 1 - sigma and molecular radius suggests that small polar nonelectrolytes and the bulk of the secreted water cross the epithelium via aqueous channels that are approximately 0.8 nm in width. The location of the channels remains uncertain because tissue space measurements indicate that the nonelectrolytes most affected by solvent drag have access to both transcellular and paracellular pathways.

Passive water flows driven across the isolated rabbit ileum by osmotic, hydrostatic and electrical gradients

Water flows generated by osmotic and hydrostatic pressure and electrical currents were measured in sheets of isolated rabbit ileum at 20 degrees C. Flows across the mucosal and serosal surfaces were monitored continuously by simultaneous measurement of tissue volume change (with an optical lever) and net water flows across one surface of the tissue (with a capacitance transducer). Osmotic gradients were imposed across the mucosal and serosal surfaces of the tissue separately, using probe molecules of various sizes from ethanediol (68 Da) to dextrans (161 000 Da). Flows across each surface were elicited with very short delay. The magnitudes of the flows were proportional to the osmotic gradient and related to the size of the probe molecule. Osmotic flow across the mucosal surface was associated with streaming potentials which were due to electro-osmotic water flow. The mucosal surface is a heteroporous barrier with narrow (0.7 nm radius, Lp (hydraulic conductivity) = (7.6 +/- 1.6) X 10(-9) cm s-1 cmH2O-1) cation-selective channels in parallel with wide neutral pores (ca. 6.5 nm radius, Lp = (2.3 +/- 0.2) X 10(-7) cm s-1 cmH2O-1) which admit large pressure-driven backflows from the submucosa to the lumen. There is additional evidence for a further set of narrow electroneutral pores less than 0.4 nm radius with Lp less than 7 X 10(-9) cm s-1 cmH2O-1. The serosal surface has neutral pores of uniform radius (ca. 6.5 nm), Lp = (7.6 +/- 1.6) X 10(-8) cm s-1 cmH2O-1. Hypertonic serosal solutions (100 mM-sucrose) cause osmotic transfer of fluid from isotonic mucosal solutions into the submucosa, expand it, and elevate the tissue pressure to 19.6 +/- 3.2 cmH2O (n = 4). Conversely, hypertonic mucosal solutions (100 mM-sucrose) draw fluid out of the submucosa in the presence of isotonic serosal solutions, collapse the submucosa, and lower the tissue pressure to -87.7 +/- 4.6 cmH2O (n = 5). Water flows coupled to cation movement could be generated across the mucosal surface in both directions by brief direct current pulses. The short latency of onset and cessation of flow (less than 2 s), absence of polarization potentials, and high electro-osmotic coefficients (range 50-520 mol water F-1), together with the presence of streaming potentials during osmotically generated water flows indicate electro-osmotic water flow through hydrated channels in the tight junctions and/or lateral intercellular spaces.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Active sodium transport and fluid secretion in the gall-bladder epithelium of Necturus

Intracellular Na, K and Cl activities (acNa, acK and acCl) and membrane potentials were measured in Necturus gall-bladder epithelium using double-barrelled ion-sensitive micro-electrodes. Mucosal membrane potential was about -55 mV and the mean control activities were acNa = 14.7 mM, acK = 91.6 mM and acCl = 20.3 mM. Replacing mucosal Na by K caused a fall in acNa that followed an exponential time course. The rate of change in acNa was linearly related to acNa above a certain value (congruent to 3 mM). acK and acCl both increased in K Ringer solution. From the change in all three ions the cell was estimated to swell at an initial rate of 0.13% s-1. From the initial rate of change in acNa, a net cell efflux of Na of 405 pmol cm-2 s-1 was calculated. Replacement of Na by Tris or choline led to a similar result. The transepithelial Na transport rate was for this group of animals 346 pmol cm-2 s-1. Ouabain (10(-3) M) produced an increase in acNa and acCl, whereas acK decreased. The cells were estimated to swell at an initial rate of 0.06% s-1. The initial Na influx after Na-pump inhibition was calculated to be 162 pmol cm-2 s-1. The parallel measure of the transepithelial rate of transport of Na gave a value of 189 pmol cm-2 s-1. Ouabain inhibited the decrease in acNa after replacement of Na by K by about 80%. A fast depolarization, ranging from 2 to 7 mV, occurred after the perfusion with ouabain. Em then slowly decreased from about 53 to 32 mV in 1 h. It is concluded that (a) the major fraction of the transepithelial transport of Na is transcellular and mediated by the Na pump, (b) the pumping rate is linearly dependent on internal Na within a certain range and (c) the Na pump is electrogenic under normal circumstances.

Current-induced volume flow across bovine tracheal epithelium: evidence for sodium-water coupling

The passage of a constant current from lumen to serosa (Il-s), in the range 0.5-2.0 mA, across ouabain-treated bovine tracheal epithelium, induced a stable volume flow (Jv) toward the serosa, proportional to the current. No consistent Jv occurred when current was applied from serosa to lumen. When the standard K+ (6 mM) in the bathing solution was omitted or replaced by choline, Jv was in the same direction as, and proportional to, the current, both with Is-l and with Il-s. The electro-osmotic permeability beta was in the range of 10-15 microl h-1 cm-2 mA-1, i.e. 3-4 X 10(-6) cm s-1 mA-1. The fluxes of Na+, Cl- and mannitol were measured in current-clamp (1 mA, passed from serosa to lumen or lumen to serosa) or voltage-clamp (-20, 0 and +20 mV) conditions, with and without K+. Net transepithelial Na+ fluxes toward the cathode were either smaller than (with Is-l) or equal to (with Il-s) the net fluxes of Cl- toward the anode. The total transepithelial conductance (Gt) increased with the applied electrical gradient, both with Is-l and with Il-s, the change in Gt being larger with Il-s than with Is-l. This increase of Gt was less pronounced when K+ was omitted. The analyses of partial ionic conductances (GNa and GCl) and of the flux ratios indicate the existence of non-conductive diffusion for Cl- and also for Na+. The direction of the electrical gradient influenced the permeability ratio PNa/PCl. With Is-l, PNa/PCl was consistently lower than 0.7, i.e. the mobility ratio of Na+ and Cl- in solution. With Il-s, PNa/PCl was closer to 0.7. The highest Cl- selectivity of the epithelium was observed with Is-l in the presence of K+, i.e. under conditions which failed to induce any conspicuous Jv. The passage of current at 1 mA induced a net flux of mannitol toward the cathode, i.e. in the same direction as Na+ net flux and Jv. However, this mannitol flux was significant only in the absence of K+. These results indicate that Jv was predominantly coupled to the migration of Na+ along the electrical gradient, through a paracellular pathway.