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Poyatos L, Pérez-Mañá C, Hladun O, Núñez-Montero M, de la Rosa G, Martín S, Barriocanal AM, Carabias L, Kelmendi B, Taoussi O, Busardò FP, Fonseca F, Torrens M, Pichini S, Farré M, Papaseit E. Pharmacological effects of methylone and MDMA in humans. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1122861. [PMID: 36873994 PMCID: PMC9981643 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1122861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Methylone is one of the most common synthetic cathinones popularized as a substitute for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, midomafetamine) owing to its similar effects among users. Both psychostimulants exhibit similar chemistry (i.e., methylone is a β-keto analog of MDMA) and mechanisms of action. Currently, the pharmacology of methylone remains scarcely explored in humans. Herein, we aimed to evaluate the acute pharmacological effects of methylone and its abuse potential in humans when compared with that of MDMA following oral administration under controlled conditions. Seventeen participants of both sexes (14 males, 3 females) with a previous history of psychostimulant use completed a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover clinical trial. Participants received a single oral dose of 200 mg of methylone, 100 mg of MDMA, and a placebo. The variables included physiological effects (blood pressure, heart rate, oral temperature, pupil diameter), subjective effects using visual analog scales (VAS), the short form of the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI), the Evaluation of Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential questionnaire (VESSPA-SSE), and the Sensitivity to Drug Reinforcement Questionnaire (SDRQ), and psychomotor performance (Maddox wing, psychomotor vigilance task). We observed that methylone could significantly increase blood pressure and heart rate and induce pleasurable effects, such as stimulation, euphoria, wellbeing, enhanced empathy, and altered perception. Methylone exhibited an effect profile similar to MDMA, with a faster overall onset and earlier disappearance of subjective effects. These results suggest that abuse potential of methylone is comparable to that of MDMA in humans. Clinical Trial Registration: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT05488171; Identifier: NCT05488171.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lourdes Poyatos
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
- *Correspondence: Clara Pérez-Mañá, ; Magí Farré,
| | - Olga Hladun
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Melani Núñez-Montero
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Georgina de la Rosa
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Soraya Martín
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Ana Maria Barriocanal
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Lydia Carabias
- Department of Pharmacy, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP), Badalona, Spain
| | - Benjamin Kelmendi
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Omayema Taoussi
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Francesco Paolo Busardò
- Department of Excellence-Biomedical Sciences and Public Health, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Department of Medicine and Life Sciences (MELIS), Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain
- Addiction Program, Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Addiction Program, Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
| | - Simona Pichini
- National Centre on Addiction and Doping, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy
| | - Magí Farré
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
- *Correspondence: Clara Pérez-Mañá, ; Magí Farré,
| | - Esther Papaseit
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol and Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallés, Spain
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Mustafa NS, Bakar NHA, Mohamad N, Adnan LHM, Fauzi NFAM, Thoarlim A, Omar SHS, Hamzah MS, Yusoff Z, Jufri M, Ahmad R. MDMA and the Brain: A Short Review on the Role of Neurotransmitters in Neurotoxicity. Basic Clin Neurosci 2021; 11:381-388. [PMID: 33613876 PMCID: PMC7878040 DOI: 10.32598/bcn.9.10.485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 08/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Methyl-3, 4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDMA), or ecstasy is a recreational drug of abuse. It is a synthetic substance that affects the body’s systems, which its mechanism of action and treatment should be more investigated. MDMA provides an immediate enjoyable feeling by stimulating the release of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine and serotonin in the brain. Unfortunately, abnormal regulation of the brain neurotransmitters, as well as the increased oxidative stress causes damage to the brain neurons after the MDMA exposure. Only a few studies have been done regarding its treatment. Thus, the treatment of MDMA complications should be further explored mainly by targeting its mechanism of action in the neurotransmitter systems. Hence, this study presents a short review regarding the recent findings on the role of neurotransmitters to cause MDMA neurotoxicity. The results will be useful for future research in elucidating the potential treatment based on the targeted mechanisms to treat the neurotoxic effects of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nor Suliana Mustafa
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Nor Hidayah Abu Bakar
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Nasir Mohamad
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Liyana Hazwani Mohd Adnan
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Nurul Farah Aina Md Fauzi
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Abdulsoma Thoarlim
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Islamic Contemporary Studies, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Syed Hadzrullathfi Syed Omar
- Centre for Research in Addiction (CentRenA), University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Research Institute for Islamic Products, Malay Civilization University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Shafiee Hamzah
- Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Islamic Contemporary Studies, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Zawawi Yusoff
- Faculty of Medicine, City Campus, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia.,Faculty of Islamic Contemporary Studies, University of Sultan Zainal Abidin, Terengganu, Malaysia
| | - Mahdi Jufri
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Indonesia, Indonesia
| | - Rashidi Ahmad
- Academic Unit of Emergency Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Bucladesine Attenuates Spatial Learning and Hippocampal Mitochondrial Impairments Induced by 3, 4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Neurotox Res 2020; 38:38-49. [PMID: 32103463 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-020-00183-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Neurotoxic effects of systemic administration of 3, 4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) has been attributed to MDMA and its metabolites. However, the role of the parent compound in MDMA-induced mitochondrial and memory impairment has not yet been investigated. Moreover, it is not yet studied that analogs of 3', 5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) could decrease these neurotoxic effects of MDMA. We wished to investigate the effects of the central administration of MDMA on spatial memory and mitochondrial function as well as the effects of bucladesine, a membrane-permeable analog of cAMP, on these effects of MDMA. We assessed the effects of pre-training bilateral intrahippocampal infusion of MDMA (0.01, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 μg/side), bucladesine (10 and 100 μM) or combination of them on spatial memory, and different parameters of hippocampal mitochondrial function including the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial swelling, mitochondrial outer membrane damage, the amount of cytochrome c release as well as hippocampal ADP/ATP ratio. The results showed that MDMA caused spatial memory impairments as well as mitochondrial dysfunction as evidenced by the marked increase in hippocampal ADP/ATP ratio, ROS level, the collapse of MMP, mitochondrial swelling, and mitochondrial outer membrane damage leading to cytochrome c release from the mitochondria. The current study also found that bucladesine markedly reduced the destructive effects of MDMA. These results provide evidence of the role of the parent compound (MDMA) in MDMA-induced memory impairments through mitochondrial dysfunction. This study highlights the role of cAMP/PKA signaling in MDMA-induced memory and mitochondrial defects.
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Dose concentration and spatial memory and brain mitochondrial function association after 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) administration in rats. Arch Toxicol 2020; 94:911-925. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-020-02673-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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Shokry IM, Shields CJ, Callanan JJ, Ma Z, Tao R. Differential role of dose and environment in initiating and intensifying neurotoxicity caused by MDMA in rats. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2019; 20:47. [PMID: 31383036 PMCID: PMC6683525 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-019-0326-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND MDMA causes serotonin (5-HT) syndrome immediately after administration and serotonergic injury in a few days or weeks. However, a serotonin syndrome is not always followed by serotonergic injury, indicating different mechanisms responsible for two adverse effects. The goal of present study was to determine causes for two adverse events and further test that dose and environment have a differential role in initiating and intensifying MDMA neurotoxicity. METHODS Initiation and intensification were examined by comparing neurotoxic effects of a high-dose (10 mg/kg × 3 at 2 h intervals) with a low-dose (2 mg/kg × 3) under controlled-environmental conditions. Initiation of a serotonin syndrome was estimated by measuring extracellular 5-HT, body-core temperature, electroencephalogram and MDMA concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid, while intensification determined in rats examined under modified environment. Initiation and intensification of the serotonergic injury were assessed in rats by measuring tissue 5-HT content, SERT density and functional integrity of serotonergic retrograde transportation. RESULTS Both low- and high-dose could cause increases in extracellular 5-HT to elicit a serotonin syndrome at the same intensity. Modification of environmental conditions, which had no impact on MDMA-elicited increases in 5-HT levels, markedly intensified the syndrome intensity. Although either dose would cause the severe syndrome under modified environments, only the high-dose that resulted in high MDMA concentrations in the brain could cause serotonergic injury. CONCLUSION Our results reveal that extracellular 5-HT is the cause of a syndrome and activity of postsynaptic receptors critical for the course of syndrome intensification. Although the high-dose has the potential to initiate serotonergic injury due to high MDMA concentrations present in the brain, whether an injury is observed depends upon the drug environment via the levels of reactive oxygen species generated. This suggests that brain MDMA concentration is the determinant in the injury initiation while reactive oxygen species generation associated with the injury intensification. It is concluded that the two adverse events utilize distinctly different mediating molecules during the toxic initiation and intensification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim M. Shokry
- Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Connor J. Shields
- Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
| | - John J. Callanan
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | - Zhiyuan Ma
- Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
| | - Rui Tao
- Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431 USA
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6
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Luethi D, Kolaczynska KE, Walter M, Suzuki M, Rice KC, Blough BE, Hoener MC, Baumann MH, Liechti ME. Metabolites of the ring-substituted stimulants MDMA, methylone and MDPV differentially affect human monoaminergic systems. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:831-841. [PMID: 31038382 PMCID: PMC8269116 DOI: 10.1177/0269881119844185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Amphetamine analogs with a 3,4-methylenedioxy ring-substitution are among the most popular illicit drugs of abuse, exerting stimulant and entactogenic effects. Enzymatic N-demethylation or opening of the 3,4-methylenedioxy ring via O-demethylenation gives rise to metabolites that may be pharmacologically active. Indeed, previous studies in rats show that specific metabolites of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) and 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) can interact with monoaminergic systems. AIM Interactions of metabolites of MDMA, methylone and MDPV with human monoaminergic systems were assessed. METHODS The ability of parent drugs and their metabolites to inhibit uptake of tritiated norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) was assessed in human embryonic kidney 293 cells transfected with human monoamine transporters. Binding affinities and functional activity at monoamine transporters and various receptor subtypes were also determined. RESULTS MDMA and methylone displayed greater potency to inhibit norepinephrine uptake as compared to their effects on dopamine and 5-HT uptake. N-demethylation of MDMA failed to alter uptake inhibition profiles, whereas N-demethylation of methylone decreased overall transporter inhibition potencies. O-demethylenation of MDMA, methylone and MDPV resulted in catechol metabolites that maintained norepinephrine and dopamine uptake inhibition potencies, but markedly reduced activity at 5-HT uptake. O-methylation of the catechol metabolites significantly decreased norepinephrine uptake inhibition, resulting in metabolites lacking significant stimulant properties. CONCLUSIONS Several metabolites of MDMA, methylone and MDPV interact with human transporters and receptors at pharmacologically relevant concentrations. In particular, N-demethylated metabolites of MDMA and methylone circulate in unconjugated form and could contribute to the in vivo activity of the parent compounds in human users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Karolina E. Kolaczynska
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Walter
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Masaki Suzuki
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA,On leave from the Medicinal Chemistry Research Laboratories, New Drug Research Division , Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Tokushima, Japan
| | - Kenner C. Rice
- Drug Design and Synthesis Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, 20892, USA
| | - Bruce E. Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
| | - Marius C. Hoener
- Neuroscience Research, pRED, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, 21224, USA
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland,Corresponding author: Prof. Dr. med. Matthias E. Liechti, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Schanzenstrasse 55, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland. Tel: +41 61 328 68 68; Fax: +41 61 265 45 60;
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7
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Costa G, Serra M, Pintori N, Casu MA, Zanda MT, Murtas D, De Luca MA, Simola N, Fattore L. The novel psychoactive substance methoxetamine induces persistent behavioral abnormalities and neurotoxicity in rats. Neuropharmacology 2019; 144:219-232. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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8
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Amoroso T. The spurious relationship between ecstasy use and neurocognitive deficits: A Bradford Hill review. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2018; 64:47-53. [PMID: 30579220 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2018.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Numerous studies have suggested that MDMA can cause neurocognitive deficits. However, the available data can only suggest an association - rather than a causal relationship - between MDMA use and neurocognitive deficits. The reliability and robustness of this association was evaluated using Bradford Hill's criteria for determining causation in epidemiology research. Several limitations in the literature were found. Studies have recruited people who abuse ecstasy - an illicit drug that does not always contain MDMA. There is inherent risk in consuming impure or falsely identified substances; and using this as a source as for scientific opinion may introduce biases in our understanding the actuals risks associated with MDMA. Importantly, given that ecstasy research is predominately retrospective, baseline functioning cannot be established; which may be influenced by a variety of preexisting factors. Many studies introduce statistical errors by inconsistently dichotomizing and comparing light and heavy ecstasy users, making dose-response relationships inconclusive. When interpreting the ecstasy literature effect sizes are a more meaningful indicator of neurocognitive functioning rather than relying on p-values alone. Most meta-analyses have failed to find clinically relevant differences between ecstasy users and controls. There is also consistent evidence of publication bias in this field of research, which indicates that the literature is both biased and incomplete. Finally, suggestions for improving the ecstasy literature are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Amoroso
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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9
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Silva ATMD, Bessa CDPB, Borges WDS, Borges KB. Bioanalytical methods for determining ecstasy components in biological matrices: A review. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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10
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Hondebrink L, Zwartsen A, Westerink RHS. Effect fingerprinting of new psychoactive substances (NPS): What can we learn from in vitro data? Pharmacol Ther 2017; 182:193-224. [PMID: 29097307 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is increasing and currently >600 NPS have been reported. However, limited information on neuropharmacological and toxicological effects of NPS is available, hampering risk characterization. We reviewed the literature on the in vitro neuronal modes of action to obtain effect fingerprints of different classes of illicit drugs and NPS. The most frequently reported NPS were selected for review: cathinones (MDPV, α-PVP, mephedrone, 4-MEC, pentedrone, methylone), cannabinoids (JWH-018), (hallucinogenic) phenethylamines (4-fluoroamphetamine, benzofurans (5-APB, 6-APB), 2C-B, NBOMes (25B-NBOMe, 25C-NBOMe, 25I-NBOMe)), arylcyclohexylamines (methoxetamine) and piperazine derivatives (mCPP, TFMPP, BZP). Our effect fingerprints highlight the main modes of action for the different NPS studied, including inhibition and/or reversal of monoamine reuptake transporters (cathinones and non-hallucinogenic phenethylamines), activation of 5-HT2receptors (hallucinogenic phenethylamines and piperazines), activation of cannabinoid receptors (cannabinoids) and inhibition of NDMA receptors (arylcyclohexylamines). Importantly, we identified additional targets by relating reported effect concentrations to the estimated human brain concentrations during recreational use. These additional targets include dopamine receptors, α- and β-adrenergic receptors, GABAAreceptors and acetylcholine receptors, which may all contribute to the observed clinical symptoms following exposure. Additional data is needed as the number of NPS continues to increase. Also, the effect fingerprints we have obtained are still incomplete and suffer from a large variation in the reported effects and effect sizes. Dedicated in vitro screening batteries will aid in complementing specific effect fingerprints of NPS. These fingerprints can be implemented in the risk assessments of NPS that are necessary for eventual control measures to reduce Public Health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hondebrink
- Dutch Poisons Information Center (DPIC), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - Anne Zwartsen
- Dutch Poisons Information Center (DPIC), University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, The Netherlands; Neurotoxicology Research Group, Division Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.177, NL-3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Remco H S Westerink
- Neurotoxicology Research Group, Division Toxicology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80.177, NL-3508 TD, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Measuring inhibition of monoamine reuptake transporters by new psychoactive substances (NPS) in real-time using a high-throughput, fluorescence-based assay. Toxicol In Vitro 2017; 45:60-71. [PMID: 28506818 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence and use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is increasing and currently over 600 NPS exist. Many illicit drugs and NPS increase brain monoamine levels by inhibition and/or reversal of monoamine reuptake transporters (DAT, NET and SERT). This is often investigated using labor-intensive, radiometric endpoint measurements. We investigated the applicability of a novel and innovative assay that is based on a fluorescent monoamine mimicking substrate. DAT, NET or SERT-expressing human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells were exposed to common drugs (cocaine, dl-amphetamine or MDMA), NPS (4-fluoroamphetamine, PMMA, α-PVP, 5-APB, 2C-B, 25B-NBOMe, 25I-NBOMe or methoxetamine) or the antidepressant fluoxetine. We demonstrate that this fluorescent microplate reader-based assay detects inhibition of different transporters by various drugs and discriminates between drugs. Most IC50 values were in line with previous results from radiometric assays and within estimated human brain concentrations. However, phenethylamines showed higher IC50 values on hSERT, possibly due to experimental differences. Compared to radiometric assays, this high-throughput fluorescent assay is uncomplicated, can measure at physiological conditions, requires no specific facilities and allows for kinetic measurements, enabling detection of transient effects. This assay is therefore a good alternative for radiometric assays to investigate effects of illicit drugs and NPS on monoamine reuptake transporters.
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Shokry IM, Callanan JJ, Sousa J, Tao R. New Insights on Different Response of MDMA-Elicited Serotonin Syndrome to Systemic and Intracranial Administrations in the Rat Brain. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155551. [PMID: 27192423 PMCID: PMC4871448 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In spite of the fact that systemic administration of MDMA elicits serotonin syndrome, direct intracranial administration fails to reproduce the effect. To reconcile these findings, it has been suggested that the cause of serotonin syndrome is attributed mainly to MDMA hepatic metabolites, and less likely to MDMA itself. Recently, however, this explanation has been challenged, and alternative hypotheses need to be explored. Here, we tested the hypothesis that serotonin syndrome is the result of excessive 5HT simultaneously in many brain areas, while MDMA administered intracranially fails to cause serotonin syndrome because it produces only a localized effect at the delivery site and not to other parts of the brain. This hypothesis was examined using adult male Sprague Dawley rats by comparing 5HT responses in the right and left hemispheric frontal cortices, right and left hemispheric diencephalons, and medullar raphe nucleus. Occurrence of serotonin syndrome was confirmed by measuring change in body temperature. Administration routes included intraperitoneal (IP), intracerebroventricular (ICV) and reverse microdialysis. First, we found that IP administration caused excessive 5HT in all five sites investigated and induced hypothermia, suggesting the development of the serotonin syndrome. In contrast, ICV and reverse microdialysis caused excessive 5HT only in regions of delivery sites without changes in body-core temperature, suggesting the absence of the syndrome. Next, chemical dyes were used to trace differences in distribution and diffusion patterns between administration routes. After systemic administration, the dyes were found to be evenly distributed in the brain. However, the dyes administered through ICV or reverse microdialysis injection still remained in the delivery sites, poorly diffusing to the brain. In conclusion, intracranial MDMA administration in one area has no or little effect on other areas, which must be considered a plausible reason for the difference in MDMA-elicited serotonin syndrome between systemic and intracranial administrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim M Shokry
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, United States of America
| | - John J Callanan
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | - John Sousa
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, United States of America
| | - Rui Tao
- Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida, United States of America
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Steuer AE, Schmidhauser C, Tingelhoff EH, Schmid Y, Rickli A, Kraemer T, Liechti ME. Impact of Cytochrome P450 2D6 Function on the Chiral Blood Plasma Pharmacokinetics of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and Its Phase I and II Metabolites in Humans. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150955. [PMID: 26967321 PMCID: PMC4788153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2015] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; ecstasy) metabolism is known to be stereoselective, with preference for S-stereoisomers. Its major metabolic step involves CYP2D6-catalyzed demethylenation to 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (DHMA), followed by methylation and conjugation. Alterations in CYP2D6 genotype and/or phenotype have been associated with higher toxicity. Therefore, the impact of CYP2D6 function on the plasma pharmacokinetics of MDMA and its phase I and II metabolites was tested by comparing extensive metabolizers (EMs), intermediate metabolizers (IMs), and EMs that were pretreated with bupropion as a metabolic inhibitor in a controlled MDMA administration study. Blood plasma samples were collected from 16 healthy participants (13 EMs and three IMs) up to 24 h after MDMA administration in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, four-period, cross-over design, with subjects receiving 1 week placebo or bupropion pretreatment followed by a single placebo or MDMA (125 mg) dose. Bupropion pretreatment increased the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h (AUC24) of R-MDMA (9% and 25%, respectively) and S-MDMA (16% and 38%, respectively). Bupropion reduced the Cmax and AUC24 of the CYP2D6-dependently formed metabolite stereoisomers of DHMA 3-sulfate, DHMA 4-sulfate, and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA sulfate and HMMA glucuronide) by approximately 40%. The changes that were observed in IMs were generally comparable to bupropion-pretreated EMs. Although changes in stereoselectivity based on CYP2D6 activity were observed, these likely have low clinical relevance. Bupropion and hydroxybupropion stereoisomer pharmacokinetics were unaltered by MDMA co-administration. The present data might aid further interpretations of toxicity based on CYP2D6-dependent MDMA metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Corina Schmidhauser
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Eva H. Tingelhoff
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yasmin Schmid
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Anna Rickli
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Steuer AE, Schmidhauser C, Schmid Y, Rickli A, Liechti ME, Kraemer T. Chiral Plasma Pharmacokinetics of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its Phase I and II Metabolites following Controlled Administration to Humans. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:1864-71. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.066340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
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Steuer AE, Schmidhauser C, Liechti ME, Kraemer T. Development and validation of an LC-MS/MS method after chiral derivatization for the simultaneous stereoselective determination of methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) and its phase I and II metabolites in human blood plasma. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:592-602. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Revised: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Zurich; Switzerland
| | - Corina Schmidhauser
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Zurich; Switzerland
| | - Matthias E. Liechti
- Psychopharmacology Research, Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research; University Hospital Basel; Basel Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine; University of Zurich; Switzerland
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Parolini M, Magni S, Binelli A. Environmental concentrations of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced cellular stress and modulated antioxidant enzyme activity in the zebra mussel. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 21:11099-11106. [PMID: 24878561 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-014-3094-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Recent monitoring studies showed measurable levels of the 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in aquatic environments. However, no information is currently available on its potential hazard to aquatic non-target organisms. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential sub-lethal effects induced by 14-day exposures to low MDMA concentrations (0.05 and 0.5 μg/L) to zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) specimens through the application of a biomarker suite. The trypan blue exclusion method and the neutral red retention assay (NRRA) were used to assess MDMA cytotoxicity. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione S-transferase (GST), as well as the lipid peroxidation (LPO) and protein carbonyl content (PCC), were measured as oxidative stress indexes. The single cell gel electrophoresis (SCGE) assay, the DNA diffusion assay, and the micronucleus test (MN test) were applied to investigate DNA damage, while filtration rate was measured as physiological parameter. Despite significant decrease in lysosome membrane stability, hemocyte viability and imbalances in CAT and GST activities pointed out at the end of the exposure to 0.5 μg/L, no significant variations for the other end points were noticed at both the treatments, suggesting that environmentally relevant MDMA concentrations did not induce deleterious effects to the zebra mussel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Parolini
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133, Milan, Italy,
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17
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Schindler CW, Thorndike EB, Blough BE, Tella SR, Goldberg SR, Baumann MH. Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its main metabolites on cardiovascular function in conscious rats. Br J Pharmacol 2014; 171:83-91. [PMID: 24328722 DOI: 10.1111/bph.12423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The cardiovascular effects produced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; 'Ecstasy') contribute to its acute toxicity, but the potential role of its metabolites in these cardiovascular effects is not known. Here we examined the effects of MDMA metabolites on cardiovascular function in rats. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Radiotelemetry was employed to evaluate the effects of s.c. administration of racemic MDMA and its phase I metabolites on BP, heart rate (HR) and locomotor activity in conscious male rats. KEY RESULTS MDMA (1-20 mg·kg(-1)) produced dose-related increases in BP, HR and activity. The peak effects on HR occurred at a lower dose than peak effects on BP or activity. The N-demethylated metabolite, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), produced effects that mimicked those of MDMA. The metabolite 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA; 1-10 mg·kg(-1)) increased HR more potently and to a greater extent than MDMA, whereas 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (HHA) increased HR, but to a lesser extent than HHMA. Neither dihydroxy metabolite altered motor activity. The metabolites 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA) did not affect any of the parameters measured. The tachycardia produced by MDMA and HHMA was blocked by the β-adrenoceptor antagonist propranolol. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS Our results demonstrate that HHMA may contribute significantly to the cardiovascular effects of MDMA in vivo. As such, determining the molecular mechanism of action of HHMA and the other hydroxyl metabolites of MDMA warrants further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles W Schindler
- Preclinical Pharmacology, National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Barbosa DJ, Serrat R, Mirra S, Quevedo M, de Barreda EG, Àvila J, Ferreira LM, Branco PS, Fernandes E, Lourdes Bastos MD, Capela JP, Soriano E, Carvalho F. The mixture of "ecstasy" and its metabolites impairs mitochondrial fusion/fission equilibrium and trafficking in hippocampal neurons, at in vivo relevant concentrations. Toxicol Sci 2014; 139:407-20. [PMID: 24595818 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfu042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; "ecstasy") is a potentially neurotoxic recreational drug of abuse. Though the mechanisms involved are still not completely understood, formation of reactive metabolites and mitochondrial dysfunction contribute to MDMA-related neurotoxicity. Neuronal mitochondrial trafficking, and their targeting to synapses, is essential for proper neuronal function and survival, rendering neurons particularly vulnerable to mitochondrial dysfunction. Indeed, MDMA-associated disruption of Ca(2+) homeostasis and ATP depletion have been described in neurons, thus suggesting possible MDMA interference on mitochondrial dynamics. In this study, we performed real-time functional experiments of mitochondrial trafficking to explore the role of in situ mitochondrial dysfunction in MDMA's neurotoxic actions. We show that the mixture of MDMA and six of its major in vivo metabolites, each compound at 10μM, impaired mitochondrial trafficking and increased the fragmentation of axonal mitochondria in cultured hippocampal neurons. Furthermore, the overexpression of mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) or dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1) K38A constructs almost completely rescued the trafficking deficits caused by this mixture. Finally, in hippocampal neurons overexpressing a Mfn2 mutant, Mfn2 R94Q, with impaired fusion and transport properties, it was confirmed that a dysregulation of mitochondrial fission/fusion events greatly contributed to the reported trafficking phenotype. In conclusion, our study demonstrated, for the first time, that the mixture of MDMA and its metabolites, at concentrations relevant to the in vivo scenario, impaired mitochondrial trafficking and increased mitochondrial fragmentation in hippocampal neurons, thus providing a new insight in the context of "ecstasy"-induced neuronal injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel José Barbosa
- REQUIMTE (Rede de Química e Tecnologia), Toxicology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
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Gonçalves J, Baptista S, Silva AP. Psychostimulants and brain dysfunction: a review of the relevant neurotoxic effects. Neuropharmacology 2014; 87:135-49. [PMID: 24440369 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Psychostimulants abuse is a major public concern because is associated with serious health complications, including devastating consequences on the central nervous system (CNS). The neurotoxic effects of these drugs have been extensively studied. Nevertheless, numerous questions and uncertainties remain in our understanding of these toxic events. Thus, the purpose of the present manuscript is to review cellular and molecular mechanisms that might be responsible for brain dysfunction induced by psychostimulants. Topics reviewed include some classical aspects of neurotoxicity, such as monoaminergic system and mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity and hyperthermia. Moreover, recent literature has suggested new phenomena regarding the toxic effects of psychostimulants. Thus, we also reviewed the impact of these drugs on neuroinflammatory response, blood-brain barrier (BBB) function and neurogenesis. Assessing the relative importance of these mechanisms on psychostimulants-induced brain dysfunction presents an exciting challenge for future research efforts. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'CNS Stimulants'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Gonçalves
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga Santa Comba, Celas, 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal
| | - Sofia Baptista
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga Santa Comba, Celas, 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal
| | - Ana Paula Silva
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Azinhaga Santa Comba, Celas, 3000-548 Coimbra Portugal.
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Abstract
Ecstasy is a widely used recreational drug that usually consists primarily of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Most ecstasy users consume other substances as well, which complicates the interpretation of research in this field. The positively rated effects of MDMA consumption include euphoria, arousal, enhanced mood, increased sociability, and heightened perceptions; some common adverse reactions are nausea, headache, tachycardia, bruxism, and trismus. Lowering of mood is an aftereffect that is sometimes reported from 2 to 5 days after a session of ecstasy use. The acute effects of MDMA in ecstasy users have been attributed primarily to increased release and inhibited reuptake of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine, along with possible release of the neuropeptide oxytocin. Repeated or high-dose MDMA/ecstasy use has been associated with tolerance, depressive symptomatology, and persisting cognitive deficits, particularly in memory tests. Animal studies have demonstrated that high doses of MDMA can lead to long-term decreases in forebrain 5-HT concentrations, tryptophan hydroxylase activity, serotonin transporter (SERT) expression, and visualization of axons immunoreactive for 5-HT or SERT. These neurotoxic effects may reflect either a drug-induced degeneration of serotonergic fibers or a long-lasting downregulation in 5-HT and SERT biosynthesis. Possible neurotoxicity in heavy ecstasy users has been revealed by neuroimaging studies showing reduced SERT binding and increased 5-HT2A receptor binding in several cortical and/or subcortical areas. MDMA overdose or use with certain other drugs can also cause severe morbidity and even death. Repeated use of MDMA may lead to dose escalation and the development of dependence, although such dependence is usually not as profound as is seen with many other drugs of abuse. MDMA/ecstasy-dependent patients are treated with standard addiction programs, since there are no specific programs for this substance and no proven medications. Finally, even though MDMA is listed as a Schedule I compound by the Drug Enforcement Agency, MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for patients with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder is currently under investigation. Initial results show efficacy for this treatment approach, although considerably more research must be performed to confirm such efficacy and to ensure that the benefits of MDMA-assisted therapy outweigh the risks to the patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerrold S Meyer
- Department of Psychology, Neuroscience and Behavior Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
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21
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Concheiro M, Baumann MH, Scheidweiler KB, Rothman RB, Marrone GF, Huestis MA. Nonlinear pharmacokinetics of (+/-)3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its pharmacodynamic consequences in the rat. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 42:119-25. [PMID: 24141857 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.053678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a widely abused illicit drug that can cause severe and even fatal adverse effects. However, interest remains for its possible clinical applications in posttraumatic stress disorder and anxiety treatment. Preclinical studies to determine MDMA's safety are needed. We evaluated MDMA's pharmacokinetics and metabolism in male rats receiving 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/kg s.c. MDMA, and the associated pharmacodynamic consequences. Blood was collected via jugular catheter at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 16, and 24 hours, with simultaneous serotonin (5-HT) behavioral syndrome and core temperature monitoring. Plasma specimens were analyzed for MDMA and the metabolites (±)-3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA), (±)-4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), and (±)-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. After 2.5 mg/kg MDMA, mean MDMA Cmax was 164 ± 47.1 ng/ml, HHMA and HMMA were major metabolites, and <20% of MDMA was metabolized to MDA. After 5- and 10-mg/kg doses, MDMA areas under the curve (AUCs) were 3- and 10-fold greater than those after 2.5 mg/kg; HHMA and HMMA AUC values were relatively constant across doses; and MDA AUC values were greater than dose-proportional. Our data provide decisive in vivo evidence that MDMA and MDA display nonlinear accumulation via metabolic autoinhibition in the rat. Importantly, 5-HT syndrome severity correlated with MDMA concentrations (r = 0.8083; P < 0.0001) and core temperature correlated with MDA concentrations (r = 0.7595; P < 0.0001), suggesting that MDMA's behavioral and hyperthermic effects may involve distinct mechanisms. Given key similarities between MDMA pharmacokinetics in rats and humans, data from rats can be useful when provided at clinically relevant doses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Concheiro
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section (M.C., K.B.S., M.A.H.), and Designer Drug Research Unit (M.H.B., R.B.R.), Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland; and Department of Neuroscience, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York (G.F.M.)
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22
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Barbosa DJ, Capela JP, Silva R, Vilas-Boas V, Ferreira LM, Branco PS, Fernandes E, Bastos MDL, Carvalho F. The mixture of “ecstasy” and its metabolites is toxic to human SH-SY5Y differentiated cells at in vivo relevant concentrations. Arch Toxicol 2013; 88:455-73. [PMID: 24101030 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-013-1120-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Single oral doses of (±) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ('Ecstasy') produce lasting serotonergic deficits in non-human primates: relationship to plasma drug and metabolite concentrations. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 16:791-801. [PMID: 22824226 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145712000582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeated doses of the popular recreational drug methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy') are known to produce neurotoxic effects on brain serotonin (5-HT) neurons but it is widely believed that typical single oral doses of MDMA are free of neurotoxic risk. Experimental and therapeutic trials with MDMA in humans are underway. The mechanisms by which MDMA produces neurotoxic effects are not understood but drug metabolites have been implicated. The aim of the present study was to assess the neurotoxic potential of a range of clinically relevant single oral doses of MDMA in a non-human primate species that metabolizes MDMA in a manner similar to humans, the squirrel monkey. A secondary objective was to explore the relationship between plasma MDMA and metabolite concentrations and lasting serotonergic deficits. Single oral doses of MDMA produced lasting dose-related serotonergic neurochemical deficits in the brains of squirrel monkeys. Notably, even the lowest dose of MDMA tested (5.7 mg/kg, estimated to be equivalent to 1.6 mg/kg in humans) produced significant effects in some brain regions. Plasma levels of MDMA engendered by neurotoxic doses of MDMA were on the order of those found in humans. Serotonergic neurochemical markers were inversely correlated with plasma concentrations of MDMA, but not with those of its major metabolites, 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine. These results suggest that single oral doses of MDMA in the range of those used by humans pose a neurotoxic risk and implicate the parent compound (MDMA), rather than one of its metabolites, in MDMA-induced 5-HT neural injury.
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Goodwin AK, Mueller M, Shell CD, Ricaurte GA, Ator NA. Behavioral effects and pharmacokinetics of (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) after intragastric administration to baboons. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2013; 345:342-53. [PMID: 23516331 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.113.203729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
(±)-3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") is a popular drug of abuse. We aimed to characterize the behavioral effects of intragastric MDMA in a species closely related to humans and to relate behavioral effects to plasma MDMA and metabolite concentrations. Single doses of MDMA (0.32-7.8 mg/kg) were administered via an intragastric catheter to adult male baboons (N = 4). Effects of MDMA on food-maintained responding were assessed over a 20-hour period, whereas untrained behaviors and fine-motor coordination were characterized every 30 minutes until 3 hours postadministration. Levels of MDMA and metabolites in plasma were measured in the same animals (n = 3) after dosing on a separate occasion. MDMA decreased food-maintained responding over the 20-hour period, and systematic behavioral observations revealed increased frequency of bruxism as the dose of MDMA was increased. Drug blood level determinations showed no MDMA after the lower doses of MDMA tested (0.32-1.0 mg/kg) and modest levels after higher MDMA doses (3.2-7.8 mg/kg). High levels of 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA) were detected after all doses of MDMA, suggesting extensive first-pass metabolism of MDMA in the baboon. The present results demonstrate that MDMA administered via an intragastric catheter produced behavioral effects that have also been reported in humans. Similar to humans, blood levels of MDMA after oral administration may not be predictive of the behavioral effects of MDMA. Metabolites, particularly HHMA, may play a significant role in the behavioral effects of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy K Goodwin
- Division of Behavioral Biology, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224-6823, USA
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25
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Jamali B, Ardakani YH, Rouini MR, Foroumadi A, Amidi S, Aghdam VHZ, Kobarfard F. Determination of the role of calcium on instability of neurotoxic metabolite of ecstasy by HPTLC-mass. Daru 2013; 21:9. [PMID: 23351707 PMCID: PMC3623739 DOI: 10.1186/2008-2231-21-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2012] [Accepted: 01/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ecstasy is one of the popular illicit drugs in the world and its usage has been recently increased in Iran. This compound can destroy the serotonergic neurons and produces cognitive and psychopathology diseases. 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA) which is the main metabolite of this compound, seems to be responsible for this effect. However, no consensus has been reached among the researchers about its role. This disagreement between the researches may be due to failure in determination of HHMA as free form in physiological fluids. In this study, the stability of this crucial metabolite of ecstasy was examined in different mediums. Methods The stability of HHMA was studied in the perfusion medium and water at 100 and 10 ng/mL concentrations. Moreover, the effect of temperature (0–25°C), pH (3–10), calcium chloride (0–150 g/L) and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on the stability of HHMA was also examined. Results Our result suggested that the free form of HHMA could be degraded in the perfusion medium. The rate of this degradation has direct proportion to temperature (at 25°C = 0.037 min-1 and at 0°C = 0.002 min-1). Calcium chloride and sodium bicarbonate are two responsible components in this instability. Moreover, the alkaline pHs and increasing the shaking time can accelerate this effect. Although, while degradation was prevented at pH=3, EDTA could only reduce this rate about 30%. Conclusions Calcium cation can act as an accelerator of HHMA degradation. Therefore, the perfusion medium should not contain Ca2+ and the pH of medium is better to be adjusted at acidic range. Since, the internal cellular source of calcium is endoplasmic reticulum system, it can be assumed that, this cation may change HHMA and dopamine to reactive compounds that can bind covalently to the cysteinyl group of biological compounds and damage cellular components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bardia Jamali
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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26
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Mueller M, Maldonado-Adrian C, Yuan J, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA. Studies of (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) metabolism and disposition in rats and mice: relationship to neuroprotection and neurotoxicity profile. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2012; 344:479-88. [PMID: 23209329 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.112.201699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurotoxicity of (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy") is influenced by temperature and varies according to species. The mechanisms underlying these two features of MDMA neurotoxicity are unknown, but differences in MDMA metabolism have recently been implicated in both. The present study was designed to 1) assess the effect of hypothermia on MDMA metabolism, 2) determine whether the neuroprotective effect of hypothermia is related to inhibition of MDMA metabolism, and 3) determine if different neurotoxicity profiles in mice and rats are related to differences in MDMA metabolism and/or disposition in the two species. Rats and mice received single neurotoxic oral doses of MDMA at 25°C and 4°C, and body temperature, pharmacokinetic parameters, and serotonergic and dopaminergic neuronal markers were measured. Hypothermia did not alter MDMA metabolism in rats and only modestly inhibited MDMA metabolism in mice; however, it afforded complete neuroprotection in both species. Rats and mice metabolized MDMA in a similar pattern, with 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine being the major metabolite, followed by 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine and 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine, respectively. Differences between MDMA pharmacokinetics in rats and mice, including faster elimination in mice, did not account for the different profile of MDMA neurotoxicity in the two species. Taken together, the results of these studies indicate that inhibition of MDMA metabolism is not responsible for the neuroprotective effect of hypothermia in rodents, and that different neurotoxicity profiles in rats and mice are not readily explained by differences in MDMA metabolism or disposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mueller
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University, 5501 Hopkins Bayview Circle, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
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Rietjens SJ, Hondebrink L, Westerink RHS, Meulenbelt J. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA): interindividual differences due to polymorphisms and drug-drug interactions. Crit Rev Toxicol 2012; 42:854-76. [PMID: 23030234 DOI: 10.3109/10408444.2012.725029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Clinical outcome following 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) intake ranges from mild entactogenic effects to a life-threatening intoxication. Despite ongoing research, the clinically most relevant mechanisms causing acute MDMA-induced adverse effects remain largely unclear. This complicates the triage and treatment of MDMA users needing medical care. The user's genetic profile and interactions resulting from polydrug use are key factors that modulate the individual response to MDMA and influence MDMA pharmacokinetics and dynamics, and thus clinical outcome. Polymorphisms in CYP2D6, resulting in poor metabolism status, as well as co-exposure of MDMA with specific substances (e.g. selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)) can increase MDMA plasma levels, but can also decrease the formation of toxic metabolites and subsequent cellular damage. While pre-exposure to e.g. SSRIs can increase MDMA plasma levels, clinical effects (e.g. blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature) can be reduced, possibly due to a pharmacodynamic interaction at the serotonin reuptake transporter (SERT). Pretreatment with inhibitors of the dopamine or norepinephrine reuptake transporter (DAT or NET), 5-HT(2A) or α-β adrenergic receptor antagonists or antipsychotics prior to MDMA exposure can also decrease one or more MDMA-induced physiological and/or subjective effects. Carvedilol, ketanserin and haloperidol can reduce multiple MDMA-induced clinical and neurotoxic effects. Thus besides supportive care, i.e. sedation using benzodiazepines, intravenous hydration, aggressive cooling and correction of electrolytes, it is worthwhile to investigate the usefulness of carvedilol, ketanserin and haloperidol in the treatment of MDMA-intoxicated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia J Rietjens
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Division of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine, National Poisons Information Center (NVIC), P.O. box 85500, 3508 GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Green AR, King MV, Shortall SE, Fone KCF. Lost in translation: preclinical studies on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine provide information on mechanisms of action, but do not allow accurate prediction of adverse events in humans. Br J Pharmacol 2012; 166:1523-36. [PMID: 22188379 PMCID: PMC3419898 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01819.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Revised: 11/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) induces both acute adverse effects and long-term neurotoxic loss of brain 5-HT neurones in laboratory animals. However, when choosing doses, most preclinical studies have paid little attention to the pharmacokinetics of the drug in humans or animals. The recreational use of MDMA and current clinical investigations of the drug for therapeutic purposes demand better translational pharmacology to allow accurate risk assessment of its ability to induce adverse events. Recent pharmacokinetic studies on MDMA in animals and humans are reviewed and indicate that the risks following MDMA ingestion should be re-evaluated. Acute behavioural and body temperature changes result from rapid MDMA-induced monoamine release, whereas long-term neurotoxicity is primarily caused by metabolites of the drug. Therefore acute physiological changes in humans are fairly accurately mimicked in animals by appropriate dosing, although allometric dosing calculations have little value. Long-term changes require MDMA to be metabolized in a similar manner in experimental animals and humans. However, the rate of metabolism of MDMA and its major metabolites is slower in humans than rats or monkeys, potentially allowing endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms to function in a species specific manner. Furthermore acute hyperthermia in humans probably limits the chance of recreational users ingesting sufficient MDMA to produce neurotoxicity, unlike in the rat. MDMA also inhibits the major enzyme responsible for its metabolism in humans thereby also assisting in preventing neurotoxicity. These observations question whether MDMA alone produces long-term 5-HT neurotoxicity in human brain, although when taken in combination with other recreational drugs it may induce neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Green
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Queen's Medical Centre, University of Nottingham, UK.
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29
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Hondebrink L, Meulenbelt J, Rietjens SJ, Meijer M, Westerink RH. Methamphetamine, amphetamine, MDMA (‘ecstasy’), MDA and mCPP modulate electrical and cholinergic input in PC12 cells. Neurotoxicology 2012; 33:255-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2011.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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Scheidweiler KB, Ladenheim B, Barnes AJ, Cadet JL, Huestis MA. (±)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and metabolite disposition in plasma and striatum of wild-type and multidrug resistance protein 1a knock-out mice. J Anal Toxicol 2012; 35:470-80. [PMID: 21871156 DOI: 10.1093/anatox/35.7.470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice lacking multidrug resistance protein 1a (mdr1a) are protected from methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced neurotoxicity, suggesting mdr1a might play an important role in this phenomenon. We characterized MDMA pharmacokinetics in murine plasma and brain to determine if mdr1a alters MDMA distribution. Wild-type (mdr1a⁺/⁺) and mdr1a knock-out (mdr1a⁻/⁻) mice received i.p. 10, 20 or 40 mg/kg MDMA. Plasma and brain specimens were collected 0.3-4 h after MDMA, and striatum were dissected. MDMA and metabolites were quantified in plasma and striatum by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. MDMA maximum plasma concentrations (C(max)) for both strains were 916- 1363, 1833-3546, and 5979-7948 μg/L, whereas brain C(max) were 6673-14,869, 23,428-29,433, and 52,735-66,525 μg/kg after 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg MDMA, respectively. MDMA and metabolite striatum/plasma AUC ratios were similar in both strains, inconsistent with observed MDMA neuroprotective effects in mdr1a⁻/⁻ mice. Ratios of methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) AUCs exceeded 18% of MDMA's in plasma, suggesting substantial MDMA hepatic metabolism in mice. MDMA, MDA, HMMA, and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine maximum concentrations and AUCs exhibited nonlinear relationships during dose-escalation studies, consistent with impaired enzymatic demethylenation. Nonlinear increases in MDMA plasma and brain concentrations with increased MDMA dose may potentiate MDMA effects and toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl B Scheidweiler
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Boulevard, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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Martinez CM, Neudörffer A, Largeron M. A convenient biomimetic synthesis of optically active putative neurotoxic metabolites of MDMA (“ecstasy”) from R-(−)- and S-(+)-N-methyl-α-methyldopamine precursors. Org Biomol Chem 2012; 10:3739-48. [DOI: 10.1039/c2ob25245g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Barnes AJ, Kolbrich-Spargo EA, Gorelick DA, Goodwin RS, Huestis MA, Maurer HH. Urinary excretion kinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) and its phase I and phase II metabolites in humans following controlled MDMA administration. Clin Chem 2011; 57:1748-56. [PMID: 21980168 PMCID: PMC3717351 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2011.172254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND 3,4-Methylendioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is excreted inhuman urine as unchanged drug and phase I and II metabolites. Previous urinary excretion studies after controlled oral MDMA administration have been performed only after conjugate cleavage. Therefore, we investigated intact MDMA glucuronide and sulfate metabolite excretion. METHODS We used LC-high-resolution MS and GC-MS to reanalyze blind urine samples from 10 participants receiving 1.0 or 1.6 mg/kg MDMA orally. We determined median C(max),t(max), first and last detection times, and total urinary recovery; calculated ratios of sulfates and glucuronides; and performed in vitro-in vivo correlations. RESULTS Phase II metabolites of 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (DHMA),4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA),3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (DHA), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine were identified, although only DHMA sulfates, HMMA sulfate, and HMMA glucuronide had substantial abundance. Good correlation was observed for HMMA measured after acid hydrolysis and the sum of unconjugated HMMA, HMMA glucuronide, and HMMA sulfate (R(2) = 0.87). More than 90% of total DHMA and HMMA were excreted as conjugates. The analyte with the longest detection time was HMMA sulfate. Median HMMA sulfate/glucuronide and DHMA 3-sulfate/4-sulfate ratios for the first 24 h were 2.0 and 5.3, respectively, in accordance with previous in vitro calculations from human liver microsomes and cytosol experiments. CONCLUSIONS Human MDMA urinary metabolites are primarily sulfates and glucuronides,with sulfates present in higher concentrations than glucuronides. This new knowledge may lead to improvements in urine MDMA and metabolite analysis in clinical and forensic toxicology, particularly for the performance of direct urine analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Schwaninger
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Allan J. Barnes
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
| | - Erin A. Kolbrich-Spargo
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
- Southwestern Institute of Forensic Sciences, Dallas, TX
| | - David A. Gorelick
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
| | - Robert S. Goodwin
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Homburg (Saar), Germany
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Modulation of human GABAA receptor function: A novel mode of action of drugs of abuse. Neurotoxicology 2011; 32:823-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2011.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2011] [Revised: 05/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Stereoselective urinary MDMA (ecstasy) and metabolites excretion kinetics following controlled MDMA administration to humans. Biochem Pharmacol 2011; 83:131-8. [PMID: 21983032 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2011.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The R- and S-enantiomers of racemic 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) exhibit different dose-concentration curves. In plasma, S-MDMA was eliminated at a higher rate, most likely due to stereoselective metabolism. Similar data were shown in various in vitro experiments. The aim of the present study was the in vivo investigation of stereoselective elimination of MDMA's phase I and phase II metabolites in human urine following controlled oral MDMA administration. Urine samples from 10 participants receiving 1.0 and 1.6 mg/kg MDMA separated by at least one week were analyzed blind by liquid chromatography-high resolution-mass spectrometry and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after chiral derivatization with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride. R/S ratios at C(max) were comparable after low and high doses with ratios >1 for MDMA, free DHMA, and HMMA sulfate, and with ratios <1 for MDA, free HMMA, DHMA sulfate and HMMA glucuronide. In the five days after the high MDMA dose, a median of 21% of all evaluated compounds were excreted as R-stereoisomers and 17% as S-stereoisomers. Significantly greater MDMA, DHMA, and HMMA sulfate R-enantiomers and HMMA and HMMA glucuronide S-stereoisomers were excreted. No significant differences were observed for MDA and DHMA sulfate stereoisomers. Changes in R/S ratios could be observed over time for all analytes, with steady increases in the first 48 h. R/S ratios could help to roughly estimate time of MDMA ingestion and therefore, improve interpretation of MDMA and metabolite urinary concentrations in clinical and forensic toxicology.
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Current status of hyphenated mass spectrometry in studies of the metabolism of drugs of abuse, including doping agents. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 402:195-208. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-011-5331-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 08/06/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Investigation on the Enantioselectivity of the Sulfation of the Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Metabolites 3,4-Dihydroxymethamphetamine and 4-Hydroxy-3-Methoxymethamphetamine using the Substrate-Depletion Approach. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:1998-2002. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.041129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'Ecstasy'): Neurodegeneration versus Neuromodulation. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2011. [PMCID: PMC4058674 DOI: 10.3390/ph4070992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The amphetamine analogue 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ‘ecstasy’) is widely abused as a recreational drug due to its unique psychological effects. Of interest, MDMA causes long-lasting deficits in neurochemical and histological markers of the serotonergic neurons in the brain of different animal species. Such deficits include the decline in the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase in parallel with the loss of 5-HT and its main metabolite 5-hydoxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) along with a lower binding of specific ligands to the 5-HT transporters (SERT). Of concern, reduced 5-HIAA levels in the CSF and SERT density have also been reported in human ecstasy users, what has been interpreted to reflect the loss of serotonergic fibers and terminals. The neurotoxic potential of MDMA has been questioned in recent years based on studies that failed to show the loss of the SERT protein by western blot or the lack of reactive astrogliosis after MDMA exposure. In addition, MDMA produces a long-lasting down-regulation of SERT gene expression; which, on the whole, has been used to invoke neuromodulatory mechanisms as an explanation to MDMA-induced 5-HT deficits. While decreased protein levels do not necessarily reflect neurodegeneration, the opposite is also true, that is, neuroregulatory mechanisms do not preclude the existence of 5-HT terminal degeneration.
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Schwaninger AE, Meyer MR, Huestis MA, Maurer HH. Development and validation of LC-HRMS and GC-NICI-MS methods for stereoselective determination of MDMA and its phase I and II metabolites in human urine. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2011; 46:603-14. [PMID: 21656610 PMCID: PMC3874414 DOI: 10.1002/jms.1929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a racemic drug of abuse and its R- and S-enantiomers are known to differ in their dose-response curve. The S-enantiomer was shown to be eliminated at a higher rate than the R-enantiomer most likely explained by stereoselective metabolism that was observed in various in vitro experiments. The aim of this work was the development and validation of methods for evaluating the stereoselective elimination of phase I and particularly phase II metabolites of MDMA in human urine. Urine samples were divided into three different methods. Method A allowed stereoselective determination of the 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) glucuronides and only achiral determination of the intact sulfate conjugates of HMMA and 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (DHMA) after C18 solid-phase extraction by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization. Method B allowed the determination of the enantiomer ratios of DHMA and HMMA sulfate conjugates after selective enzymatic cleavage and chiral analysis of the corresponding deconjugated metabolites after chiral derivatization with S-heptafluorobutyrylprolyl chloride using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with negative-ion chemical ionization. Method C allowed the chiral determination of MDMA and its unconjugated metabolites using method B without sulfate cleavage. The validation process including specificity, recovery, matrix effects, process efficiency, accuracy and precision, stabilities and limits of quantification and detection showed that all methods were selective, sensitive, accurate and precise for all tested analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E. Schwaninger
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Markus R. Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Marilyn A. Huestis
- Chemistry and Drug Metabolism, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Hans H. Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany
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High concentrations of MDMA (‘ecstasy’) and its metabolite MDA inhibit calcium influx and depolarization-evoked vesicular dopamine release in PC12 cells. Neuropharmacology 2011; 61:202-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 01/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Neudörffer A, Mueller M, Martinez CM, Mechan A, McCann U, Ricaurte GA, Largeron M. Synthesis and neurotoxicity profile of 2,4,5-trihydroxymethamphetamine and its 6-(N-acetylcystein-S-yl) conjugate. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:968-78. [PMID: 21557581 DOI: 10.1021/tx2001459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to determine if trihydroxymethamphetamine (THMA), a metabolite of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "ecstasy"), or its thioether conjugate, 6-(N-acetylcystein-S-yl)-2,4,5-trihydroxymethamphetamine (6-NAC-THMA), play a role in the lasting effects of MDMA on brain serotonin (5-HT) neurons. To this end, novel high-yield syntheses of THMA and 6-NAC-THMA were developed. Lasting effects of both compounds on brain serotonin (5-HT) neuronal markers were then examined. A single intraventricular injection of THMA produced a significant lasting depletion of regional rat brain 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), consistent with previous reports that THMA harbors 5-HT neurotoxic potential. The lasting effect of THMA on brain 5-HT markers was blocked by the 5-HT uptake inhibitor fluoxetine, indicating that persistent effects of THMA on 5-HT markers, like those of MDMA, are dependent on intact 5-HT transporter function. Efforts to identify THMA in the brains of animals treated with a high, neurotoxic dose (80 mg/kg) of MDMA were unsuccessful. Inability to identify THMA in the brains of these animals was not related to the unstable nature of the THMA molecule because exogenous THMA administered intracerebroventricularly could be readily detected in the rat brain for several hours. The thioether conjugate of THMA, 6-NAC-THMA, led to no detectable lasting alterations of cortical 5-HT or 5-HIAA levels, indicating that it lacks significant 5-HT neurotoxic activity. The present results cast doubt on the role of either THMA or 6-NAC-THMA in the lasting serotonergic effects of MDMA. The possibility remains that different conjugated forms of THMA or oxidized cyclic forms (e.g., the indole of THMA) play a role in MDMA-induced 5-HT neurotoxicity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Neudörffer
- UMR 8638 CNRS-Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d'Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l'Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France
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Mueller M, Goodwin AK, Ator NA, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA. Metabolism and disposition of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("ecstasy") in baboons after oral administration: comparison with humans reveals marked differences. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2011; 338:310-7. [PMID: 21493752 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.111.180612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The baboon is potentially an attractive animal for modeling 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) effects in humans. Baboons self-administer MDMA, are susceptible to MDMA neurotoxicity, and are suitable for positron emission tomography, the method most often used to probe for MDMA neurotoxicity in humans. Because pharmacokinetic equivalence is a key feature of a good predictive animal model, we compared the pharmacokinetics of MDMA in baboons and humans. Baboons were trained to orally consume MDMA. Then, pharmacokinetic profiles of MDMA and its major metabolites were determined after various oral MDMA doses using the same analytical method recently used to perform similar studies in humans. Results indicate that MDMA pharmacokinetics after oral ingestion differ markedly between baboons and humans. Baboons had little or no MDMA in their plasma but had high plasma concentrations of 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA), pointing to much more extensive first-pass metabolism of MDMA in baboons than in humans. Other less prominent differences included less O-methylation of HHMA to 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine, greater N-demethylation of MDMA to 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, and a shorter half-life of HHMA in the baboon. To our knowledge, this is the first study to characterize MDMA metabolism and disposition in the baboon. Differences in MDMA pharmacokinetics between baboons and humans suggest that the baboon may not be ideal for modeling human MDMA exposure. However, the unusually rapid conversion of MDMA to HHMA in the baboon may render this animal uniquely useful for clarifying the relative role of the parent compound (MDMA) versus metabolites (particularly HHMA) in the biological actions of MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mueller
- Departments of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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Mueller M, Yuan J, Maldonado Adrian C, McCann UD, Ricaurte GA. Inhibition of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine metabolism leads to marked decrease in 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine formation but no change in serotonin neurotoxicity: implications for mechanisms of neurotoxicity. Synapse 2011; 65:983-90. [PMID: 21360595 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 02/04/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)'s O-demethylenated metabolite, 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA), has been hypothesized to serve as a precursor for the formation of toxic catechol-thioether metabolites (e.g., 5-N-acetylcystein-S-yl-HHMA) that mediate MDMA neurotoxicity. To further test this hypothesis, HHMA formation was blocked with dextromethorphan (DXM), which competitively inhibits cytochrome P450 enzyme-mediated O-demethylenation of MDMA to HHMA. In particular, rats were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups (n = 9-12 per group): (1) Saline/MDMA; (2) DXM/MDMA; (3) DXM/Saline; (4) Saline/Saline. During drug exposure, time-concentration profiles of MDMA and its metabolites were determined, along with body temperature. One week later, brain serotonin (5-HT) neuronal markers were measured in the same animals. DXM did not significantly alter core temperature in MDMA-treated animals. A large (greater than 70%) decrease in HHMA formation had no effect on the magnitude of MDMA neurotoxicity. These results cast doubt on the role of HHMA-derived catechol-thioether metabolites in the mechanism of MDMA neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Mueller
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore 21224, USA
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Abstract
In recent years, besides the classic designer drugs of the amphetamine type, a series of new drug classes appeared on the illicit drugs market. The chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, metabolism, and toxicokinetics is discussed of 2,5-dimethoxy amphetamines, 2,5-dimethoxy phenethylamines, beta-keto-amphetamines, phencyclidine derivatives as well as of herbal drugs, ie, Kratom. They have gained popularity and notoriety as rave drugs. The metabolic pathways, the involvement of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in the main pathways, and their roles in hepatic clearance are also summarized.
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Escubedo E, Abad S, Torres I, Camarasa J, Pubill D. Comparative neurochemical profile of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its metabolite alpha-methyldopamine on key targets of MDMA neurotoxicity. Neurochem Int 2011; 58:92-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Revised: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 11/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Hernandez-Rabaza V, Navarro-Mora G, Velazquez-Sanchez C, Ferragud A, Marin MP, Garcia-Verdugo JM, Renau-Piqueras J, Canales JJ. Neurotoxicity and persistent cognitive deficits induced by combined MDMA and alcohol exposure in adolescent rats. Addict Biol 2010; 15:413-23. [PMID: 21040238 DOI: 10.1111/j.1369-1600.2010.00259.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent trend assessments of drug consumption reveal an increase in the simultaneous use of several drugs at raves, clubs and college settings among youngsters and young adults. We studied in adolescent rats the effects of repeated exposure to cocaine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethanphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy), given alone or in combination with alcohol, on memory performance, adult hippocampal neurogenesis and neurotoxicity. Rats were trained two weeks after the drug treatments in the radial arm maze. The results showed that only rats exposed to combinations of alcohol and MDMA exhibited significant memory deficits. Alcohol, MDMA and combinations thereof significantly decreased 5-bromodeoxyuridine labeling in the dentate gyrus (DG), indicating reduced survival of neuronal precursors. None of the treatments altered the length of the dendritic arbors of doublecortin (DCX)-positive neurons or the number and length of DCX-negative gaps in the DG. Thus, changes in adult neurogenesis were not causally related to the cognitive alterations induced by the treatments. Only the combination of alcohol and MDMA significantly decreased the population of mature granule neurons in the DG and increased the presence of cluster of differentiation 11b+ reactive microglia in the bordering areas of the subgranular zone. Critically, memory impairment was correlated with granule cell depletion. These observations demonstrate that exposure to alcohol and MDMA during adolescence, at doses that do not provoke apparent cognitive impairment when given separately, causes neurotoxic alterations affecting the DG region as well as persistent memory deficits. The findings highlight the elevated risk associated with the concurrent recreational use of alcohol and MDMA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vicente Hernandez-Rabaza
- Biopsychology & Comparative Neuroscience, ICBiBE, University of Valencia-FGUV & Red de Trastornos Adictivos, RETICS, Spain
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Felim A, Herrera G, Neudörffer A, Blanco M, O’Connor JE, Largeron M. Synthesis and in Vitro Cytotoxicity Profile of the R-Enantiomer of 3,4-Dihydroxymethamphetamine (R-(−)-HHMA): Comparison with Related Catecholamines. Chem Res Toxicol 2009; 23:211-9. [DOI: 10.1021/tx9003374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anne Felim
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d’Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France, and Laboratorio de Citómica, Unidad Mixta de Investigación CIPF-UVEG, Centro de Investigación Principe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16, 46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - Guadalupe Herrera
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d’Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France, and Laboratorio de Citómica, Unidad Mixta de Investigación CIPF-UVEG, Centro de Investigación Principe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16, 46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - Anne Neudörffer
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d’Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France, and Laboratorio de Citómica, Unidad Mixta de Investigación CIPF-UVEG, Centro de Investigación Principe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16, 46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - Manuel Blanco
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d’Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France, and Laboratorio de Citómica, Unidad Mixta de Investigación CIPF-UVEG, Centro de Investigación Principe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16, 46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - José-Enrique O’Connor
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d’Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France, and Laboratorio de Citómica, Unidad Mixta de Investigación CIPF-UVEG, Centro de Investigación Principe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16, 46012 Valencia, Spain
| | - Martine Largeron
- UMR 8638 CNRS, Université Paris Descartes, Synthèse et Structure de Molécules d’Intérêt Pharmacologique, Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques et Biologiques, 4 Avenue de l’Observatoire, 75270 Paris cedex 06, France, and Laboratorio de Citómica, Unidad Mixta de Investigación CIPF-UVEG, Centro de Investigación Principe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16, 46012 Valencia, Spain
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Hirt D, Fonsart J, Menet MC, Debray M, Noble F, Declèves X, Scherrmann JM. Population pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and main metabolites in rats. Toxicol Sci 2009; 114:38-47. [PMID: 20008456 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfp300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The pharmacokinetics of the recreational drug 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and its mains metabolites have never been modeled together. We therefore designed a model with which to analyze the pharmacokinetics of MDMA, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA), and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA) and to test the effect of covariates like gender and body weight on the pharmacokinetics. Rats (18 males and 18 females) were given 1 mg/kg MDMA iv, and the concentrations of MDMA, MDA, and HMMA were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Another 30 rats (15 males) were given 1 mg/kg MDA, and MDA and HMA were measured. A population pharmacokinetic model was developed to describe the changes in MDMA, HMMA, MDA, and HMA concentrations over time and to estimate interanimal variability. The influence of gender was tested using a likelihood ratio test. Estimated exposures of males and females to MDMA and its metabolites were compared using the Wilcoxon nonparametric test. An integrated six-compartment model adequately described the data. MDMA (two compartments) was transformed irreversible to HMMA (one compartment) and MDA (two compartments), which then produced HMA (one compartment). All rate constants were first order. Females given MDMA had significantly smaller MDMA distribution volumes than males, and they converted less MDMA to MDA than did males. Our MDMA, MDA, HMA, and HMMA model is suitable for examining the relationship between drug concentrations and its pharmacological/toxicological effects. Male rats were exposed to significantly more MDA and HMA than were females, which could explain why males are more sensitive to MDMA toxic effects than females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Déborah Hirt
- Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Descartes, Paris F-75006, France.
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Baumann MH, Zolkowska D, Kim I, Scheidweiler KB, Rothman RB, Huestis MA. Effects of dose and route of administration on pharmacokinetics of (+ or -)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in the rat. Drug Metab Dispos 2009; 37:2163-70. [PMID: 19679675 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.109.028506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on animal data, there is speculation that (+ or -)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is neurotoxic to humans. Extrapolation of MDMA findings from animals to humans requires assessment of pharmacokinetics in various species, and low-dose administration data from rats are lacking. In this study, we examine MDMA pharmacokinetics in rats given low (2 mg/kg) and high (10 mg/kg) doses of racemic MDMA via intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, and oral routes. Repeated blood specimens were collected from venous catheters, and plasma was assayed for MDMA and its metabolites, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. After 2 mg/kg, maximum MDMA concentrations (C(max)) were approximately 200 ng/ml for intraperitoneal and subcutaneous routes, but less for the oral route. MDMA plasma half-lives were <1 h for low-dose groups, whereas HMMA and MDA half-lives were >2 h. After 10 mg/kg, MDMA areas under the curve (AUCs) were 21-fold (intraperitoneal), 10-fold (subcutaneous), and 36-fold (oral) greater than those at 2 mg/kg. In contrast, HMMA AUC values in high-dose groups were <3-fold above those at 2 mg/kg. Several new findings emerge from this report of low-dose MDMA pharmacokinetics in rats. First, 2 mg/kg MDMA in rats can produce MDMA C(max) values similar to those in humans, perhaps explaining why both species discriminate 1.5 mg/kg MDMA in laboratory paradigms. Second, our data provide additional support for nonlinear kinetics of MDMA in rats, and, analogous to humans, this phenomenon appears to involve impaired drug metabolism. Finally, given key similarities between MDMA pharmacokinetics in rats and humans, data from rats may be clinically relevant when appropriate dosing conditions are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael H Baumann
- Clinical Psychopharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Dr., Suite 4500, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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Sharma HS, Muresanu D, Sharma A, Patnaik R. Cocaine-induced breakdown of the blood-brain barrier and neurotoxicity. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2009; 88:297-334. [PMID: 19897082 DOI: 10.1016/s0074-7742(09)88011-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Role of cocaine in influencing blood-brain barrier (BBB) function is still unknown. Available evidences suggest that cocaine administration results in acute hyperthermia and alterations in brain serotonin metabolism. Since hyperthermia is capable to induce the breakdown of the BBB either directly or through altered serotonin metabolism, a possibility exists that cocaine may induce neurotoxicity by causing BBB disruption. This hypothesis is discussed in this review largely based on our own laboratory investigations. Our observations in rats demonstrate that cocaine depending on the dose and routes of administration induces profound hyperthermia, increased plasma and brain serotonin levels leading to BBB breakdown and brain edema formation. Furthermore, cocaine was able to enhance cellular stress as seen by upregulation of heat shock protein (HSP 72 kD) expression and resulted in marked neuronal and glial cell damages at the time of the BBB dysfunction. Taken together, these observations are the first to suggest that cocaine-induced BBB disruption is instrumental in precipitating brain pathology. The possible mechanisms of cocaine-induced BBB breakdown and neurotoxicity are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hari S Sharma
- Laboratory of Cerebrovascular Research & Pain Research Laboratory, Department of Surgical Sciences, Anesthesiology & Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital, Uppsala University, SE-75185 Uppsala, Sweden
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