1
|
Li D, Pan Q, Xiao Y, Hu K. Advances in the study of phencyclidine-induced schizophrenia-like animal models and the underlying neural mechanisms. SCHIZOPHRENIA (HEIDELBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 10:65. [PMID: 39039065 PMCID: PMC11263595 DOI: 10.1038/s41537-024-00485-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
Schizophrenia (SZ) is a chronic, severe mental disorder with heterogeneous clinical manifestations and unknown etiology. Research on SZ has long been limited by the low reliability of and ambiguous pathogenesis in schizophrenia animal models. Phencyclidine (PCP), a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antagonist, rapidly induces both positive and negative symptoms of SZ as well as stable SZ-related cognitive impairment in rodents. However, the neural mechanism underlying PCP-induced SZ-like symptoms is not fully understood. Nondopaminergic pathophysiology, particularly excessive glutamate release induced by NMDAR hypofunction in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), may play a key role in the development of PCP-induced SZ-like symptoms. In this review, we summarize studies on the behavioral and metabolic effects of PCP and the cellular and circuitary targets of PCP in the PFC and hippocampus (HIP). PCP is thought to target the ventral HIP-PFC pathway more strongly than the PFC-VTA pathway and thalamocortical pathway. Systemic PCP administration might preferentially inhibit gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurons in the vHIP and in turn lead to hippocampal pyramidal cell disinhibition. Excitatory inputs from the HIP may trigger sustained, excessive and pathological PFC pyramidal neuron activation to mediate various SZ-like symptoms. In addition, astrocyte and microglial activation and oxidative stress in the cerebral cortex or hippocampus have been observed in PCP-induced models of SZ. These findings perfect the hypoglutamatergic hypothesis of schizophrenia. However, whether these effects direct the consequences of PCP administration and how about the relationships between these changes induced by PCP remain further elucidation through rigorous, causal and direct experimental evidence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dabing Li
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwestern Medical University, LuZhou, 646000, China.
| | - Qiangwen Pan
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwestern Medical University, LuZhou, 646000, China
| | - Yewei Xiao
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Southwestern Medical University, LuZhou, 646000, China
| | - Kehui Hu
- Department of rehabilitation Medicine, SuiNing Central Hospital, The Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, SuiNing, 629000, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jiao S, Li N, Cao T, Wang L, Chen H, Lin C, Cai H. Differential impact of intermittent versus continuous treatment with clozapine on fatty acid metabolism in the brain of an MK-801-induced mouse model of schizophrenia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 133:111011. [PMID: 38642730 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.111011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/22/2024]
Abstract
Continuous antipsychotic treatment is often recommended to prevent relapse in schizophrenia. However, the efficacy of antipsychotic treatment appears to diminish in patients with relapsed schizophrenia and the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. Moreover, though the findings are inconclusive, several recent studies suggest that intermittent versus continuous treatment may not significantly differ in recurrence risk and therapeutic efficacy but potentially reduce the drug dose and side effects. Notably, disturbances in fatty acid (FA) metabolism are linked to the onset/relapse of schizophrenia, and patients with multi-episode schizophrenia have been reported to have reduced FA biosynthesis. We thus utilized an MK-801-induced animal model of schizophrenia to evaluate whether two treatment strategies of clozapine would affect drug response and FA metabolism differently in the brain. Schizophrenia-related behaviors were assessed through open field test (OFT) and prepulse inhibition (PPI) test, and FA profiles of prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Additionally, we measured gene expression levels of enzymes involved in FA synthesis. Both intermittent and continuous clozapine treatment reversed hypermotion and deficits in PPI in mice. Continuous treatment decreased total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and FAs in the PFC, whereas the intermittent administration increased n-6 PUFAs, SFAs and FAs compared to continuous administration. Meanwhile, continuous treatment reduced the expression of Fads1 and Elovl2, while intermittent treatment significantly upregulated them. This study discloses the novel findings that there was no significant difference in clozapine efficacy between continuous and intermittent administration, but intermittent treatment showed certain protective effects on phospholipid metabolism in the PFC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shimeng Jiao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China
| | - Nana Li
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China
| | - Ting Cao
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China
| | - Liwei Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China
| | - Hui Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China
| | - Chenquan Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China
| | - Hualin Cai
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Central South University, Changsha, China; International Research Center for Precision Medicine, Transformative Technology and Software Services, Hunan, China; National Clinical Research Center on Mental Disorders, Changsha, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shibata K, Enomoto K, Tsutsumi T, Muraoka H, Fuwa T, Kawano M, Ishigooka J, Inada K, Nishimura K, Oshibuchi H. Effect of intermittent subchronic MK-801 administration on dopamine synthesis capacity and responsiveness in the prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacol Rep 2024; 44:333-341. [PMID: 38376999 PMCID: PMC11144610 DOI: 10.1002/npr2.12420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
AIM The therapeutic potential of N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptor (NMDAR) antagonists, particularly ketamine, in mood disorders, is linked to their modulation of dopamine dynamics in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). However, conflicting effects of distinct NMDAR antagonists, like ketamine and phencyclidine, on mPFC dopamine levels stem from variances in their receptor affinity profiles. This study investigates the impact of intermittent subchronic administration of an NMDAR antagonist on dopamine synthesis capacity and responsiveness within the mPFC, focusing on Dizocilpine (MK-801), a highly selective NMDAR antagonist. METHODS In vivo microdialysis and high-performance liquid chromatography assessed extracellular dopamine levels in the mPFC following subchronic MK-801 treatment. Locomotor activity was measured using a computed video tracking system. RESULTS Intermittent subchronic MK-801 administration, followed by a 24-h withdrawal, preserved both dopamine synthesis capacity and responsiveness to MK-801 challenge in the mPFC. However, altered locomotor activity was observed, deviating from previous findings indicating impaired dopamine synthesis and responsiveness in the mPFC with twice-daily subchronic NMDAR antagonist treatment. CONCLUSION These findings offer crucial biochemical insights into the diverse impacts of NMDAR antagonists on dopamine dynamics and the distinct therapeutic mechanisms associated with ketamine in depression treatment. However, further investigation is imperative to pinpoint potential inconsistencies stemming from variances in drug type, dosage, or administration frequency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kazuro Shibata
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
| | - Kosuke Enomoto
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
| | - Takahiro Tsutsumi
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
| | - Hiroyuki Muraoka
- Department of PsychiatryKitasato UniversitySagamihara‐ShiKanagawaJapan
| | - Tatsu Fuwa
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
| | | | - Jun Ishigooka
- CNS Pharmacological Research InstituteShibuya‐kuTokyoJapan
| | - Ken Inada
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
- Department of PsychiatryKitasato UniversitySagamihara‐ShiKanagawaJapan
| | - Katsuji Nishimura
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
| | - Hidehiro Oshibuchi
- Department of PsychiatryTokyo Women's Medical UniversityShinjuku‐kuTokyoJapan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Sotoyama H. Putative neural mechanisms underlying release-mode-specific abnormalities in dopamine neural activity in a schizophrenia-like model: The distinct roles of glutamate and serotonin in the impaired regulation of dopamine neurons. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 59:1194-1212. [PMID: 37611917 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
Abnormalities in dopamine function might be related to psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. Even at the same concentration, dopamine exerts opposite effects on information processing in the prefrontal cortex depending on independent dopamine release modes known as tonic and phasic releases. This duality of dopamine prevents a blanket interpretation of the implications of dopamine abnormalities for diseases on the basis of absolute dopamine levels. Moreover, the mechanisms underlying the mode-specific dopamine abnormalities are not clearly understood. Here, I show that the two modes of dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex of a schizophrenia-like model are disrupted by different mechanisms. In the schizophrenia-like model established by perinatal exposure to inflammatory cytokine, epidermal growth factor, tonic release was enhanced and phasic release was decreased in the prefrontal cortex. I examined the activity of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), which sends dopamine projections to the prefrontal cortex, under anaesthesia. The activation of VTA dopamine neurons during excitatory stimulation (local application of glutamate or N-methyl-d-aspartic acid [NMDA]), which is associated with phasic activity, was blunt in this model. Dopaminergic neuronal activity in the resting state related to tonic release was increased by disinhibition of the dopamine neurons due to the impairment of 5HT2 (5HT2A) receptor-regulated GABAergic inputs. Moreover, chronic administration of risperidone ameliorated this disinhibition of dopaminergic neurons. These results provide an idea about the mechanism of dopamine disturbance in schizophrenia and may be informative in explaining the effects of atypical antipsychotics as distinct from those of typical drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hidekazu Sotoyama
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, Brain Research Institute, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Liu X, Cheng Z, Lin H, Tan J, Chen W, Bao Y, Liu Y, Zhong L, Yao Y, Wang L, Wang J, Gu Y. Decoding effects of psychoactive drugs in a high-dimensional space of eye movements in monkeys. Natl Sci Rev 2023; 10:nwad255. [PMID: 38046372 PMCID: PMC10689211 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwad255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Oculomotor behavior has been shown to be correlated with mental disorders in clinics, making it promising for disease diagnosis. Here we developed a thorough oculomotor test toolkit, involving saccade, smooth pursuit, and fixation, allowing the examination of multiple oculomotor parameters in monkey models induced by psychoactive drugs. Eye movements were recorded after daily injections of phencyclidine (PCP) (3.0 mg/kg), ketamine (0.8 mg/kg) or controlled saline in two macaque monkeys. Both drugs led to robust reduction in accuracy and increment in reaction time during high cognitive-demanding tasks. Saccades, smooth pursuit, and fixation stability were also significantly impaired. During fixation, the involuntary microsaccades exhibited increased amplitudes and were biased toward the lower visual field. Pupillary response was reduced during cognitive tasks. Both drugs also increased sensitivity to auditory cues as reflected in auditory evoked potentials (AEPs). Thus, our animal model induced by psychoactive drugs produced largely similar abnormalities to that in patients with schizophrenia. Importantly, a classifier based on dimension reduction and machine learning could reliably identify altered states induced by different drugs (PCP, ketamine and saline, accuracy = 93%). The high performance of the classifier was reserved even when data from one monkey were used for training and testing the other subject (averaged classification accuracy = 90%). Thus, despite heterogeneity in baseline oculomotor behavior between the two monkeys, our model allows data transferability across individuals, which could be beneficial for future evaluation of pharmaceutical or physical therapy validity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xu Liu
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
| | | | - He Lin
- The Third Research Institute of Ministry of Public Security, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Jiangxiu Tan
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Wenyao Chen
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yichuan Bao
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Ying Liu
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Lei Zhong
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Yitian Yao
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Liping Wang
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jijun Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200030, China
- Institute of Psychology and Behavioral Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, China
| | - Yong Gu
- CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Institute of Neuroscience, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Maness EB, Blumenthal SA, Burk JA. Dual orexin/hypocretin receptor antagonism attenuates NMDA receptor hypofunction-induced attentional impairments in a rat model of schizophrenia. Behav Brain Res 2023; 450:114497. [PMID: 37196827 PMCID: PMC10330488 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a neuropsychiatric condition that is associated with impaired attentional processing and performance. Failure to support increasing attentional load may result, in part, from inhibitory failure in attention-relevant cortical regions, and available antipsychotics often fail to address this issue. Orexin/hypocretin receptors are found throughout the brain and are expressed on neurons relevant to both attention and schizophrenia, highlighting them as a potential target to treat schizophrenia-associated attentional dysfunction. In the present experiment, rats (N = 14) trained in a visual sustained attention task that required discrimination of trials which presented a visual signal from trials during which no signal was presented. Once trained, rats were then co-administered the psychotomimetic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801: 0 or 0.1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injections) and the dual orexin receptor antagonist filorexant (MK-6096: 0, 0.1, or 1 mM, intracerebroventricular infusions) prior to task performance across six sessions. Dizocilpine impaired overall accuracy during signal trials, slowed reaction times for correctly-responded trials, and increased the number of omitted trials throughout the task. Dizocilpine-induced increases in signal trial deficits, correct response latencies, and errors of omission were reduced following infusions of the 0.1 mM, but not 1 mM, dose of filorexant. As such, orexin receptor blockade may improve attentional deficits in a state of NMDA receptor hypofunction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eden B Maness
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187, USA; VA Boston Healthcare System and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA 02132, USA.
| | - Sarah A Blumenthal
- Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30329, USA
| | - Joshua A Burk
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA 23187, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Maness EB, Blumenthal SA, Burk JA. Dual orexin/hypocretin receptor antagonism attenuates attentional impairments in an NMDA receptor hypofunction model of schizophrenia. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.05.527043. [PMID: 36778441 PMCID: PMC9915718 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.05.527043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a neuropsychiatric condition that is associated with impaired attentional processing and performance. Failure to support increasing attentional load may result, in part, from abnormally overactive basal forebrain projections to the prefrontal cortex, and available antipsychotics often fail to address this issue. Orexin/hypocretin receptors are expressed on corticopetal cholinergic neurons, and their blockade has been shown to decrease the activity of cortical basal forebrain outputs and prefrontal cortical cholinergic neurotransmission. In the present experiment, rats (N = 14) trained in a visual sustained attention task that required discrimination of trials which presented a visual signal from trials during which no signal was presented. Once trained, rats were then co-administered the psychotomimetic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801: 0 or 0.1 mg/kg, intraperitoneal injections) and the dual orexin receptor antagonist filorexant (MK-6096: 0, 0.1, or 1 mM, intracerebroventricular infusions) prior to task performance across six sessions. Dizocilpine impaired overall accuracy during signal trials, slowed reaction times for correctly-responded trials, and increased the number of omitted trials throughout the task. Dizocilpine-induced increases in signal trial deficits, correct response latencies, and errors of omission were reduced following infusions of the 0.1 mM, but not 1 mM, dose of filorexant. Orexin receptor blockade, perhaps through anticholinergic mechanisms, may improve attentional deficits in a state of NMDA receptor hypofunction. Highlights Schizophrenia is associated with attentional deficits that may stem from abnormally reactive BF projections to the prefrontal cortexOrexin receptor antagonists decrease acetylcholine release and reduce prefrontal cortical activityThe dual orexin receptor antagonist filorexant alleviated impairments of attention following NMDA receptor blockade.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eden B. Maness
- VA Boston Healthcare System and Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA, 23187, USA
| | - Sarah A. Blumenthal
- Center for Translational Social Neuroscience, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA
| | - Joshua A. Burk
- Department of Psychological Sciences, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, VA, 23187, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sabaroedin K, Tiego J, Fornito A. Circuit-Based Approaches to Understanding Corticostriatothalamic Dysfunction Across the Psychosis Continuum. Biol Psychiatry 2023; 93:113-124. [PMID: 36253195 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine is known to play a role in the pathogenesis of psychotic symptoms, but the mechanisms driving dopaminergic dysfunction in psychosis remain unclear. Considerable attention has focused on the role of corticostriatothalamic (CST) circuits, given that they regulate and are modulated by the activity of dopaminergic cells in the midbrain. Preclinical studies have proposed multiple models of CST dysfunction in psychosis, each prioritizing different brain regions and pathophysiological mechanisms. A particular challenge is that CST circuits have undergone considerable evolutionary modification across mammals, complicating comparisons across species. Here, we consider preclinical models of CST dysfunction in psychosis and evaluate the degree to which they are supported by evidence from human resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging studies conducted across the psychosis continuum, ranging from subclinical schizotypy to established schizophrenia. In partial support of some preclinical models, human studies indicate that dorsal CST and hippocampal-striatal functional dysconnectivity are apparent across the psychosis spectrum and may represent a vulnerability marker for psychosis. In contrast, midbrain dysfunction may emerge when symptoms warrant clinical assistance and may thus be a trigger for illness onset. The major difference between clinical and preclinical findings is the strong involvement of the dorsal CST in the former, consistent with an increasing prominence of this circuitry in the primate brain. We close by underscoring the need for high-resolution characterization of phenotypic heterogeneity in psychosis to develop a refined understanding of how the dysfunction of specific circuit elements gives rise to distinct symptom profiles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Sabaroedin
- Departments of Radiology and Paediatrics, Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
| | - Jeggan Tiego
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alex Fornito
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, School of Psychological Sciences and Monash Biomedical Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Using Nonhuman Primate Models to Reverse-Engineer Prefrontal Circuit Failure Underlying Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 63:315-362. [PMID: 36607528 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2022_407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
In this chapter, I review studies in nonhuman primates that emulate the circuit failure in prefrontal cortex responsible for working memory and cognitive control deficits in schizophrenia. These studies have characterized how synaptic malfunction, typically induced by blockade of NMDAR, disrupts neural function and computation in prefrontal networks to explain errors in cognitive tasks that are seen in schizophrenia. This work is finding causal relationships between pathogenic events of relevance to schizophrenia at vastly different levels of scale, from synapses, to neurons, local, circuits, distributed networks, computation, and behavior. Pharmacological manipulation, the dominant approach in primate models, has limited construct validity for schizophrenia pathogenesis, as the disease results from a complex interplay between environmental, developmental, and genetic factors. Genetic manipulation replicating schizophrenia risk is more advanced in rodent models. Nonetheless, gene manipulation in nonhuman primates is rapidly advancing, and primate developmental models have been established. Integration of large scale neural recording, genetic manipulation, and computational modeling in nonhuman primates holds considerable potential to provide a crucial schizophrenia model moving forward. Data generated by this approach is likely to fill several crucial gaps in our understanding of the causal sequence leading to schizophrenia in humans. This causal chain presents a vexing problem largely because it requires understanding how events at very different levels of scale relate to one another, from genes to circuits to cognition to social interactions. Nonhuman primate models excel here. They optimally enable discovery of causal relationships across levels of scale in the brain that are relevant to cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. The mechanistic understanding of prefrontal circuit failure they promise to provide may point the way to more effective therapeutic interventions to restore function to prefrontal networks in the disease.
Collapse
|
10
|
Al-Gailani L, Al-Kaleel A, Arslan G, Ayyıldız M, Ağar E. THE effect of general anesthetics on genetic absence epilepsy in WAG/Rij rats. Neurol Res 2022; 44:995-1005. [PMID: 35786420 DOI: 10.1080/01616412.2022.2095706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
AIM To establish safe and straightforward anesthesia used in experiments, we examined the effect of ketamine, ketamine/xylazine, urethane, chloral hydrate, pentobarbital, isoflurane, dexmedetomidine, and dexmedetomidine/ketamine on epileptiform activity in genetic absence epilepsy (WAG\Rij) rats. MATERIALS AND METHOD Sixty-three male WAG/Rij rats weighing (170-190 g) were used. Tripolar electrodes were inserted into the skull. After ECoG activities were recorded for each animal for 2 hours as controls, , the anesthetic substances were administered and the recording continued for another 2 hours. All the anesthetic substances were administered intraperitoneally except isoflurane, which was administered by inhalation.The PowerLab system was used for electrophysiological activity recording and analysis. RESULTS The administration of ketamine (90 mg/kg), ketamine/xylazine (90/10 mg/kg), urethane (1.25 g/kg), chloral hydrate (175 mg/kg), pentobarbital (50-90 mg/kg), isoflurane (induction 5%, maintaining 3-4%), dexmedetomidine (0.5-1 mg/kg), and dexmedetomidine/ketamine (50/90 mg/kg), significantly decreased the total number of SWD, the total number of spikes, and the SWD duration (p < 0,05). The mean duration of SWD was not affected in pentobarbital (50-90 mg/kg), isoflurane (induction 5%, maintaining 3-4%), dexmedetomidine (0.5-1 mg/kg), and Dexmedetomidine/ketamine (50/90 mg/kg) groups (p > 0.05). Time scale showed a significant decrease in the total number of SWD in the first 20 minutes (P < 0.001) for all groups except dexmedetomidine (0.5-1 mg/kg), and dexmedetomidine/ketamine (50/90 mg/kg) groups (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION The anesthetics we used significantly reduced the epileptiform activity immediately after the administration, except dexmedetomidine and dexmedetomidine/ketamine groups, so we recommend using dexmedetomidine and Dexmedetomidine/ketamine in electrophysiological studies accompanied by anesthetics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Al-Gailani
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey.,Faculty of Medicine, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Ali Al-Kaleel
- Faculty of Medicine, Cyprus International University, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Gökhan Arslan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Ayyıldız
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Erdal Ağar
- Faculty of Medicine, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Huang H, Zheng S, Chen M, Xie L, Li Z, Guo M, Wang J, Lu M, Zhu X. The potential of the P2X7 receptor as a therapeutic target in a sub-chronic PCP-induced rodent model of schizophrenia. J Chem Neuroanat 2021; 116:101993. [PMID: 34147620 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2021.101993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We studied the role of the P2X7 receptor on cognitive dysfunction in a mouse model of schizophrenia. METHODS An adult mouse model was established by treatment with phencyclidine (PCP), an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist. Young mice were divided into three groups: 1) the control (saline-injected) group; 2) experimental 5 mg/kg PCP-injected group; and 3) experimental 10 mg/kg PCP-injected group. The mice were subjected to the open-field and Morris water maze tests at 7 weeks. After intraperitoneal injection of the P2X7 receptor antagonist JNJ-47965567, the behaviour tests were performed again. Samples were taken after testing. The P2X7 receptor protein and mRNA expression levels were detected by immunohistochemistry, Western blotting and PCR. RESULTS This study revealed that the infant sub-chronic PCP mice model showed severe spatial learning and memory impairment in the Morris water maze and schizophrenia-like symptoms (hypermotor behaviour) in the open-field test. The P2X7 receptor protein was highly expressed in the sub-chronic PCP mouse model and more highly expressed in the hippocampus than the prefrontal lobe. After the P2X7 receptor was blocked with JNJ-47965567, P2X7 receptor protein and mRNA expression in the frontal lobe were significantly increased, and the spatial memory impairment and hypermotor behaviour induced by PCP were reversed. CONCLUSION PCP-induced cognitive impairment can be significantly improved by antagonizing the P2X7 receptor. Therefore, we believe that the P2X7 receptor plays an important role in the cognition of schizophrenic-like mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Institute of Neuroscience, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Suyue Zheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, First Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Institute of Neuroscience, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Liyuan Xie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Institute of Neuroscience, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Ziyi Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Institute of Neuroscience, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Min Guo
- Psychosomatic Medicine, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Jianhong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Mingwei Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Institute of Neuroscience, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China.
| | - Xingen Zhu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Affiliation Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Institute of Neuroscience, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Jami SA, Cameron S, Wong JM, Daly ER, McAllister AK, Gray JA. Increased excitation-inhibition balance and loss of GABAergic synapses in the serine racemase knockout model of NMDA receptor hypofunction. J Neurophysiol 2021; 126:11-27. [PMID: 34038186 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00661.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
There is substantial evidence that both N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction and dysfunction of GABAergic neurotransmission contribute to schizophrenia, though the relationship between these pathophysiological processes remains largely unknown. Although models using cell-type-specific genetic deletion of NMDARs have been informative, they display overly pronounced phenotypes extending beyond those of schizophrenia. Here, we used the serine racemase knockout (SRKO) mice, a model of reduced NMDAR activity rather than complete receptor elimination, to examine the link between NMDAR hypofunction and decreased GABAergic inhibition. The SRKO mice, in which there is a >90% reduction in the NMDAR coagonist d-serine, exhibit many of the neurochemical and behavioral abnormalities observed in schizophrenia. We found a significant reduction in inhibitory synapses onto CA1 pyramidal neurons in the SRKO mice. This reduction increases the excitation/inhibition balance resulting in enhanced synaptically driven neuronal excitability without changes in intrinsic excitability. Consistently, significant reductions in inhibitory synapse density in CA1 were observed by immunohistochemistry. We further show, using a single-neuron genetic deletion approach, that the loss of GABAergic synapses onto pyramidal neurons observed in the SRKO mice is driven in a cell-autonomous manner following the deletion of SR in individual CA1 pyramidal cells. These results support a model whereby NMDAR hypofunction in pyramidal cells disrupts GABAergic synapses leading to disrupted feedback inhibition and impaired neuronal synchrony.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Recently, disruption of excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance has become an area of considerable interest for psychiatric research. Here, we report a reduction in inhibition in the serine racemase knockout mouse model of schizophrenia that increases E/I balance and enhances synaptically driven neuronal excitability. This reduced inhibition was driven cell-autonomously in pyramidal cells lacking serine racemase, suggesting a novel mechanism for how chronic NMDA receptor hypofunction can disrupt information processing in schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shekib A Jami
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Scott Cameron
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Jonathan M Wong
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Emily R Daly
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, California
| | - A Kimberley McAllister
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, California.,Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior, University of California, Davis, California.,Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, California
| | - John A Gray
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, California.,Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, California
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Yun M, Nejime M, Matsumoto M. Single-unit Recording in Awake Behaving Non-human Primates. Bio Protoc 2021; 11:e3987. [PMID: 34124290 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.3987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Non-human primates (NHPs) have been widely used as a species model in studies to understand higher brain functions in health and disease. These studies employ specifically designed behavioral tasks in which animal behavior is well-controlled, and record neuronal activity at high spatial and temporal resolutions while animals are performing the tasks. Here, we present a detailed procedure to conduct single-unit recording, which fulfils high spatial and temporal resolutions while macaque monkeys (i.e., widely used NHPs) perform behavioral tasks in a well-controlled manner. This procedure was used in our previous study to investigate the dynamics of neuronal activity during economic decision-making by the monkeys. Monkeys' behavior was quantitated by eye position tracking and button press/release detection. By inserting a microelectrode into the brain, with a grid system in reference to magnetic resonance imaging, we precisely recorded the brain regions. Our experimental system permits rigorous investigation of the link between neuronal activity and behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengxi Yun
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,Division of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Masafumi Nejime
- Division of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Masayuki Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,Division of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan.,Transborder Medical Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Pichon F, Shen Y, Busato F, P Jochems S, Jacquelin B, Grand RL, Deleuze JF, Müller-Trutwin M, Tost J. Analysis and annotation of DNA methylation in two nonhuman primate species using the Infinium Human Methylation 450K and EPIC BeadChips. Epigenomics 2021; 13:169-186. [PMID: 33471557 DOI: 10.2217/epi-2020-0200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Nonhuman primates are essential for research on many human diseases. The Infinium Human Methylation450/EPIC BeadChips are popular tools for the study of the methylation state across the human genome at affordable cost. Methods: We performed a precise evaluation and re-annotation of the BeadChip probes for the analysis of genome-wide DNA methylation patterns in rhesus macaques and African green monkeys through in silico analyses combined with functional validation by pyrosequencing. Results: Up to 165,847 of the 450K and 261,545 probes of the EPIC BeadChip can be reliably used. The annotation files are provided in a format compatible with a variety of standard bioinformatic pipelines. Conclusion: Our study will facilitate high-throughput DNA methylation analyses in Macaca mulatta and Chlorocebus sabaeus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Pichon
- Laboratory for Epigenetics & Environment, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, CEA-Institut de Biologie François Jacob, Evry, France
| | - Yimin Shen
- Laboratory for Epigenetics & Environment, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, CEA-Institut de Biologie François Jacob, Evry, France.,Laboratory for Bioinformatics, Fondation Jean Dausset - Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain, 75010 Paris, France
| | - Florence Busato
- Laboratory for Epigenetics & Environment, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, CEA-Institut de Biologie François Jacob, Evry, France
| | - Simon P Jochems
- Institut Pasteur, HIV Inflammation & Persistence Unit, Paris, France.,Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roger Le Grand
- Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CEA, Center for Immunology of Viral, Auto-immune, Hematological and Bacterial diseases (IMVA-HB/IDMIT), Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Jean-Francois Deleuze
- Laboratory for Epigenetics & Environment, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, CEA-Institut de Biologie François Jacob, Evry, France.,Laboratory for Bioinformatics, Fondation Jean Dausset - Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain, 75010 Paris, France
| | | | - Jörg Tost
- Laboratory for Epigenetics & Environment, Centre National de Recherche en Génomique Humaine, CEA-Institut de Biologie François Jacob, Evry, France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Sydnor VJ, Roalf DR. A meta-analysis of ultra-high field glutamate, glutamine, GABA and glutathione 1HMRS in psychosis: Implications for studies of psychosis risk. Schizophr Res 2020; 226:61-69. [PMID: 32723493 PMCID: PMC7750272 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Ultra-high field proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1HMRS) offers a unique opportunity to measure the concentration of neurometabolites implicated in psychosis (PSY). The extant 7 T 1HMRS literature measuring glutamate-associated neurometabolites in the brain in PSY in vivo is small, but a comprehensive, quantitative summary of these data can offer insight and guidance to this emerging field. This meta-analysis examines proton spectroscopy (1HMRS) measures of glutamate (Glu), glutamine (Gln), glutamate+glutamine (Glx), gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA), and glutathione (GSH) across 255 individuals with PSY (121 first episode) and 293 healthy comparison participants (HC). While all five neurometabolites were lower in PSY as compared to HC, only Glu (Cohen's d = -0.18) and GSH (Cohen's d = -0.21) concentrations were significantly lower in PSY, whereas concentrations of Gln, Glx, and GABA did not significantly differ between groups. Notably, 1HMRS methodological choices and sample demographic characteristics did not impact study-specific effect sizes for PSY-related Glu or GSH differences. This review thus provides further evidence of neurometabolite dysfunction in first episode and chronic PSY, and thereby suggests that Glu and GSH abnormalities may additionally play a role in more incipient stages of the disorder: in clinical high risk stages. Additional 7 T neurochemical imaging studies in larger, longitudinal, and unmedicated samples and in youth at risk for developing psychosis are needed. Such studies will be critical for elucidating the neurodevelopmental and clinical time course of PSY-related neurometabolite alterations, and for assessing the potential for implicated metabolites to serve as druggable targets for decreasing PSY risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valerie J Sydnor
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States of America
| | - David R Roalf
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States of America; Lifespan Brain Institute at the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia & the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Reynolds LM, Yetnikoff L, Pokinko M, Wodzinski M, Epelbaum JG, Lambert LC, Cossette MP, Arvanitogiannis A, Flores C. Early Adolescence is a Critical Period for the Maturation of Inhibitory Behavior. Cereb Cortex 2020; 29:3676-3686. [PMID: 30295713 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychiatric conditions marked by impairments in cognitive control often emerge during adolescence, when the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and its inputs undergo structural and functional maturation and are vulnerable to disruption by external events. It is not known, however, whether there exists a specific temporal window within the broad range of adolescence when the development of PFC circuitry and its related behaviors are sensitive to disruption. Here we show, in male mice, that repeated exposure to amphetamine during early adolescence leads to impaired behavioral inhibition, aberrant PFC dopamine connectivity, and reduced PFC dopamine function in adulthood. Remarkably, these deficits are not observed following exposure to the exact same amphetamine regimen at later times. These findings demonstrate that there is a critical period for the disruption of the adolescent maturation of cognitive control and PFC dopamine function and suggest that early adolescence is particularly relevant to the emergence of psychopathology in humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren M Reynolds
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Leora Yetnikoff
- Department of Psychology, College of Staten Island, City University of New York, Staten Island, NY, USA.,CUNY Neuroscience Collaborative, The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY, USA
| | - Matthew Pokinko
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada.,Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Michael Wodzinski
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Julia G Epelbaum
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Laura C Lambert
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Marie-Pierre Cossette
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Andreas Arvanitogiannis
- Department of Psychology, Center for Studies in Behavioural Neurobiology, Concordia University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - Cecilia Flores
- Department of Psychiatry and Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montréal, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Wang J, Yu W, Gao Q, Ju C, Wang K. Prefrontal inhibition of neuronal K v 7 channels enhances prepulse inhibition of acoustic startle reflex and resistance to hypofrontality. Br J Pharmacol 2020; 177:4720-4733. [PMID: 32839968 PMCID: PMC7520443 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose Dysfunction of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is involved in the cognitive deficits in neuropsychiatric diseases, such as schizophrenia, characterized by deficient neurotransmission known as NMDA receptor hypofrontality. Thus, enhancing prefrontal activity may alleviate hypofrontality‐induced cognitive deficits. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the effect of forebrain‐specific suppression or pharmacological inhibition of native Kv7/KCNQ/M‐current on glutamatergic hypofrontality induced by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK‐801. Experimental Approach The forebrain‐specific inhibition of native M‐current was generated by transgenic expression, in mice, of a dominant‐negative pore mutant G279S of Kv7.2/KCNQ2 channels that suppresses channel function. A mouse model of cognitive impairment was established by single i.p. injection of 0.1 mg·kg−1 MK‐801. Mouse models of prepulse inhibition (PPI) of acoustic startle reflex and Y‐maze spontaneous alternation test were used for evaluation of cognitive behaviour. Hippocampal brain slice recordings of LTP were used to assess synaptic plasticity. Hippocampus and cortex were dissected for detecting protein expression using western blot analysis. Key Results Genetic suppression of Kv7 channel function in the forebrain or pharmacological inhibition of Kv7 channels by the specific blocker XE991 enhanced PPI and also alleviated MK‐801 induced cognitive decline. XE991 also attenuated MK‐801‐induced LTP deficits and increased basal synaptic transmissions. Western blot analysis revealed that inhibiting Kv7 channels resulted in elevation of pAkt1 and pGSK‐3β expressions in both hippocampus and cortex. Conclusions and Implications Both genetic and pharmacological inhibition of Kv7 channels alleviated PPI and cognitive deficits. Mechanistically, inhibition of Kv7 channels promotes synaptic transmission and activates Akt1/GSK‐3β signalling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Wenwen Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China.,Institute of Innovative Drugs, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qin Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Chuanxia Ju
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - KeWei Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China.,Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Guangzhou, China.,Institute of Innovative Drugs, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
De Los Angeles A, Hyun I, Latham SR, Elsworth JD, Redmond DE. Human-Monkey Chimeras for Modeling Human Disease: Opportunities and Challenges. Stem Cells Dev 2020; 27:1599-1604. [PMID: 30319057 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The search for a better animal model to simulate human disease has been a "holy grail" of biomedical research for decades. Recent identification of different types of pluripotent stem (PS) cells and advances in chimera research might soon permit the generation of interspecies chimeras from closely related species, such as those between humans and other primates. In this study, we suggest that the creation of human-primate chimeras-specifically, the transfer of human stem cells into (non-ape) primate hosts-could not only surpass the limitations of current monkey models of neurological and psychiatric disease but would also raise important ethical considerations concerning the use of monkeys in invasive research. Questions regarding the scientific value and ethical concerns raised by the prospect of human-monkey chimeras are more urgent in light of recent advances in PS cell research and attempts to generate interspecies chimeras between humans and animals. While some jurisdictions prohibit the introduction of human PS cells into monkey preimplantation embryos, other jurisdictions may permit and even encourage such experiments. Therefore, it is useful to consider blastocyst complementation experiments more closely in light of advances that could make these chimeras possible and to consider the ethical and political issues that are raised.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Insoo Hyun
- Department of Bioethics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Stephen R Latham
- Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - John D Elsworth
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Nakazawa K, Sapkota K. The origin of NMDA receptor hypofunction in schizophrenia. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 205:107426. [PMID: 31629007 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.107426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction plays a key role in pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Since NMDAR hypofunction has also been reported in autism, Alzheimer's disease and cognitive dementia, it is crucial to identify the location, timing, and mechanism of NMDAR hypofunction for schizophrenia for better understanding of disease etiology and for novel therapeutic intervention. In this review, we first discuss the shared underlying mechanisms of NMDAR hypofunction in NMDAR antagonist models and the anti-NMDAR autoantibody model of schizophrenia and suggest that NMDAR hypofunction could occur in GABAergic neurons in both models. Preclinical models using transgenic mice have shown that NMDAR hypofunction in cortical GABAergic neurons, in particular parvalbumin-positive fast-spiking interneurons, in the early postnatal period confers schizophrenia-related phenotypes. Recent studies suggest that NMDAR hypofunction can also occur in PV-positive GABAergic neurons with alterations of NMDAR-associated proteins, such as neuregulin/ErbB4, α7nAChR, and serine racemase. Furthermore, several environmental factors, such as oxidative stress, kynurenic acid and hypoxia, may also potentially elicit NMDAR hypofunction in GABAergic neurons in early postnatal period. Altogether, the studies discussed here support a central role for GABAergic abnormalities in the context of NMDAR hypofunction. We conclude by suggesting potential therapeutic strategies to improve the function of fast-spiking neurons.
Collapse
|
20
|
Al-Ali AM, Young AMJ. Disruption of latent inhibition by subchronic phencyclidine pretreatment in rats. Behav Brain Res 2019; 368:111901. [PMID: 30981736 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.111901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Repeated subchronic treatment with the NMDA-receptor antagonist, phencyclidine, causes behavioural changes in rats, which resemble cognitive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia. However, its effects on behaviours modelling positive symptoms are less clear. This study investigated whether subchronic phencyclidine pretreatment affected latent inhibition: impaired conditioning following repeated preexposure of the to-be-conditioned stimulus. Female Lister-hooded rats were pretreated with phencyclidine or saline twice/day for 5 days, then remained drug-free for 10 days before latent inhibition testing. Saline pretreated animals showed latent inhibition, as expected. However, phencyclidine pretreated animals showed no latent inhibition: the effect of preexposure was attenuated, with no change in basic learning. Thus subchronic phencyclidine pretreatment does disrupt latent inhibition, and, importantly, this occurs after withdrawal from the drug, implicating changes in brain function enduring well beyond the time that the drug is present in the brain. In a separate task, discrimination of a novel object was significantly impaired by phencyclidine pretreatment confirming that five days of subchronic pretreatment was sufficient to invoke behavioural impairment previously reported after seven days pretreatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa M Al-Ali
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Lancaster Road, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK
| | - Andrew M J Young
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour, University of Leicester, Lancaster Road, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Uchida M, Hida H, Mori K, Yoshimi A, Kitagaki S, Yamada K, Hiraoka Y, Aida T, Tanaka K, Ozaki N, Noda Y. Functional roles of the glial glutamate transporter (GLAST) in emotional and cognitive abnormalities of mice after repeated phencyclidine administration. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2019; 29:914-924. [PMID: 31303267 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 06/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Alterations of the glutamatergic system components, including N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors are relevant to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Repeated phencyclidine (PCP) administration induces several schizophrenia-like psychobehavioral abnormalities and decreases extracellular glutamate levels, which are associated with increased levels of glial glutamate and aspartate transporter (GLAST) in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) of mice. In the present study, we investigated the functional roles of GLAST in the emotional and cognitive abnormalities in mice following repeated PCP administration by using GLAST heterozygous (+/-) mice, since GLAST mutant mice are a useful tool for elucidating the contribution of glutamate dysfunction to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. PCP-administered GLAST wild-type (+/+) mice showed enhancement of immobility in a forced swimming test, impairments of visual recognition memory in a novel object recognition test, decrease in high potassium (K+)-induced extracellular glutamate release, and overexpression of GLAST and S100 proteins in the PFC, compared to saline-administered GLAST+/+ mice. Such behavioral and neurochemical abnormalities were not observed in PCP-administered GLAST+/- mice. In conclusion, these results clearly suggest that genetic GLAST dysfunction and glial activation play important roles in the development of emotional and cognitive abnormalities in PCP-administered GLAST+/+ mice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mizuki Uchida
- Division of Clinical Sciences and Neuropsychopharmacology, Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Hirotake Hida
- Division of Clinical Sciences and Neuropsychopharmacology, Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kentaro Mori
- Division of Clinical Sciences and Neuropsychopharmacology, Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Akira Yoshimi
- Division of Clinical Sciences and Neuropsychopharmacology, Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Shinji Kitagaki
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Kiyofumi Yamada
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology and Hospital Pharmacy, Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yuichi Hiraoka
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Tomomi Aida
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kohichi Tanaka
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Norio Ozaki
- Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Yukihiro Noda
- Division of Clinical Sciences and Neuropsychopharmacology, Faculty and Graduate School of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya, Japan; Department of Psychiatry, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Lee G, Zhou Y. NMDAR Hypofunction Animal Models of Schizophrenia. Front Mol Neurosci 2019; 12:185. [PMID: 31417356 PMCID: PMC6685005 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction hypothesis has been proposed to help understand the etiology and pathophysiology of schizophrenia. This hypothesis was based on early observations that NMDAR antagonists could induce a full range of symptoms of schizophrenia in normal human subjects. Accumulating evidence in humans and animal studies points to NMDAR hypofunctionality as a convergence point for various symptoms of schizophrenia. Here we review animal models of NMDAR hypofunction generated by pharmacological and genetic approaches, and how they relate to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. In addition, we discuss the limitations of animal models of NMDAR hypofunction and their potential utility for therapeutic applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Yi Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, United States
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Chronic phencyclidine treatment impairs spatial working memory in rhesus monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2223-2232. [PMID: 30911792 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05214-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Phencyclidine (PCP) could induce schizophrenia (Sz) like behavior in both humans and animals, therefore, has been widely utilized to establish Sz animal models. It induced cognitive deficits, the core symptom of Sz, mainly through influencing frontal dopaminergic function. Nonhuman primate (NHP) studies demonstrated impaired object retrieval detour (ORD) and spatial delayed response (SDR) task performance by acute or chronic PCP treatment. However, NHP investigations, continually monitoring SDR performance before, during and after PCP treatment, are lacking. OBJECTIVES Present study investigated the long-term influence of chronic PCP treatment on SDR performance and the possible increase of SDR deficit severity and duration by the incremental dosing procedure in rhesus monkeys. METHODS SDR task was performed repeatedly up to eight weeks after constant dosing procedure (i.m., 0.3 mg/kg, day 12-25), during which drug effects on locomotor activity and blood cortisol concentration were assessed. Incremental dosing procedure (starting dose 0.3 mg/kg, day 6-19) began five months later. RESULTS Constant dosing procedure induced differential level of hyperactivity across testing days, without significant influence on blood cortisol concentration. It reduced SDR performance, until occurrence of the first and worst impairment on day 15 and 23 respectively. The impaired performance recovered to pretreatment level over one week after drug cessation. In contrast, incremental dosing procedure impaired SDR performance on the first treatment day, which recovered within treatment period. CONCLUSION Results suggested increase of SDR deficit severity by repeated PCP administrations, whereas the incremental dosing procedure did not increase SDR deficit severity and duration.
Collapse
|
24
|
Enomoto T, Ikeda K. [Translational behavioral research using common marmosets in the psychiatric field]. Nihon Yakurigaku Zasshi 2019; 153:28-34. [PMID: 30643089 DOI: 10.1254/fpj.153.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The drug discovery activities for novel compounds with the superior efficacies to current drugs have been largely unsuccessful in the psychiatric field. One of the main reasons is the lack of appropriate behavioral assays and animal models for psychiatric disorders. Since the prefrontal cortex has great roles in their pathophysiology, non-human primate common marmosets with the well-developed prefrontal cortex would be useful as experimental animals in the future translational research. To measure objectively and quantitatively the psychiatric symptoms like motivational deficits, negative affective bias and cognitive impairments in patients with schizophrenia or major depressive disorder, the clinical laboratory tasks have been developed. The development of marmoset behavioral paradigms, which may correspond to the clinical laboratory tasks, have been progressed for the translational research. On the other hand, there are still limitations to develop the marmoset models resembling the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. We review the current state and future perspective of translational behavioral research using marmosets.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Enomoto
- Higher Brain Function Research, Drug Research Division, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Co., Ltd
| | - Kazuhito Ikeda
- Higher Brain Function Research, Drug Research Division, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma Co., Ltd
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Shukla D, Maheshwari RA, Patel K, Balaraman R, Sen AK. Effect of Vaccinium macrocarpon on MK-801-induced psychosis in mice. Indian J Pharmacol 2019; 50:227-235. [PMID: 30636825 PMCID: PMC6302693 DOI: 10.4103/ijp.ijp_74_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study was aimed to investigate the effect of aqueous cranberry extract (ACE) on MK-801-induced psychosis in mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS MK-801-treated mice were administered ACE (1 and 2 g/kg, p.o.) for 14 days. Various behavioral parameters and neurochemical estimations such as dopamine (DA), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), glutamate, and glycine as well as markers of oxidative stress such as nitrite levels were measured. RESULTS Psychosis-induced mice showed a significant elevation of immobility time in forced swim test, locomotor activity, and reduction in time of permanency in rota-rod test, escape latency time in Cook's pole test while treatment with ACE showed a significant alteration in above-mentioned behavioral parameters in MK-801-induced psychosis. Moreover, MK-801-induced psychosis in the mice showed a significant increase in DA, 5-HT, and NA levels and decrease in GABA, glutamate, and glycine levels in the brain. In contrast, treatment with ACE at both doses remarkably altered the neurochemical parameters. In addition, ACE-treated mice showed a substantial reduction in acetylcholinesterase, D-amino acid oxidase enzyme activity, and nitrite levels which were elevated by the administration of MK-801. CONCLUSIONS Treatment with ACE once for 14 days (1 and 2 g/kg) significantly ameliorated the behavioral symptoms in experimentally induced psychosis by virtue of neuromodulation and decreased oxidative stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Disha Shukla
- Department of Pharmacy, Sumandeep Vidyapeeth, Piparia, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Rajesh A Maheshwari
- Department of Pharmacy, Sumandeep Vidyapeeth, Piparia, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Kirti Patel
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The M. S. University of Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - R Balaraman
- Department of Pharmacy, Sumandeep Vidyapeeth, Piparia, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Ashim Kumar Sen
- Department of Pharmacy, Sumandeep Vidyapeeth, Piparia, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Scopolamine increases perseveration in mice subjected to the detour test. Behav Brain Res 2019; 356:71-77. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2018.07.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2018] [Revised: 07/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
27
|
OBI-NAGATA K, TEMMA Y, HAYASHI-TAKAGI A. Synaptic functions and their disruption in schizophrenia: From clinical evidence to synaptic optogenetics in an animal model. PROCEEDINGS OF THE JAPAN ACADEMY. SERIES B, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2019; 95:179-197. [PMID: 31080187 PMCID: PMC6742729 DOI: 10.2183/pjab.95.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The adult human brain consists of approximately a hundred billion neurons, which are connected via synapses. The pattern and strength of the synaptic connections are constantly changing (synaptic plasticity), and these changes are considered to underlie learning, memory, and personality. Many psychiatric disorders have been related to disturbances in synaptogenesis and subsequent plasticity. In this review, we summarize findings of synaptic disturbance and its involvement in the pathogenesis and/or pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. We will focus on schizophrenia, because this condition has a high proven heritability, which offers more unambiguous insights into the biological origins of not only schizophrenia but also related psychiatric disorders. To demonstrate the involvement of synaptopathy in psychiatric disorders, we discuss what knowledge is missing at the circuits level, and what new technologies are needed to achieve a comprehensive understanding of synaptopathy in psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kisho OBI-NAGATA
- Laboratory of Medical Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Yusuke TEMMA
- Laboratory of Medical Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Akiko HAYASHI-TAKAGI
- Laboratory of Medical Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, Maebashi, Japan
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Japan
- Correspondence should be addressed: A. Hayashi-Takagi, Laboratory of Medical Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation, Gunma University, 3-39-15 Showa-machi, Maebashi, Gunma 371-8512, Japan (e-mail: )
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Bygrave AM, Kilonzo K, Kullmann DM, Bannerman DM, Kätzel D. Can N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Hypofunction in Schizophrenia Be Localized to an Individual Cell Type? Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:835. [PMID: 31824347 PMCID: PMC6881463 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hypofunction of N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptors (NMDARs), whether caused by endogenous factors like auto-antibodies or mutations, or by pharmacological or genetic manipulations, produces a wide variety of deficits which overlap with-but do not precisely match-the symptom spectrum of schizophrenia. In order to understand how NMDAR hypofunction leads to different components of the syndrome, it is necessary to take into account which neuronal subtypes are particularly affected by it in terms of detrimental functional alterations. We provide a comprehensive overview detailing findings in rodent models with cell type-specific knockout of NMDARs. Regarding inhibitory cortical cells, an emerging model suggests that NMDAR hypofunction in parvalbumin (PV) positive interneurons is a potential risk factor for this disease. PV interneurons display a selective vulnerability resulting from a combination of genetic, cellular, and environmental factors that produce pathological multi-level positive feedback loops. Central to this are two antioxidant mechanisms-NMDAR activity and perineuronal nets-which are themselves impaired by oxidative stress, amplifying disinhibition. However, NMDAR hypofunction in excitatory pyramidal cells also produces a range of schizophrenia-related deficits, in particular maladaptive learning and memory recall. Furthermore, NMDAR blockade in the thalamus disturbs thalamocortical communication, and NMDAR ablation in dopaminergic neurons may provoke over-generalization in associative learning, which could relate to the positive symptom domain. Therefore, NMDAR hypofunction can produce schizophrenia-related effects through an action on various different circuits and cell types.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexei M Bygrave
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kasyoka Kilonzo
- Institute of Applied Physiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Dimitri M Kullmann
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - David M Bannerman
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Dennis Kätzel
- Institute of Applied Physiology, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
De Los Angeles A, Hyun I, Latham SR, Elsworth JD, Redmond DE. Human-Monkey Chimeras for Modeling Human Disease: Opportunities and Challenges. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 2005:221-231. [PMID: 31175656 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9524-0_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The search for a better animal model to simulate human disease has been a "holy grail" of biomedical research for decades. Recent identification of different types of pluripotent stem cells (PS cells) and advances in chimera research might soon permit the generation of interspecies chimeras from closely related species, such as those between humans and other primates. Here, we suggest that the creation of human-primate chimeras-specifically, the transfer of human stem cells into (non-ape) primate hosts-could surpass the limitations of current monkey models of neurological and psychiatric disease, but would also raise important ethical considerations concerning the use of monkeys in invasive research. Questions regarding the scientific value and ethical concerns raised by the prospect of human-monkey chimeras are more urgent in light of recent advances in PS cell research and attempts to generate interspecies chimeras between humans and animals. While some jurisdictions prohibit the introduction of human PS cells into monkey preimplantation embryos, other jurisdictions may permit and even encourage such experiments. Therefore, it is useful to consider blastocyst complementation experiments more closely in light of advances that could make these chimeras possible and to consider the ethical and political issues that are raised.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Insoo Hyun
- Department of Bioethics, Case Western Reserve University, School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Stephen R Latham
- Yale Interdisciplinary Center for Bioethics, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - John D Elsworth
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Tran HQ, Park SJ, Shin EJ, Tran TV, Sharma N, Lee YJ, Jeong JH, Jang CG, Kim DJ, Nabeshima T, Kim HC. Clozapine attenuates mitochondrial burdens and abnormal behaviors elicited by phencyclidine in mice via inhibition of p47 phox; Possible involvements of phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt signaling. J Psychopharmacol 2018; 32:1233-1251. [PMID: 30207504 DOI: 10.1177/0269881118795244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. AIMS We investigated whether antipsychotic clozapine modulates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and mitochondrial burdens induced by phencyclidine in mice. METHODS We examined the effect of clozapine on nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activation, mitochondrial burdens (i.e. oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction), and activities of enzymatic antioxidant in the prefrontal cortex, and subsequent abnormal behaviors induced by repeated treatment with phencyclidine. p47 phox Knockout mice and LY294002, a phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitor, were employed to elucidate the pharmacological mechanism of clozapine. RESULTS Phencyclidine treatment resulted in an early increase nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase activity, membrane translocation of p47 phox, interaction between p-Akt and p47 phox, and mitochondrial burdens in wild-type mice. Although these increases returned to near control level four days post-phencyclidine, mitochondrial superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities were decreased at that time. Clozapine, LY294002, or p47 phox knockout significantly ameliorated social withdrawal and recognition memory deficits produced by phencyclidine. Importantly, LY294002 did not significantly alter the effects of clozapine against abnormal behaviors and the interaction between p-Akt and p47 phox induced by phencyclidine. Furthermore, neither LY294002 nor clozapine exhibited any additive effects to the protection afforded by p47 phox knockout against phencyclidine insult. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that p47 phox gene mediates phencyclidine-induced mitochondrial burdens and abnormal behaviors, and that the interactive modulation between p47 phox and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt is important for the understanding on the pharmacological mechanism of clozapine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Quyen Tran
- 1 Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | - Se J Park
- 2 School of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | - Eun-Joo Shin
- 1 Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | - The-Vinh Tran
- 1 Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | - Naveen Sharma
- 1 Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu J Lee
- 3 Clinical Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji H Jeong
- 4 Department of Pharmacology, Chung-Ang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Choon-Gon Jang
- 5 Department of Pharmacology, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Korea
| | - Dae-Joong Kim
- 6 Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Korea
| | - Toshitaka Nabeshima
- 7 Advanced Diagnostic System Research Laboratory, Fujita Health University Graduate School of Health Sciences, Toyoake, Japan.,9 Japanese Drug Organization of Appropriate Use and Research, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Hyoung-Chun Kim
- 1 Neuropsychopharmacology and Toxicology Program, Kangwon National University, Chunchon, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Bertron JL, Seto M, Lindsley CW. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Phencyclidine (PCP). ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2459-2474. [PMID: 29953199 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Phencyclidine (PCP, "angel dust", an arylcyclohexylamine) was the first non-natural, man-made illicit drug of abuse, and was coined 'the most dangerous drug in America" in the late 1970s (amidst sensational horror stories of the drug's effects); however, few other illicit drugs have had such a significant and broad impact on society-both good and bad. Originally developed as a new class of anesthetic, PCP-derived psychosis gave way to the PCP hypothesis of schizophrenia (later coined the NMDA receptor hypofunction hypothesis or the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia), which continues to drive therapeutic discovery for schizophrenia today. PCP also led to the discovery of ketamine (and a new paradigm for the treatment of major depression), as well as other illicit, designer drugs, such as methoxetamine (MXE) and a new wave of Internet commerce for illicit drugs (sold as research chemicals, or RCs). Furthermore, PCP is a significant contaminant/additive of many illegal drugs sold today, due to its ease of preparation by clandestine chemists. Here, we will review the history, importance, synthesis (both legal and clandestine), pharmacology, drug metabolism, and folklore of PCP, a true DARK classic in chemical neuroscience.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jeanette L. Bertron
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Mabel Seto
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| | - Craig W. Lindsley
- Vanderbilt Center for Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt Institute of Chemical Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
- Department of Biochemistry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232, United States
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Zain MA, Rouhollahi E, Pandy V, Mani V, Majeed ABA, Wong WF, Mohamed Z. Phencyclidine dose optimisation for induction of spatial learning and memory deficits related to schizophrenia in C57BL/6 mice. Exp Anim 2018; 67:421-429. [PMID: 29731492 PMCID: PMC6219884 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.18-0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Phencyclidine (PCP) has been used to model cognitive deficits related to schizophrenia in
rats and mice. However, the model in mice is not consistent in terms of the PCP effective
dose reported. Furthermore, most of the previous studies in mice excluded the presence of
drug washout period in the regime. Thus, we aimed to optimize the dose of PCP in producing
robust cognitive deficits by implementing it in a PCP regime which incorporates a drug
washout period. The regimen used was 7 days’ daily injection of PCP or saline for
treatment and vehicle groups, respectively; followed by 24 h drug washout period. After
the washout period, the test mice were tested in water maze (5 days of acquisition + 1 day
of probe trial) for assessment of spatial learning and memory. Initially, we investigated
the effect of PCP at 2mg/kg, however, no apparent impairment in spatial learning and
memory was observed. Subsequently, we examined the effect of higher doses of PCP at 5, 10
and 20 mg/kg. We found that the PCP at 10 mg/kg produced a significant increase in
“latency to reach the platform” during the acquisition days and a significant increase in
“latency of first entry to previous platform” during the probe day. There was no
significant change observed in “swim speed” during the test days. Thus, we concluded that
PCP at 10 mg/kg produced robust deficits in spatial learning and memory without being
confounded by motor disturbances.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Aizat Zain
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Elham Rouhollahi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Vijayapandi Pandy
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Vasudevan Mani
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 42300 Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, 51452, Buraidah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 42300 Bandar Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.,Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences Core, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450, Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Won Fen Wong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Zahurin Mohamed
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Yamazaki M, Yamamoto N, Yarimizu J, Okabe M, Moriyama A, Furutani M, Marcus MM, Svensson TH, Harada K. Functional mechanism of ASP5736, a selective serotonin 5-HT 5A receptor antagonist with potential utility for the treatment of cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2018; 28:620-629. [PMID: 29571967 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2018.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The 5-HT5A receptor is arguably the least understood 5-HT receptor. Despite widespread expression in human and rodent brains it lacks specific ligands. Our previous results suggest that 5-HT5A receptor antagonists may be effective against cognitive impairment in schizophrenia. In this study, using behavioral, immunohistochemical, electrophysiological and microdialysis techniques, we examined the mechanism by which ASP5736, a novel and selective 5-HT5A receptor antagonist, exerts a positive effect in animal models of cognitive impairment. We first confirmed the effect of ASP5736 on cognitive deficits in rats treated subchronically with phencyclidine hydrochloride (PCP) using an attentional set shifting task. Subsequently, we identified 5-HT5A receptors in dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons and parvalbumin (PV)-positive interneurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and in PV-positive interneurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Burst firing of the DAergic cells in the parabrachial pigmental nucleus (PBP) in the VTA, which predominantly project to the mPFC, was significantly enhanced by treatment with ASP5736. In contrast, ASP5736 exerted no significant effect on either the firing rate or burst firing in the DA cells in the paranigral nucleus (PN), that project to the nucleus accumbens (N. Acc.). ASP5736 increased the release of DA and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the mPFC of subchronically PCP-treated rats. These results support our hypothesis that ASP5736 might block the inhibitory 5-HT5A receptors on DAergic neurons in the VTA that project to the mPFC, and interneurons in the mPFC, and thereby improve cognitive impairment by preferentially enhancing DAergic and GABAergic neurons in the mPFC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mayako Yamazaki
- Department of Neuroscience, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan.
| | - Noriyuki Yamamoto
- Department of Neuroscience, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan
| | - Junko Yarimizu
- Department of Neuroscience, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan
| | - Mayuko Okabe
- Department of Neuroscience, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan
| | - Ai Moriyama
- Analysis & Pharmacokinetics Research, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan
| | - Masako Furutani
- Analysis & Pharmacokinetics Research, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan
| | - Monica M Marcus
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Torgny H Svensson
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Section of Neuropsychopharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Katsuya Harada
- Department of Neuroscience, Drug Discovery Research, Astellas Pharma Inc., 21 Miyukigaoka, Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 305-8585, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Ye H, Wang H, Zhang B, Zhao F, Zeng B. Tremella-like ZnIn 2S 4/graphene composite based photoelectrochemical sensor for sensitive detection of dopamine. Talanta 2018; 186:459-466. [PMID: 29784388 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.04.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Tremella-like ZnIn2S4 (ZISt) and flower-like microsphere ZnIn2S4 (ZISm) were synthesized via a straightforward hydrothermal method. It was found that the ZISt was superior to ZISm for photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensing because of its large surface area and high photocatalytic activity. A composite of ZISt and graphene (GR) was prepared and used for the PEC sensing of dopamine (DA). Here DA acted as an electron donor to scavenge the hole and inhibit the charge recombination. The GR enhanced visible light absorption and accelerated electron transfer, amplifying the photocurrent signal. The strong chelating coordination interaction between DA and Zn(II) in ZISt guaranteed the selective adsorption of target analyte. Thus the resulting ZISt/GR photoelectrode showed sensitive and selective PEC response to DA. Under the optimized conditions, the linear response range was from 0.01 to 20 μM, and the detection limit was down to 0.001 μM. Additionally, the sensor had good stability and reproducibility, and it could be used for the detection of DA in real samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huili Ye
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei Province, PR China
| | - Hao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei Province, PR China
| | - Bihong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei Province, PR China
| | - Faqiong Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei Province, PR China
| | - Baizhao Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei Province, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Abstract
In this paper, we review one of the oldest paradigms used in animal cognition: the detour paradigm. The paradigm presents the subject with a situation where a direct route to the goal is blocked and a detour must be made to reach it. Often being an ecologically valid and a versatile tool, the detour paradigm has been used to study diverse cognitive skills like insight, social learning, inhibitory control and route planning. Due to the relative ease of administrating detour tasks, the paradigm has lately been used in large-scale comparative studies in order to investigate the evolution of inhibitory control. Here we review the detour paradigm and some of its cognitive requirements, we identify various ecological and contextual factors that might affect detour performance, we also discuss developmental and neurological underpinnings of detour behaviors, and we suggest some methodological approaches to make species comparisons more robust.
Collapse
|
36
|
Phencyclidine increased while isolation rearing did not affect progressive ratio responding in rats: Investigating potential models of amotivation in schizophrenia. Behav Brain Res 2017; 364:413-422. [PMID: 29175446 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a debilitating neurodevelopmental disorder affecting 1% of the global population with heterogeneous symptoms including positive, negative, and cognitive. While treatment for positive symptoms exists, none have been developed to treat negative symptoms. Animal models of schizophrenia are required to test targeted treatments and since patients exhibit reduced effort (breakpoints) for reward in a progressive ratio (PR) task, we examined the PR breakpoints of rats treated with the NMDA receptor antagonist phencyclidine or those reared in isolation - two common manipulations used to induce schizophrenia-relevant behaviors in rodents. METHODS In two cohorts, the PR breakpoint for a palatable food reward was examined in Long Evans rats after: 1) a repeated phencyclidine regimen; 2) A subchronic phencyclidine regimen followed by drug washout; and 3) post-weaning social isolation. RESULTS Rats treated with repeated phencyclidine and those following washout from phencyclidine exhibited higher PR breakpoints than vehicle-treated rats. The breakpoint of isolation reared rats did not differ from those socially reared, despite abnormalities of these rats in other schizophrenia-relevant behaviors. CONCLUSION Despite their common use for modeling other schizophrenia-relevant behaviors neither phencyclidine treatment nor isolation rearing recreated the motivational deficits observed in patients with schizophrenia, as measured by PR breakpoint. Other manipulations, and negative symptom-relevant behaviors, require investigation prior to testing putative therapeutics.
Collapse
|
37
|
Ginsenoside Re protects against phencyclidine-induced behavioral changes and mitochondrial dysfunction via interactive modulation of glutathione peroxidase-1 and NADPH oxidase in the dorsolateral cortex of mice. Food Chem Toxicol 2017; 110:300-315. [PMID: 29037473 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether ginsenoside Re (Re) modulates phencyclidine (PCP)-induced sociability deficits and recognition memory impairments to extend our recent finding. We examined the role of GPx-1 gene in the pharmacological activity of Re against mitochondrial dysfunction induced by PCP in the dorsolateral cortex of mice. Since mitochondrial oxidative stress activates NADPH oxidase (PHOX), we applied PHOX inhibitor apocynin for evaluating interactive modulation between GPx-1 and PHOX against PCP neurotoxicity. Sociability deficits and recognition memory impairments induced by PCP were more pronounced in GPx-1 knockout (KO) than in wild type (WT) mice. PCP-induced mitochondrial oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and membrane translocation of p47phox were more evident in GPx-1 KO than in WT. Re treatment significantly attenuated PCP-induced neurotoxic changes. Re also significantly attenuated PCP-induced sociability deficits and recognition memory impairments. The attenuation by Re was comparable to that by apocynin. The attenuation was more obvious in GPx-1 KO than in WT. Importantly, apocynin did not show any additional positive effects on the neuroprotective activity of Re, indicating that PHOX is a molecular target for therapeutic activity of Re. Our results suggest that Re requires interactive modulation between GPx activity and PHOX (p47phox) to exhibit neuroprotective potentials against PCP insult.
Collapse
|
38
|
Wu B, Zhao XD, Zhang HM, Li X, Wu GY, Yang YS, Tian CY, Sui JF. Prolonged deficits of associative motor learning in cynomolgus monkeys after long-term administration of phencyclidine. Behav Brain Res 2017; 331:169-176. [PMID: 28549649 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2017] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Phencyclidine (PCP) is a potent drug of abuse that induces sustained schizophrenia-like symptoms in humans by blocking neurotransmission at N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors. Alterations in NMDA receptor function have been linked to numerous behavioral deficits and cognitive dysfunction. Classical eye-blink conditioning (EBC), including delay (dEBC) and trace (tEBC) paradigms, provides an effective means to study the neurobiology of associative motor learning in rodents, mammals and primates. To assess whether administration of low-dosage PCP for extended periods has prolonged effect to alter associative motor learning, in this study 19 adult cynomolgus monkeys were administered PCP (0.3mg/kg, intramuscularly) or saline twice a day for 14days. Twelve-fifteen months after PCP or saline injection, monkeys received dEBC, tEBC, or pseudo-paired training for 6 or 12 successive daily sessions, respectively. The results of this study show that percentage of conditioned response (CR) in dEBC increased as a function of training sessions in both PCP-treated and control monkeys and there was no significant CR% difference between the two groups. However, the CR timing in dEBC of PCP-treated monkeys was significantly impaired, as manifested by shorter CR peak latencies than those of the control group. PCP-treated animals showed significantly lower percentage of CR in tEBC compared to controls. PCP-treated animals were also more sensitive to outside stimuli in tEBC because the UR peak latency of PCP-treated group was significantly lower than the control group. These results indicated that cynomolgus monkeys manifested prolonged deficits in associative motor learning after long-term administration of phencyclidine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bing Wu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China; Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xu-Dong Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Hui-Min Zhang
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China; Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Xuan Li
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China; Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Guang-Yan Wu
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China; Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China
| | - Ying-Shan Yang
- Hainan Jingang Biological Technology Co., Ltd., Haikou, Hainan 571100, China
| | - Chao-Yang Tian
- Hainan Jingang Biological Technology Co., Ltd., Haikou, Hainan 571100, China
| | - Jian-Feng Sui
- Department of Physiology, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China; Experimental Center of Basic Medicine, College of Basic Medical Sciences, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing 400038, China.
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Thomas EH, Bozaoglu K, Rossell SL, Gurvich C. The influence of the glutamatergic system on cognition in schizophrenia: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 77:369-387. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
|
40
|
McArthur RA. Aligning physiology with psychology: Translational neuroscience in neuropsychiatric drug discovery. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 76:4-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
|
41
|
Gökhan N, Neuwirth LS, Meehan EF. The effects of low dose MK-801 administration on NMDAR dependent executive functions in pigeons. Physiol Behav 2017; 173:243-251. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
|
42
|
Szechtman H, Ahmari SE, Beninger RJ, Eilam D, Harvey BH, Edemann-Callesen H, Winter C. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: Insights from animal models. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 76:254-279. [PMID: 27168347 PMCID: PMC5833926 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Research with animal models of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) shows the following: (1) Optogenetic studies in mice provide evidence for a plausible cause-effect relation between increased activity in cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical (CBGTC) circuits and OCD by demonstrating the induction of compulsive behavior with the experimental manipulation of the CBGTC circuit. (2) Parallel use of several animal models is a fruitful paradigm to examine the mechanisms of treatment effects of deep brain stimulation in distinct OCD endophenotypes. (3) Features of spontaneous behavior in deer mice constitute a rich platform to investigate the neurobiology of OCD, social ramifications of a compulsive phenotype, and test novel drugs. (4) Studies in animal models for psychiatric disorders comorbid with OCD suggest comorbidity may involve shared neural circuits controlling expression of compulsive behavior. (5) Analysis of compulsive behavior into its constitutive components provides evidence from an animal model for a motivational perspective on OCD. (6) Methods of behavioral analysis in an animal model translate to dissection of compulsive rituals in OCD patients, leading to diagnostic tests.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henry Szechtman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
| | - Susanne E Ahmari
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
| | - Richard J Beninger
- Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada.
| | - David Eilam
- Department of Zoology, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv 69978, Israel.
| | - Brian H Harvey
- MRC Unit on Anxiety and Stress Disorders, Center of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa.
| | - Henriette Edemann-Callesen
- Bereich Experimentelle Psychiatrie, Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universitätsklinikum Carl Gustav Carus an der Technischen Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Christine Winter
- Bereich Experimentelle Psychiatrie, Klinik und Poliklinik für Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Universitätsklinikum Carl Gustav Carus an der Technischen Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Trans-generation enrichment of clozapine-responsiveness trait in mice using a subchronic hypo-glutamatergic model of schizophrenia:A preliminary study. Behav Brain Res 2017; 323:141-145. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.01.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
44
|
Nakazawa K, Jeevakumar V, Nakao K. Spatial and temporal boundaries of NMDA receptor hypofunction leading to schizophrenia. NPJ SCHIZOPHRENIA 2017; 3:7. [PMID: 28560253 PMCID: PMC5441533 DOI: 10.1038/s41537-016-0003-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction is one of the most prevalent models of schizophrenia. For example, healthy subjects treated with uncompetitive N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists elicit positive, negative, and cognitive-like symptoms of schizophrenia. Patients with anti-N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor encephalitis, which is likely caused by autoantibody-mediated down-regulation of cell surface N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors, often experience psychiatric symptoms similar to schizophrenia initially. However, where and when N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction occurs in the brain of schizophrenic patients is poorly understood. Here we review the findings from N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonist and autoantibody models, postmortem studies on N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunits, as well as the global and cell-type-specific knockout mouse models of subunit GluN1. We compare various conditional GluN1 knockout mouse strains, focusing on the onset of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor deletion and on the cortical cell-types. Based on these results, we hypothesize that N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction initially occurs in cortical GABAergic neurons during early postnatal development. The resulting GABA neuron maturation deficit may cause reduction of intrinsic excitability and GABA release, leading to disinhibition of pyramidal neurons. The cortical disinhibition in turn could elicit glutamate spillover and subsequent homeostatic down regulation of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor function in pyramidal neurons in prodromal stage. These two temporally-distinct N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunctions may be complimentary, as neither alone may not be able to fully explain the entire schizophrenia pathophysiology. Potential underlying mechanisms for N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor hypofunction in cortical GABA neurons are also discussed, based on studies of naturally-occurring N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists, neuregulin/ErbB4 signaling pathway, and theoretical analysis of excitatory/inhibitory balance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kazu Nakazawa
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL USA
| | - Vivek Jeevakumar
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL USA
| | - Kazuhito Nakao
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL USA
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Snyder GL, Vanover KE. PDE Inhibitors for the Treatment of Schizophrenia. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 17:385-409. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58811-7_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
|
46
|
Cox DA, Gottschalk MG, Wesseling H, Ernst A, Cooper JD, Bahn S. Proteomic systems evaluation of the molecular validity of preclinical psychosis models compared to schizophrenia brain pathology. Schizophr Res 2016; 177:98-107. [PMID: 27335180 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2016.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacological and genetic rodent models of schizophrenia play an important role in the drug discovery pipeline, but quantifying the molecular similarity of such models with the underlying human pathophysiology has proved difficult. We developed a novel systems biology methodology for the direct comparison of anterior prefrontal cortex tissue from four established glutamatergic rodent models and schizophrenia patients, enabling the evaluation of which model displays the greatest similarity to schizophrenia across different pathophysiological characteristics of the disease. Liquid chromatography coupled tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MSE) proteomic profiling was applied comparing healthy and "disease state" in human post-mortem samples and rodent brain tissue samples derived from models based on acute and chronic phencyclidine (PCP) treatment, ketamine treatment or NMDA receptor knockdown. Protein-protein interaction networks were constructed from significant abundance changes and enrichment analyses enabled the identification of five functional domains of the disease such as "development and differentiation", which were represented across all four rodent models and were thus subsequently used for cross-species comparison. Kernel-based machine learning techniques quantified that the chronic PCP model represented schizophrenia brain changes most closely for four of these functional domains. This is the first study aiming to quantify which rodent model recapitulates the neuropathological features of schizophrenia most closely, providing an indication of face validity as well as potential guidance in the refinement of construct and predictive validity. The methodology and findings presented here support recent efforts to overcome translational hurdles of preclinical psychiatric research by associating functional dimensions of behaviour with distinct biological processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David A Cox
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
| | - Michael G Gottschalk
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
| | - Hendrik Wesseling
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
| | - Agnes Ernst
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
| | - Jason D Cooper
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom
| | - Sabine Bahn
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QT, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Juszczak GR, Miller M. Detour Behavior of Mice Trained with Transparent, Semitransparent and Opaque Barriers. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0162018. [PMID: 27588753 PMCID: PMC5010287 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Detour tasks are commonly used to study problem solving skills and inhibitory control in canids and primates. However, there is no comparable detour test designed for rodents despite its significance for studying the development of executive skills. Furthermore, mice offer research opportunities that are not currently possible to achieve when primates are used. Therefore, the aim of the study was to translate the classic detour task to mice and to compare obtained data with key findings obtained previously in other mammals. The experiment was performed with V-shaped barriers and was based on the water escape paradigm. The study showed that an apparently simple task requiring mice to move around a small barrier constituted in fact a challenge that was strongly affected by the visibility of the target. The most difficult task involved a completely transparent barrier, which forced the mice to resolve a conflict between vision and tactile perception. The performance depended both on the inhibitory skills and on previous experiences. Additionally, all mice displayed a preference for one side of the barrier and most of them relied on the egocentric strategy. Obtained results show for the first time that the behavior of mice subjected to the detour task is comparable to the behavior of other mammals tested previously with free-standing barriers. This detailed characterization of the detour behavior of mice constitutes the first step toward the substitution of rodents for primates in laboratory experiments employing the detour task.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz R. Juszczak
- Department of Animal Behavior, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Jastrzebiec, Poland
- * E-mail:
| | - Michal Miller
- Department of Animal Behavior, Institute of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Jastrzebiec, Poland
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Jentsch JD, Taylor JR, Roth RH. Phencyclidine Model of Frontal Cortical Dysfunction in Nonhuman Primates. Neuroscientist 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/107385840000600409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Long-term intake of noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)/glutamate receptor antagonists, such as phencyclidine (PCP), can simulate schizophrenia-like symptomatology in human subjects and can produce aberrant behavior in animals. The behavioral changes produced by PCP in animals have been suggested to model certain primary symptoms of idiopathic psychotic disorders, and the neurobiological substrates affected by PCP have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. This review considers the validity of PCP-induced behaviors in animals as a model of the human disorder, and a developing hypothesis of PCP-induced neurochemical dysfunction within the prefrontal cortex is presented. The behavioral and neurochemical effects of PCP may support the notion that altered glutamatergic/dopaminergic interactions within prefrontal cortex contribute to the cognitive dysfunction of schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J. David Jentsch
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jane R. Taylor
- Department of Pyschiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Robert H. Roth
- Department of Pharmacology, Department of Pyschiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut,
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Cannon TD. How Schizophrenia Develops: Cognitive and Brain Mechanisms Underlying Onset of Psychosis. Trends Cogn Sci 2015; 19:744-756. [PMID: 26493362 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2015.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2015] [Revised: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Identifying cognitive and neural mechanisms involved in the development of schizophrenia requires longitudinal observation of individuals prior to onset. Here recent studies of prodromal individuals who progress to full psychosis are briefly reviewed in relation to models of schizophrenia pathophysiology. Together, this body of work suggests that disruption in brain connectivity, driven primarily by a progressive reduction in dendritic spines on cortical pyramidal neurons, may represent a key triggering mechanism. The earliest disruptions appear to be in circuits involved in referencing experiences according to time, place, and agency, which may result in a failure to recognize particular cognitions as self-generated or to constrain interpretations of the meaning of events based on prior experiences, providing the scaffolding for faulty reality testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tyrone D Cannon
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, 2 Hillhouse Avenue, P.O. Box 208205, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Xu J, Kurup P, Baguley TD, Foscue E, Ellman JA, Nairn AC, Lombroso PJ. Inhibition of the tyrosine phosphatase STEP61 restores BDNF expression and reverses motor and cognitive deficits in phencyclidine-treated mice. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 73:1503-14. [PMID: 26450419 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-2057-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and STriatal-Enriched protein tyrosine Phosphatase 61 (STEP61) have opposing functions in the brain, with BDNF supporting and STEP61 opposing synaptic strengthening. BDNF and STEP61 also exhibit an inverse pattern of expression in a number of brain disorders, including schizophrenia (SZ). NMDAR antagonists such as phencyclidine (PCP) elicit SZ-like symptoms in rodent models and unaffected individuals, and exacerbate psychotic episodes in SZ. Here we characterize the regulation of BDNF expression by STEP61, utilizing PCP-treated cortical culture and PCP-treated mice. PCP-treated cortical neurons showed both an increase in STEP61 levels and a decrease in BDNF expression. The reduction in BDNF expression was prevented by STEP61 knockdown or use of the STEP inhibitor, TC-2153. The PCP-induced increase in STEP61 expression was associated with the inhibition of CREB-dependent BDNF transcription. Similarly, both genetic and pharmacologic inhibition of STEP prevented the PCP-induced reduction in BDNF expression in vivo and normalized PCP-induced hyperlocomotion and cognitive deficits. These results suggest a mechanism by which STEP61 regulates BDNF expression, with implications for cognitive functioning in CNS disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jian Xu
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 S Frontage Rd., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Pradeep Kurup
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 S Frontage Rd., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Tyler D Baguley
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect St., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Ethan Foscue
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 S Frontage Rd., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Jonathan A Ellman
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, 225 Prospect St., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Angus C Nairn
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 300 George St., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Paul J Lombroso
- Child Study Center, Yale University, 230 S Frontage Rd., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, 300 George St., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. .,Department of Neurobiology, Yale University, 333 Cedar St., New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
| |
Collapse
|