De novo prediction of cancer-associated T cell receptors for noninvasive cancer detection

Multiple instance learning method based on convolutional neural network and self-attention for early cancer detection

Early cancer detection using T-cell receptor sequencing (TCR-seq) and multiple instances learning methods has shown significant effectiveness. We introduce a multiple instance learning method based on convolutional neural networks and self-attention (MICA). First, MICA preprocesses TCR-seq using word vectors and then extracts features using convolutional neural networks. Second, MICA uses an enhanced self-attention mechanism to extract relational features of instances. Finally, MICA can extract the crucial TCR-seq. After cross-validation, MICA achieves an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.911 and 0.946 on the lung and thyroid cancer datasets, which are 7.1% and 2.1% higher than other methods, respectively.

Microfluidic biosensors for biomarker detection in body fluids: a key approach for early cancer diagnosis

Early detection of cancer significantly improves patient outcomes, with biomarkers offering a promising avenue for earlier and more precise diagnoses. Microfluidic biosensors have emerged as a powerful tool for detecting these biomarkers in body fluids, providing enhanced sensitivity, specificity, and rapid analysis. This review focuses on recent advances in microfluidic biosensors from 2018 to 2024, detailing their operational principles, fabrication techniques, and integration with nanotechnology for cancer biomarker detection. Additionally, we have reviewed recent innovations in several aspects of microfluidic biosensors, such as novel detection technologies, nanomaterials and novel microfluidic chip structures, which significantly enhance detection capabilities. We highlight key biomarkers pertinent to early cancer detection and explore how these innovations in biosensor technology contribute to the evolving landscape of personalized medicine. We further explore how these technologies could be incorporated into clinical cancer diagnostic workflows to improve early detection and treatment outcomes. These innovations could help enable more precise and personalized cancer diagnostics. In addition, this review addresses several important issues such as enhancing the scalability and sensitivity of these biosensors in clinical settings and points out future possibilities of combining artificial intelligence diagnostics with microfluidic biosensors to optimize their practical applications. This overview aims to guide future research and clinical applications by addressing current challenges and identifying opportunities for further development in the field of biomarker research.

TCellR2Vec: efficient feature selection for TCR sequences for cancer classification

Cancer remains one of the leading causes of death globally. New immunotherapies that harness the patient's immune system to fight cancer show promise, but their development requires analyzing the diversity of immune cells called T-cells. T-cells have receptors that recognize and bind to cancer cells. Sequencing these T-cell receptors allows to provide insights into their immune response, but extracting useful information is challenging. In this study, we propose a new computational method, TCellR2Vec, to select key features from T-cell receptor sequences for classifying different cancer types. We extracted features like amino acid composition, charge, and diversity measures and combined them with other sequence embedding techniques. For our experiments, we used a dataset of over 50,000 T-cell receptor sequences from five cancer types, which showed that TCellR2Vec improved classification accuracy and efficiency over baseline methods. These results demonstrate TCellR2Vec's ability to capture informative aspects of complex T-cell receptor sequences. By improving computational analysis of the immune response, TCellR2Vec could aid the development of personalized immunotherapies tailored to each patient's T-cells. This has important implications for creating more effective cancer treatments based on the individual's immune system.

Regulatory T cell-based therapy in type 1 diabetes: Latest breakthroughs and evidence

Autoimmune diseases (ADs) are among the most significant health complications, with their incidence rising in recent years. Type 1 diabetes (T1D), an AD, targets the insulin-producing β cells in the pancreas, leading to chronic insulin deficiency in genetically susceptible individuals. Regulatory immune cells, particularly T-cells (Tregs), have been shown to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of diabetes by modulating immune responses. In diabetic patients, Tregs often exhibit diminished effectiveness due to various factors, such as instability in forkhead box P3 (Foxp3) expression or abnormal production of the proinflammatory cytokine interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) by autoreactive T-cells. Consequently, Tregs represent a potential therapeutic target for diabetes treatment. Building on the successful clinical outcomes of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy in cancer treatment, particularly in leukemias, the concept of designing and utilizing CAR Tregs for ADs has emerged. This review summarizes the findings on Treg targeting in T1D and discusses the benefits and limitations of this treatment approach for patients suffering from T1D.

BertTCR: a Bert-based deep learning framework for predicting cancer-related immune status based on T cell receptor repertoire

The T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire is pivotal to the human immune system, and understanding its nuances can significantly enhance our ability to forecast cancer-related immune responses. However, existing methods often overlook the intra- and inter-sequence interactions of T cell receptors (TCRs), limiting the development of sequence-based cancer-related immune status predictions. To address this challenge, we propose BertTCR, an innovative deep learning framework designed to predict cancer-related immune status using TCRs. BertTCR combines a pre-trained protein large language model with deep learning architectures, enabling it to extract deeper contextual information from TCRs. Compared to three state-of-the-art sequence-based methods, BertTCR improves the AUC on an external validation set for thyroid cancer detection by 21 percentage points. Additionally, this model was trained on over 2000 publicly available TCR libraries covering 17 types of cancer and healthy samples, and it has been validated on multiple public external datasets for its ability to distinguish cancer patients from healthy individuals. Furthermore, BertTCR can accurately classify various cancer types and healthy individuals. Overall, BertTCR is the advancing method for cancer-related immune status forecasting based on TCRs, offering promising potential for a wide range of immune status prediction tasks.

Quantifiable TCR repertoire changes in prediagnostic blood specimens among patients with high-grade ovarian cancer

High-grade ovarian cancer (HGOC) is a major cause of death in women. Early detection of HGOC usually leads to a cure, yet it remains a clinical challenge with over 90% HGOCs diagnosed at advanced stages. This is mainly because conventional biomarkers are not sensitive enough to detect the microscopic yet metastatic early lesions. In this study, we sequence the blood T cell receptor (TCR) repertoires of 466 patients with ovarian cancer and controls and systematically investigate the immune repertoire signatures in HGOCs. We observe quantifiable changes of selected TCRs in HGOCs that are reproducible in multiple independent cohorts. Importantly, these changes are stronger during stage I. Using pre-diagnostic patient blood samples from the Nurses' Health Study, we confirm that HGOC signals can be detected in the blood TCR repertoire up to 4 years preceding conventional diagnosis. Our findings may provide the basis for future immune-based HGOC early detection criteria.

The Deep Learning Framework iCanTCR Enables Early Cancer Detection Using the T-cell Receptor Repertoire in Peripheral Blood

T cells recognize tumor antigens and initiate an anticancer immune response in the very early stages of tumor development, and the antigen specificity of T cells is determined by the T-cell receptor (TCR). Therefore, monitoring changes in the TCR repertoire in peripheral blood may offer a strategy to detect various cancers at a relatively early stage. Here, we developed the deep learning framework iCanTCR to identify patients with cancer based on the TCR repertoire. The iCanTCR framework uses TCRβ sequences from an individual as an input and outputs the predicted cancer probability. The model was trained on over 2,000 publicly available TCR repertoires from 11 types of cancer and healthy controls. Analysis of several additional publicly available datasets validated the ability of iCanTCR to distinguish patients with cancer from noncancer individuals and demonstrated the capability of iCanTCR for the accurate classification of multiple cancers. Importantly, iCanTCR precisely identified individuals with early-stage cancer with an AUC of 86%. Altogether, this work provides a liquid biopsy approach to capture immune signals from peripheral blood for noninvasive cancer diagnosis.

SIGNIFICANCE

Development of a deep learning-based method for multicancer detection using the TCR repertoire in the peripheral blood establishes the potential of evaluating circulating immune signals for noninvasive early cancer detection.

Disease diagnostics using machine learning of immune receptors

Clinical diagnosis typically incorporates physical examination, patient history, and various laboratory tests and imaging studies, but makes limited use of the human system's own record of antigen exposures encoded by receptors on B cells and T cells. We analyzed immune receptor datasets from 593 individuals to develop MAchine Learning for Immunological Diagnosis (Mal-ID) , an interpretive framework to screen for multiple illnesses simultaneously or precisely test for one condition. This approach detects specific infections, autoimmune disorders, vaccine responses, and disease severity differences. Human-interpretable features of the model recapitulate known immune responses to SARS-CoV-2, Influenza, and HIV, highlight antigen-specific receptors, and reveal distinct characteristics of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Type-1 Diabetes autoreactivity. This analysis framework has broad potential for scientific and clinical interpretation of human immune responses.

DeepLION2: deep multi-instance contrastive learning framework enhancing the prediction of cancer-associated T cell receptors by attention strategy on motifs

Introduction

T cell receptor (TCR) repertoires provide valuable insights into complex human diseases, including cancers. Recent advancements in immune sequencing technology have significantly improved our understanding of TCR repertoire. Some computational methods have been devised to identify cancer-associated TCRs and enable cancer detection using TCR sequencing data. However, the existing methods are often limited by their inadequate consideration of the correlations among TCRs within a repertoire, hindering the identification of crucial TCRs. Additionally, the sparsity of cancer-associated TCR distribution presents a challenge in accurate prediction.

Methods

To address these issues, we presented DeepLION2, an innovative deep multi-instance contrastive learning framework specifically designed to enhance cancer-associated TCR prediction. DeepLION2 leveraged content-based sparse self-attention, focusing on the top k related TCRs for each TCR, to effectively model inter-TCR correlations. Furthermore, it adopted a contrastive learning strategy for bootstrapping parameter updates of the attention matrix, preventing the model from fixating on non-cancer-associated TCRs.

Results

Extensive experimentation on diverse patient cohorts, encompassing over ten cancer types, demonstrated that DeepLION2 significantly outperformed current state-of-the-art methods in terms of accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, Matthews correlation coefficient, and area under the curve (AUC). Notably, DeepLION2 achieved impressive AUC values of 0.933, 0.880, and 0.763 on thyroid, lung, and gastrointestinal cancer cohorts, respectively. Furthermore, it effectively identified cancer-associated TCRs along with their key motifs, highlighting the amino acids that play a crucial role in TCR-peptide binding.

Conclusion

These compelling results underscore DeepLION2's potential for enhancing cancer detection and facilitating personalized cancer immunotherapy. DeepLION2 is publicly available on GitHub, at https://github.com/Bioinformatics7181/DeepLION2, for academic use only.

Pan-cancer scRNA-seq analysis reveals immunological and diagnostic significance of the peripheral blood mononuclear cells

Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) reflect systemic immune response during cancer progression. However, a comprehensive understanding of the composition and function of PBMCs in cancer patients is lacking, and the potential of these features to assist cancer diagnosis is also unclear. Here, the compositional and status differences between cancer patients and healthy donors in PBMCs were investigated by single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), involving 262,025 PBMCs from 68 cancer samples and 14 healthy samples. We observed an enhanced activation and differentiation of most immune subsets in cancer patients, along with reduction of naïve T cells, expansion of macrophages, impairment of NK cells and myeloid cells, as well as tumor promotion and immunosuppression. Based on characteristics including differential cell type abundances and/or hub genes identified from weight gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) modules of each major cell type, we applied logistic regression to construct cancer diagnosis models. Furthermore, we found that the above models can distinguish cancer patients and healthy donors with high sensitivity. Our study provided new insights into using the features of PBMCs in non-invasive cancer diagnosis.

Deep learning approaches for differentiating thyroid nodules with calcification: a two-center study

BACKGROUND

Calcification is a common phenomenon in both benign and malignant thyroid nodules. However, the clinical significance of calcification remains unclear. Therefore, we explored a more objective method for distinguishing between benign and malignant thyroid calcified nodules.

METHODS

This retrospective study, conducted at two centers, involved a total of 631 thyroid nodules, all of which were pathologically confirmed. Ultrasound image sets were employed for analysis. The primary evaluation index was the area under the receiver-operator characteristic curve (AUROC). We compared the diagnostic performance of deep learning (DL) methods with that of radiologists and determined whether DL could enhance the diagnostic capabilities of radiologists.

RESULTS

The Xception classification model exhibited the highest performance, achieving an AUROC of up to 0.970, followed by the DenseNet169 model, which attained an AUROC of up to 0.959. Notably, both DL models outperformed radiologists (P < 0.05). The success of the Xception model can be attributed to its incorporation of deep separable convolution, which effectively reduces the model's parameter count. This feature enables the model to capture features more effectively during the feature extraction process, resulting in superior performance, particularly when dealing with limited data.

CONCLUSIONS

This study conclusively demonstrated that DL outperformed radiologists in differentiating between benign and malignant calcified thyroid nodules. Additionally, the diagnostic capabilities of radiologists could be enhanced with the aid of DL.

Integration of bioinformatics and machine learning strategies identifies APM-related gene signatures to predict clinical outcomes and therapeutic responses for breast cancer patients

BACKGROUND

Tumor antigenicity and efficiency of antigen presentation jointly influence tumor immunogenicity, which largely determines the effectiveness of immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). However, the role of altered antigen processing and presentation machinery (APM) in breast cancer (BRCA) has not been fully elucidated.

METHODS

A series of bioinformatic analyses and machine learning strategies were performed to construct APM-related gene signatures to guide personalized treatment for BRCA patients. A single-sample gene set enrichment analysis (ssGSEA) algorithm and weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) were combined to screen for BRCA-specific APM-related genes. The non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) algorithm was used to divide the cohort into different clusters and the fgsea algorithm was applied to investigate the altered signaling pathways. Random survival forest (RSF) and the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso) Cox regression analysis were combined to construct an APM-related risk score (APMrs) signature to predict overall survival. Furthermore, a nomogram and decision tree were generated to improve predictive accuracy and risk stratification for individual patients. Based on Tumor Immune Dysfunction and Exclusion (TIDE) method, random forest (RF) and Lasso logistic regression model were combined to establish an APM-related immunotherapeutic response score (APMis). Finally, immune infiltration, immunomodulators, mutational patterns, and potentially applicable drugs were comprehensively analyzed in different APM-related risk groups. IHC staining was used to assess the expression of APM-related genes in clinical samples.

RESULTS

In this study, APMrs and APMis showed favorable performances in risk stratification and therapeutic prediction for BRCA patients. APMrs exhibited more powerful prognostic capacity and accurate survival prediction compared to conventional clinicopathological features. APMrs was closely associated with distinct mutational patterns, immune cell infiltration and immunomodulators expression. Furthermore, the two APM-related gene signatures were independently validated in external cohorts with prognosis or immunotherapeutic responses. Potential applicable drugs and targets were mined in the APMrs-high group. APM-related genes were further validated in our in-house samples.

CONCLUSION

The APM-related gene signatures established in our study could improve the personalized assessment of survival risk and guide ICB decision-making for BRCA patients.

tidytcells: standardizer for TR/MH nomenclature

T cell receptors (TR) underpin the diversity and specificity of T cell activity. As such, TR repertoire data is valuable both as an adaptive immune biomarker, and as a way to identify candidate therapeutic TR. Analysis of TR repertoires relies heavily on computational analysis, and therefore it is of vital importance that the data is standardized and computer-readable. However in practice, the usage of different abbreviations and non-standard nomenclature in different datasets makes this data pre-processing non-trivial. tidytcells is a lightweight, platform-independent Python package that provides easy-to-use standardization tools specifically designed for TR nomenclature. The software is open-sourced under the MIT license and is available to install from the Python Package Index (PyPI). At the time of publishing, tidytcells is on version 2.0.0.

Quantifiable TCR repertoire changes in pre-diagnostic blood specimens among high-grade ovarian cancer patients

High grade serous ovarian cancer (HGOC) is a major cause of death in women. Early detection of HGOC usually leads to a cure, yet it remains a clinical challenge with over 90% HGOCs diagnosed at advanced stages. This is mainly because conventional biomarkers are not sensitive to detect the microscopic yet metastatic early HGOC lesions. In this study, we sequenced the blood T cell receptor (TCR) repertoires of 466 ovarian cancer patients and controls, and systematically investigated the immune repertoire signatures in HGOCs. We observed quantifiable changes of selected TCRs in HGOCs that are reproducible in multiple independent cohorts. Importantly, these changes are stronger during stage I. Using pre-diagnostic patient blood samples from the Nurses' Health Study, we confirmed that HGOC signals can be detected in the blood TCR repertoire up to 4 years proceeding conventional diagnosis. Our findings may provide the basis of an immune-based HGOC early detection criterion.

Comprehensive analysis of circulating cell-free RNAs in blood for diagnosing non-small cell lung cancer

Early screening and detection of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is crucial due to the significantly low survival rate in advanced stages. Blood-based liquid biopsy is non-invasive test to assistant disease diagnosis, while cell-free RNA is one of the promising biomarkers in blood. However, the disease related signatures have not been explored completely for most cell-free RNA transcriptome sequencing (cfRNA-Seq) datasets. To address this gap, we developed a comprehensive cfRNA-Seq pipeline for data analysis and constructed a machine learning model to facilitate noninvasive early diagnosis of NSCLC. The results of our study have demonstrated the identification of differential mRNA, lncRNAs and miRNAs from cfRNA-Seq, which have exhibited significant association with development and progression of lung cancer. The classifier based on gene expression signatures achieved an impressive area under the curve (AUC) of up to 0.9, indicating high specificity and sensitivity in both cross-validation and independent test. Furthermore, the analysis of T cell and B cell immune repertoire extracted from cfRNA-Seq have provided insights into the immune status of cancer patients, while the microbiome analysis has revealed distinct bacterial and viral profiles between NSCLC and normal samples. In our future work, we aim to validate the existence of cancer associated T cell receptors (TCR)/B cell receptors (BCR) and microorganisms, and subsequently integrate all identified signatures into diagnostic model to improve the prediction accuracy. This study not only provided a comprehensive analysis pipeline for cfRNA-Seq dataset but also highlights the potential of cfRNAs as promising biomarkers and models for early NSCLC diagnosis, emphasizing their importance in clinical settings.

Neural Network Models for Sequence-Based TCR and HLA Association Prediction

T cells rely on their T cell receptors (TCRs) to recognize foreign antigens presented by human leukocyte antigen (HLA) proteins. TCRs contain a record of an individual's past immune activities, and some TCRs are observed only in individuals with certain HLA alleles. As a result, characterising TCRs requires a thorough understanding of TCR-HLA associations. To this end, we propose a neural network method named Deep learning Prediction of TCR-HLA association (DePTH) to predict TCR-HLA associations based on their amino acid sequences. We show that the DePTH can be used to quantify the functional similarities of HLA alleles, and that these HLA similarities are associated with the survival outcomes of cancer patients who received immune checkpoint blockade treatment.

Prognostic value of autophagy-related genes based on single-cell RNA-sequencing in colorectal cancer

Background: Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second most common cancer in China. Autophagy plays an important role in the initiation and development of CRC. Here, we assessed the prognostic value and potential functions of autophagy-related genes (ARGs) using integrated analysis using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) data from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA).

Methods: We analyzed GEO-scRNA-seq data from GEO using various single-cell technologies, including cell clustering, and identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in different cell types. Additionally, we performed gene set variation analysis (GSVA). The differentially expressed ARGs among different cell types and those between CRC and normal tissues were identified using TCGA-RNA-seq data, and the hub ARGs were screened. Finally, a prognostic model based on the hub ARGs was constructed and validated, and patients with CRC in TCGA datasets were divided into high- and low-risk groups based on their risk-score, and immune cells infiltration and drug sensitivity analyses between the two groups were performed.

Results: We obtained single-cell expression profiles of 16,270 cells, and clustered them into seven types of cells. GSVA revealed that the DEGs among the seven types of cells were enriched in many signaling pathways associated with cancer development. We screened 55 differentially expressed ARGs, and identified 11 hub ARGs. Our prognostic model revealed that the 11 hub ARGs including CTSB, ITGA6, and S100A8, had a good predictive ability. Moreover, the immune cell infiltrations in CRC tissues were different between the two groups, and the hub ARGs were significantly correlated with the enrichment of immune cell infiltration. The drug sensitivity analysis revealed that the patients in the two risk groups had difference in their response to anti-cancer drugs.

Conclusion: We developed a novel prognostic 11-hub ARG risk model, and these hubs may act as potential therapeutic targets for CRC.

Deep autoregressive generative models capture the intrinsics embedded in T-cell receptor repertoires

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play an essential role in the adaptive immune system. Probabilistic models for TCR repertoires can help decipher the underlying complex sequence patterns and provide novel insights into understanding the adaptive immune system. In this work, we develop TCRpeg, a deep autoregressive generative model to unravel the sequence patterns of TCR repertoires. TCRpeg largely outperforms state-of-the-art methods in estimating the probability distribution of a TCR repertoire, boosting the average accuracy from 0.672 to 0.906 measured by the Pearson correlation coefficient. Furthermore, with promising performance in probability inference, TCRpeg improves on a range of TCR-related tasks: profiling TCR repertoire probabilistically, classifying antigen-specific TCRs, validating previously discovered TCR motifs, generating novel TCRs and augmenting TCR data. Our results and analysis highlight the flexibility and capacity of TCRpeg to extract TCR sequence information, providing a novel approach for deciphering complex immunogenomic repertoires.

T-Cell Receptor Repertoire Sequencing in the Era of Cancer Immunotherapy

T cells are integral components of the adaptive immune system, and their responses are mediated by unique T-cell receptors (TCR) that recognize specific antigens from a variety of biological contexts. As a result, analyzing the T-cell repertoire offers a better understanding of immune responses and of diseases like cancer. Next-generation sequencing technologies have greatly enabled the high-throughput analysis of the TCR repertoire. On the basis of our extensive experience in the field from the past decade, we provide an overview of TCR sequencing, from the initial library preparation steps to sequencing and analysis methods and finally to functional validation techniques. With regards to data analysis, we detail important TCR repertoire metrics and present several computational tools for predicting antigen specificity. Finally, we highlight important applications of TCR sequencing and repertoire analysis to understanding tumor biology and developing cancer immunotherapies.

From patterns to patients: Advances in clinical machine learning for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment

Machine learning (ML) is increasingly used in clinical oncology to diagnose cancers, predict patient outcomes, and inform treatment planning. Here, we review recent applications of ML across the clinical oncology workflow. We review how these techniques are applied to medical imaging and to molecular data obtained from liquid and solid tumor biopsies for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment design. We discuss key considerations in developing ML for the distinct challenges posed by imaging and molecular data. Finally, we examine ML models approved for cancer-related patient usage by regulatory agencies and discuss approaches to improve the clinical usefulness of ML.

Counting is almost all you need

The immune memory repertoire encodes the history of present and past infections and immunological attributes of the individual. As such, multiple methods were proposed to use T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoires to detect disease history. We here show that the counting method outperforms two leading algorithms. We then show that the counting can be further improved using a novel attention model to weigh the different TCRs. The attention model is based on the projection of TCRs using a Variational AutoEncoder (VAE). Both counting and attention algorithms predict better than current leading algorithms whether the host had CMV and its HLA alleles. As an intermediate solution between the complex attention model and the very simple counting model, we propose a new Graph Convolutional Network approach that obtains the accuracy of the attention model and the simplicity of the counting model. The code for the models used in the paper is provided at: https://github.com/louzounlab/CountingIsAlmostAllYouNeed.

simAIRR: simulation of adaptive immune repertoires with realistic receptor sequence sharing for benchmarking of immune state prediction methods

BACKGROUND

Machine learning (ML) has gained significant attention for classifying immune states in adaptive immune receptor repertoires (AIRRs) to support the advancement of immunodiagnostics and therapeutics. Simulated data are crucial for the rigorous benchmarking of AIRR-ML methods. Existing approaches to generating synthetic benchmarking datasets result in the generation of naive repertoires missing the key feature of many shared receptor sequences (selected for common antigens) found in antigen-experienced repertoires.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that a common approach to generating simulated AIRR benchmark datasets can introduce biases, which may be exploited for undesired shortcut learning by certain ML methods. To mitigate undesirable access to true signals in simulated AIRR datasets, we devised a simulation strategy (simAIRR) that constructs antigen-experienced-like repertoires with a realistic overlap of receptor sequences. simAIRR can be used for constructing AIRR-level benchmarks based on a range of assumptions (or experimental data sources) for what constitutes receptor-level immune signals. This includes the possibility of making or not making any prior assumptions regarding the similarity or commonality of immune state-associated sequences that will be used as true signals. We demonstrate the real-world realism of our proposed simulation approach by showing that basic ML strategies perform similarly on simAIRR-generated and real-world experimental AIRR datasets.

CONCLUSIONS

This study sheds light on the potential shortcut learning opportunities for ML methods that can arise with the state-of-the-art way of simulating AIRR datasets. simAIRR is available as a Python package: https://github.com/KanduriC/simAIRR.

Mapping single-cell transcriptomes in the intra-tumoral and associated territories of kidney cancer

Tumor behavior is intricately dependent on the oncogenic properties of cancer cells and their multi-cellular interactions. To understand these dependencies within the wider microenvironment, we studied over 270,000 single-cell transcriptomes and 100 microdissected whole exomes from 12 patients with kidney tumors, prior to validation using spatial transcriptomics. Tissues were sampled from multiple regions of the tumor core, the tumor-normal interface, normal surrounding tissues, and peripheral blood. We find that the tissue-type location of CD8+ T cell clonotypes largely defines their exhaustion state with intra-tumoral spatial heterogeneity that is not well explained by somatic heterogeneity. De novo mutation calling from single-cell RNA-sequencing data allows us to broadly infer the clonality of stromal cells and lineage-trace myeloid cell development. We report six conserved meta-programs that distinguish tumor cell function, and find an epithelial-mesenchymal transition meta-program highly enriched at the tumor-normal interface that co-localizes with IL1B-expressing macrophages, offering a potential therapeutic target.

Multiple instance neural networks based on sparse attention for cancer detection using T-cell receptor sequences

Early detection of cancers has been much explored due to its paramount importance in biomedical fields. Among different types of data used to answer this biological question, studies based on T cell receptors (TCRs) are under recent spotlight due to the growing appreciation of the roles of the host immunity system in tumor biology. However, the one-to-many correspondence between a patient and multiple TCR sequences hinders researchers from simply adopting classical statistical/machine learning methods. There were recent attempts to model this type of data in the context of multiple instance learning (MIL). Despite the novel application of MIL to cancer detection using TCR sequences and the demonstrated adequate performance in several tumor types, there is still room for improvement, especially for certain cancer types. Furthermore, explainable neural network models are not fully investigated for this application. In this article, we propose multiple instance neural networks based on sparse attention (MINN-SA) to enhance the performance in cancer detection and explainability. The sparse attention structure drops out uninformative instances in each bag, achieving both interpretability and better predictive performance in combination with the skip connection. Our experiments show that MINN-SA yields the highest area under the ROC curve scores on average measured across 10 different types of cancers, compared to existing MIL approaches. Moreover, we observe from the estimated attentions that MINN-SA can identify the TCRs that are specific for tumor antigens in the same T cell repertoire.

Big data in basic and translational cancer research

Historically, the primary focus of cancer research has been molecular and clinical studies of a few essential pathways and genes. Recent years have seen the rapid accumulation of large-scale cancer omics data catalysed by breakthroughs in high-throughput technologies. This fast data growth has given rise to an evolving concept of 'big data' in cancer, whose analysis demands large computational resources and can potentially bring novel insights into essential questions. Indeed, the combination of big data, bioinformatics and artificial intelligence has led to notable advances in our basic understanding of cancer biology and to translational advancements. Further advances will require a concerted effort among data scientists, clinicians, biologists and policymakers. Here, we review the current state of the art and future challenges for harnessing big data to advance cancer research and treatment.

Dissection of transcriptome dysregulation and immune characterization in women with germline BRCA1 mutation at single-cell resolution

BACKGROUND

High-grade serous carcinoma (HGSC) is the most frequent and lethal type of ovarian cancer. It has been proposed that tubal secretory cells are the origin of ovarian HGSC in women with familial BRCA1/2 mutations. However, the molecular changes underlying malignant transformation remain unknown.

METHOD

We performed single-cell RNA and T cell receptor sequencing of tubal fimbriated ends from 3 BRCA1 germline mutation carriers (BRCA1 carriers) and 3 normal controls with no high-risk history (non-BRCA1 carriers).

RESULTS

Exploring the transcriptomes of 19,008 cells, predominantly from BRCA1+ samples, we identified 5 major cell populations in the fallopian tubal mucosae. The secretory cells of BRCA1+ samples had differentially expressed genes involved in tumor growth and regulation, chemokine signaling, and antigen presentation compared to the wild-type BRCA1 controls. There are several novel findings in this study. First, a subset of the fallopian tubal secretory cells from one BRCA1 carrier exhibited an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype, which was also present in the mucosal fibroblasts. Second, we identified a previously unreported phenotypic split of the EMT secretory cells with distinct evolutionary endpoints. Third, we observed increased clonal expansion among the CD8+ T cell population from BRCA1+ carriers. Among those clonally expanded CD8+ T cells, PD-1 was significantly increased in tubal mucosae of BRCA1+ patients compared with that of normal controls, indicating that T cell exhaustion may occur before the development of any premalignant or malignant lesions.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that EMT and immune evasion in normal-looking tubal mucosae may represent early events leading to the development of HGSC in women with BRCA1 germline mutation. Our findings provide a probable molecular mechanism explaining why some, but not all, women with BRCA1 germline mutation present with early development and rapid dissemination of HGSC.

Multi-modal optimization to identify personalized biomarkers for disease prediction of individual patients with cancer

Finding personalized biomarkers for disease prediction of patients with cancer remains a massive challenge in precision medicine. Most methods focus on one subnetwork or module as a network biomarker; however, this ignores the early warning capabilities of other modules with different configurations of biomarkers (i.e. multi-modal personalized biomarkers). Identifying such modules would not only predict disease but also provide effective therapeutic drug target information for individual patients. To solve this problem, we developed a novel model (denoted multi-modal personalized dynamic network biomarkers (MMPDNB)) based on a multi-modal optimization mechanism and personalized dynamic network biomarker (PDNB) theory, which can provide multiple modules of personalized biomarkers and unveil their multi-modal properties. Using the genomics data of patients with breast or lung cancer from The Cancer Genome Atlas database, we validated the effectiveness of the MMPDNB model. The experimental results showed that compared with other advanced methods, MMPDNB can more effectively predict the critical state with the highest early warning signal score during cancer development. Furthermore, MMPDNB more significantly identified PDNBs containing driver and biomarker genes specific to cancer tissues. More importantly, we validated the biological significance of multi-modal PDNBs, which could provide effective drug targets of individual patients as well as markers for predicting early warning signals of the critical disease state. In conclusion, multi-modal optimization is an effective method to identify PDNBs and offers a new perspective for understanding tumor heterogeneity in cancer precision medicine.

Comprehensive Characterizations of Immune Receptor Repertoire in Tumors and Cancer Immunotherapy Studies

We applied our computational algorithm TRUST4 to assemble immune receptor (T-cell receptor/B-cell receptor) repertoires from approximately 12,000 RNA sequencing samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas and seven immunotherapy studies. From over 35 million assembled complete complementary-determining region 3 sequences, we observed that the expression of CCL5 and MZB1 is the most positively correlated genes with T-cell clonal expansion and B-cell clonal expansion, respectively. We analyzed amino acid evolution during B-cell receptor somatic hypermutation and identified tyrosine as the preferred residue. We found that IgG1+IgG3 antibodies together with FcRn were associated with complement-dependent cytotoxicity and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity or phagocytosis. In addition to B-cell infiltration, we discovered that B-cell clonal expansion and IgG1+IgG3 antibodies are also correlated with better patient outcomes. Finally, we created a website, VisualizIRR, for users to interactively explore and visualize the immune repertoires in this study. See related Spotlight by Liu and Han, p. 786.

A Deep Learning Model for Accurate Diagnosis of Infection Using Antibody Repertoires

The adaptive immune receptor repertoire consists of the entire set of an individual's BCRs and TCRs and is believed to contain a record of prior immune responses and the potential for future immunity. Analyses of TCR repertoires via deep learning (DL) methods have successfully diagnosed cancers and infectious diseases, including coronavirus disease 2019. However, few studies have used DL to analyze BCR repertoires. In this study, we collected IgG H chain Ab repertoires from 276 healthy control subjects and 326 patients with various infections. We then extracted a comprehensive feature set consisting of 10 subsets of repertoire-level features and 160 sequence-level features and tested whether these features can distinguish between infected individuals and healthy control subjects. Finally, we developed an ensemble DL model, namely, DL method for infection diagnosis (https://github.com/chenyuan0510/DeepID), and used this model to differentiate between the infected and healthy individuals. Four subsets of repertoire-level features and four sequence-level features were selected because of their excellent predictive performance. The DL method for infection diagnosis outperformed traditional machine learning methods in distinguishing between healthy and infected samples (area under the curve = 0.9883) and achieved a multiclassification accuracy of 0.9104. We also observed differences between the healthy and infected groups in V genes usage, clonal expansion, the complexity of reads within clone, the physical properties in the α region, and the local flexibility of the CDR3 amino acid sequence. Our results suggest that the Ab repertoire is a promising biomarker for the diagnosis of various infections.

Naive and memory T cells TCR-HLA-binding prediction

T cells recognize antigens through the interaction of their T cell receptor (TCR) with a peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) molecule. Following thymic-positive selection, TCRs in peripheral naive T cells are expected to bind MHC alleles of the host. Peripheral clonal selection is expected to further increase the frequency of antigen-specific TCRs that bind to the host MHC alleles. To check for a systematic preference for MHC-binding T cells in TCR repertoires, we developed Natural Language Processing-based methods to predict TCR-MHC binding independently of the peptide presented for Class I MHC alleles. We trained a classifier on published TCR-pMHC binding pairs and obtained a high area under curve (AUC) of over 0.90 on the test set. However, when applied to TCR repertoires, the accuracy of the classifier dropped. We thus developed a two-stage prediction model, based on large-scale naive and memory TCR repertoires, denoted TCR HLA-binding predictor (CLAIRE). Since each host carries multiple human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles, we first computed whether a TCR on a CD8 T cell binds an MHC from any of the host Class-I HLA alleles. We then performed an iteration, where we predict the binding with the most probable allele from the first round. We show that this classifier is more precise for memory than for naïve cells. Moreover, it can be transferred between datasets. Finally, we developed a CD4-CD8 T cell classifier to apply CLAIRE to unsorted bulk sequencing datasets and showed a high AUC of 0.96 and 0.90 on large datasets. CLAIRE is available through a GitHub at: https://github.com/louzounlab/CLAIRE, and as a server at: https://claire.math.biu.ac.il/Home.

Profiling the baseline performance and limits of machine learning models for adaptive immune receptor repertoire classification

BACKGROUND

Machine learning (ML) methodology development for the classification of immune states in adaptive immune receptor repertoires (AIRRs) has seen a recent surge of interest. However, so far, there does not exist a systematic evaluation of scenarios where classical ML methods (such as penalized logistic regression) already perform adequately for AIRR classification. This hinders investigative reorientation to those scenarios where method development of more sophisticated ML approaches may be required.

RESULTS

To identify those scenarios where a baseline ML method is able to perform well for AIRR classification, we generated a collection of synthetic AIRR benchmark data sets encompassing a wide range of data set architecture-associated and immune state-associated sequence patterns (signal) complexity. We trained ≈1,700 ML models with varying assumptions regarding immune signal on ≈1,000 data sets with a total of ≈250,000 AIRRs containing ≈46 billion TCRβ CDR3 amino acid sequences, thereby surpassing the sample sizes of current state-of-the-art AIRR-ML setups by two orders of magnitude. We found that L1-penalized logistic regression achieved high prediction accuracy even when the immune signal occurs only in 1 out of 50,000 AIR sequences.

CONCLUSIONS

We provide a reference benchmark to guide new AIRR-ML classification methodology by (i) identifying those scenarios characterized by immune signal and data set complexity, where baseline methods already achieve high prediction accuracy, and (ii) facilitating realistic expectations of the performance of AIRR-ML models given training data set properties and assumptions. Our study serves as a template for defining specialized AIRR benchmark data sets for comprehensive benchmarking of AIRR-ML methods.

DiaDeL: An Accurate Deep Learning-Based Model With Mutational Signatures for Predicting Metastasis Stage and Cancer Types

Mutational signatures help identify cancer-associated genes that are being involved in tumorigenesis pathways. Hence, these pathways guide precision medicine approaches to find appropriate drugs and treatments. The pattern of mutations varies in different cancer types. Some mutations dysregulate protein function so that their accumulation is responsible for cancer development and might be associated with different cancer types. Therefore, mutations as a feature set can be used as an informative candidate to distinguish various cancer types. There are several options for demonstrating mutations. One might employ binary values to demonstrate mutation regions. Another potential method for extracting features is utilizing mutation interpreters. In this study, we investigate the trinucleotide mutational pattern of each cancer type. Moreover, we extract salient NMF-based mutational signatures across various cancer types. Then, we identify cancer-associated genes of a target cancer based on its salient signatures. We evaluate the cancer-associated genes using survival and gene expression analysis in different stages of cancer. Furthermore, we introduce DiaDeL, which is a deep learning-based binary classifier. The DiaDeL model uses mutational signatures as input features and distinct a cancer type from the others. Our proposed model outperforms six state-of-the-art methods with 0.824 and 0.88 for accuracy and AUC, respectively. The source code is available at https://github.com/sabdollahi/DiaDeL.

Start of an era: circulating cell-free DNA for early detection of cancers

Effective screening modalities are currently available for only a small subset of cancers, and they generally have suboptimal performance with complicated procedures. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop simple, accurate, and non-invasive methods for early detection of cancers. Genetic and epigenetic alterations in plasma circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) have shown the potential to revolutionize methods of early detection of cancers and facilitate subsequent diagnosis to improve survival of patients. The medical interest in cfDNA assays has been inspired by emerging single- and multi-early detection of cancers studies. This review summarizes current technological and clinical advances, in the hopes of providing insights into the development and applications of cfDNA assays in various cancers and clinical scenarios. The key phases of clinical development of biomarkers are highlighted, and the future developments of cfDNA-based liquid biopsies in early detection of cancers are outlined. It is hoped that this study can boost the potential integration of cfDNA-based early detection of cancers into the current clinical workflow.

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Liquid biopsy, characterized by minimal invasiveness and user friendliness, can identify multiple cancers at the early stage and localize the tissue of origin

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The state-of-the-art technology facilitates the application of circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA) assays in the early detection of cancers

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cfDNA assays are expected to be integrated into the clinical workflow after technological refinement and clinical trial validation

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The development and application strategies of cfDNA assays in various cancers and clinical scenarios can vary, and the harm-and-benefit should be balanced carefully

DeepLION: Deep Multi-Instance Learning Improves the Prediction of Cancer-Associated T Cell Receptors for Accurate Cancer Detection

Recent studies highlight the potential of T cell receptor (TCR) repertoires in accurately detecting cancers via noninvasive sampling. Unfortunately, due to the complicated associations among cancer antigens and the possible induced T cell responses, currently, the practical strategy for identifying cancer-associated TCRs is the computational prediction based on TCR repertoire data. Several state-of-the-art methods were proposed in recent year or two; however, the prediction algorithms were still weakened by two major issues. To facilitate the computational processes, the algorithms prefer to decompose the original TCR sequences into length-fixed amino acid fragments, while the first dilemma comes as the lengths of cancer-associated motifs are suggested to be various. Moreover, the correlations among TCRs in the same repertoire should be further considered, which are often ignored by the existing methods. We here developed a deep multi-instance learning method, named DeepLION, to improve the prediction of cancer-associated TCRs by considering these issues. First, DeepLION introduced a deep learning framework with alternative convolution filters and 1-max pooling operations to handle the amino acid fragments with different lengths. Then, the multi-instance learning framework modeled the TCR correlations and assigned adjusted weights for each TCR sequence during the predicting process. To validate the performance of DeepLION, we conducted a series of experiments on several cohorts of patients from nine cancer types. Compared to the existing methods, DeepLION achieved, on most of the cohorts, higher prediction accuracies, sensitivities, specificities, and areas under the curve (AUCs), where the AUC reached notably 0.97 and 0.90 for thyroid and lung cancer cohorts, respectively. Thus, DeepLION may further support the detection of cancers from TCR repertoire data. DeepLION is publicly available on GitHub, at https://github.com/Bioinformatics7181/DeepLION, for academic usage only.

Early detection of cancer

Survival improves when cancer is detected early. However, ~50% of cancers are at an advanced stage when diagnosed. Early detection of cancer or precancerous change allows early intervention to try to slow or prevent cancer development and lethality. To achieve early detection of all cancers, numerous challenges must be overcome. It is vital to better understand who is at greatest risk of developing cancer. We also need to elucidate the biology and trajectory of precancer and early cancer to identify consequential disease that requires intervention. Insights must be translated into sensitive and specific early detection technologies and be appropriately evaluated to support practical clinical implementation. Interdisciplinary collaboration is key; advances in technology and biological understanding highlight that it is time to accelerate early detection research and transform cancer survival.

Characteristics and Clinical Significance of T-Cell Receptor Repertoire in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Several studies have demonstrated that the T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire is associated with prognosis and immune therapy response in several types of cancer. However, the comprehensive features of TCR repertoire in tumor-infiltrating and circulating T cells, as well as its clinical significance of diagnosis in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients, are still unknown. In this study, we perform paired tumor/peritumoral tissues and peripheral blood samples from 58 patients with HCC and sequenced them with high-throughput TCR to comprehensively analyze the characteristics of TCR and the clinical significance of peripheral TCR sequence. By exploring the abundance and diversity of TCR repertoires, we observe that there was a significantly higher TCR diversity in peripheral blood than in tumoral and peritumoral tissues, while tumoral and peritumoral tissues showed similar TCR diversity. A substantial difference in the usage frequencies of several Vβ, Jβ genes, and TCRβ VJ pairings was found among three types of tissues. Moreover, we reveal that HCC patients have a unique profile of TCR repertoire in peripheral blood in contrast to healthy individuals. We further establish an HCC diagnostic model based on TCRβ VJ pairing usage in peripheral blood, which yields a best-fit area under the curve (AUC) of 0.9746 ± 0.0481 (sensitivity = 0.9675 ± 0.0603, specificity = 0.9998 ± 0.0007, average of 100 repeats) in the test set. Our study describes the characteristics of tissue infiltration and circulating T-cell bank in patients with HCC and shows the potential of using circulating TCR sequence as a biomarker for the non-invasive diagnosis of patients with HCC.

TCR-sequencing in cancer and autoimmunity: barcodes and beyond

The T cell receptor (TCR) endows T cells with antigen specificity and is central to nearly all aspects of T cell function. Each naïve T cell has a unique TCR sequence that is stably maintained during cell division. In this way, the TCR serves as a molecular barcode that tracks processes such as migration, differentiation, and proliferation of T cells. Recent technological advances have enabled sequencing of the TCR from single cells alongside deep molecular phenotypes on an unprecedented scale. In this review, we discuss strengths and limitations of TCR sequences as molecular barcodes and their application to study immune responses following Programmed Death-1 (PD-1) blockade in cancer. Additionally, we consider applications of TCR data beyond use as a barcode.

AutoCAT: automated cancer-associated TCRs discovery from TCR-seq data

SUMMARY

T cells participate directly in the body's immune response to cancer, allowing immunotherapy treatments to effectively recognize and target cancer cells. We previously developed DeepCAT to demonstrate that T cells serve as a biomarker of immune response in cancer patients and can be utilized as a diagnostic tool to differentiate healthy and cancer patient samples. However, DeepCAT's reliance on tumor bulk RNA-seq samples as training data limited its further performance improvement. Here, we benchmarked a new approach, AutoCAT, to predict tumor-associated TCRs from targeted TCR-seq data as a new form of input for DeepCAT, and observed the same level of predictive accuracy.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

Source code is freely available at https://github.com/cew88/AutoCAT, and data is available at 10.5281/zenodo.5176884.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Using the T Cell Receptor as a Biomarker in Type 1 Diabetes

T cell receptors (TCRs) are unique markers that define antigen specificity for a given T cell. With the evolution of sequencing and computational analysis technologies, TCRs are now prime candidates for the development of next-generation non-cell based T cell biomarkers, which provide a surrogate measure to assess the presence of antigen-specific T cells. Type 1 diabetes (T1D), the immune-mediated form of diabetes, is a prototypical organ specific autoimmune disease in which T cells play a pivotal role in targeting pancreatic insulin-producing beta cells. While the disease is now predictable by measuring autoantibodies in the peripheral blood directed to beta cell proteins, there is an urgent need to develop T cell markers that recapitulate T cell activity in the pancreas and can be a measure of disease activity. This review focuses on the potential and challenges of developing TCR biomarkers for T1D. We summarize current knowledge about TCR repertoires and clonotypes specific for T1D and discuss challenges that are unique for autoimmune diabetes. Ultimately, the integration of large TCR datasets produced from individuals with and without T1D along with computational 'big data' analysis will facilitate the development of TCRs as potentially powerful biomarkers in the development of T1D.

GIANA allows computationally-efficient TCR clustering and multi-disease repertoire classification by isometric transformation

Similarity in T-cell receptor (TCR) sequences implies shared antigen specificity between receptors, and could be used to discover novel therapeutic targets. However, existing methods that cluster T-cell receptor sequences by similarity are computationally inefficient, making them impractical to use on the ever-expanding datasets of the immune repertoire. Here, we developed GIANA (Geometric Isometry-based TCR AligNment Algorithm) a computationally efficient tool for this task that provides the same level of clustering specificity as TCRdist at 600 times its speed, and without sacrificing accuracy. GIANA also allows the rapid query of large reference cohorts within minutes. Using GIANA to cluster large-scale TCR datasets provides candidate disease-specific receptors, and provides a new solution to repertoire classification. Querying unseen TCR-seq samples against an existing reference differentiates samples from patients across various cohorts associated with cancer, infectious and autoimmune disease. Our results demonstrate how GIANA could be used as the basis for a TCR-based non-invasive multi-disease diagnostic platform.

Grouping T-cell receptors (TCRs) by sequence similarity could lead to new immunological insights. Here, the authors propose a tool that allows the rapid clustering of millions of TCR sequences, identifying TCRs potentially associated with the response to cancer, infectious and autoimmune diseases.

Identification of KRAS G12V associated clonal neoantigens and immune microenvironment in long-term survival of pancreatic adenocarcinoma

Objective

To investigate the molecular characteristics in tumor immune microenvironment that affect long-term survival of patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PAAD).

Methods

The tumor related genetic features of a female PAAD patient (over 13-year survival) who suffered from multiple recurrences and metastases, and six operations over one decade were investigated deeply. Genomic features and immune microenvironment signatures of her primary lesion as well as six metastatic tumors at different time-points were characterized.

Results

High-frequency clonal neoantigenic mutations identified in these specimens revealed the significant associations between clonal neoantigens with her prognosis after each surgery. Meanwhile, the TCGA and ICGC databases were employed to analyse the function of KRAS G12V in pancreatic cancer.

Conclusions

The genomic analysis of clonal neoantigens combined with tumor immune microenvironment could promote the understandings of personalized prognostic evaluation and the stratification of resected PAAD individuals with better outcome.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00262-021-03012-4.

A comparative study of multiple instance learning methods for cancer detection using T-cell receptor sequences

As a branch of machine learning, multiple instance learning (MIL) learns from a collection of labeled bags, each containing a set of instances. The learning process is weakly supervised due to ambiguous instance labels. Since its emergence, MIL has been applied to solve various problems including content-based image retrieval, object tracking/detection, and computer-aided diagnosis. In biomedical research, the use of MIL has been focused on medical image analysis and molecule activity prediction. We review and apply 16 methods to investigate the applicability of MIL to a novel biomedical application, cancer detection using T-cell receptor (TCR) sequences. This important application can be a viable approach for large-scale cancer screening, as TCRs can be easily profiled from a subject's peripheral blood. We consider two feasible data-generating mechanisms, and for the purpose of performance evaluation, we simulate data under each mechanism, where we vary potentially important factors to mimic realistic situations. We also apply the methods to sequencing data of ten cancer types from The Cancer Genome Atlas, as an early proof of concept for distinguishing tumor patients from healthy individuals via TCR sequencing of peripheral blood. We find that given an appropriate MIL method is used, satisfactory performance with Area Under the Receiver Operating Characteristic Curve above 80% can be achieved for five in the ten cancers. Based on our numerical results, we make suggestions about selection of a proper method and avoidance of any method with poor performance. We further point out directions of future research as well as identify a pressing need of new MIL methodologies for improved performance (for some cancer types) and more explainable outcomes.

Use of machine learning to identify a T cell response to SARS-CoV-2

The identification of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell receptor (TCR) sequences is critical for understanding T cell responses to SARS-CoV-2. Accordingly, we reanalyze publicly available data from SARS-CoV-2-recovered patients who had low-severity disease (n = 17) and SARS-CoV-2 infection-naive (control) individuals (n = 39). Applying a machine learning approach to TCR beta (TRB) repertoire data, we can classify patient/control samples with a training sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 88.2%, 100%, and 96.4% and a testing sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of 82.4%, 97.4%, and 92.9%, respectively. Interestingly, the same machine learning approach cannot separate SARS-CoV-2 recovered from SARS-CoV-2 infection-naive individual samples on the basis of B cell receptor (immunoglobulin heavy chain; IGH) repertoire data, suggesting that the T cell response to SARS-CoV-2 may be more stereotyped and longer lived. Following validation in larger cohorts, our method may be useful in detecting protective immunity acquired through natural infection or in determining the longevity of vaccine-induced immunity.