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Seibold PS, Dörner S, Fricke J, Schäfer T, Beemelmanns C, Hoffmeister D. Genetic regulation of L-tryptophan metabolism in Psilocybe mexicana supports psilocybin biosynthesis. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 2024; 11:4. [PMID: 38664850 PMCID: PMC11046786 DOI: 10.1186/s40694-024-00173-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although Basidiomycota produce pharmaceutically and ecologically relevant natural products, knowledge of how they coordinate their primary and secondary metabolism is virtually non-existent. Upon transition from vegetative mycelium to carpophore formation, mushrooms of the genus Psilocybe use L-tryptophan to supply the biosynthesis of the psychedelic tryptamine alkaloid psilocybin with the scaffold, leading to a strongly increased demand for this particular amino acid as this alkaloid may account for up to 2% of the dry mass. Using Psilocybe mexicana as our model and relying on genetic, transcriptomic, and biochemical methods, this study investigated if L-tryptophan biosynthesis and degradation in P. mexicana correlate with natural product formation. RESULTS A comparative transcriptomic approach of gene expression in P. mexicana psilocybin non-producing vegetative mycelium versus producing carpophores identified the upregulation of L-tryptophan biosynthesis genes. The shikimate pathway genes trpE1, trpD, and trpB (encoding anthranilate synthase, anthranilate phosphoribosyltransferase, and L-tryptophan synthase, respectively) were upregulated in carpophores. In contrast, genes idoA and iasA, encoding indole-2,3-dioxygenase and indole-3-acetaldehyde synthase, i.e., gateway enzymes for L-tryptophan-consuming pathways, were massively downregulated. Subsequently, IasA was heterologously produced in Escherichia coli and biochemically characterized in vitro. This enzyme represents the first characterized microbial L-tryptophan-preferring acetaldehyde synthase. A comparison of transcriptomic data collected in this study with prior data of Psilocybe cubensis showed species-specific differences in how L-tryptophan metabolism genes are regulated, despite the close taxonomic relationship. CONCLUSIONS The upregulated L-tryptophan biosynthesis genes and, oppositely, the concomitant downregulated genes encoding L-tryptophan-consuming enzymes reflect a well-adjusted cellular system to route this amino acid toward psilocybin production. Our study has pilot character beyond the genus Psilocybe and provides, for the first time, insight in the coordination of mushroom primary and secondary metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Sophie Seibold
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Janis Fricke
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Chemical Biology of Microbe-Host Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Tim Schäfer
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Christine Beemelmanns
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Chemical Biology of Microbe-Host Interactions, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Campus E8.1, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
- Saarland University, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Institute for Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany.
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstr. 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence Balance of the Microverse, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 23, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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Ezediokpu MN, Halitschke R, Krause K, Boland W, Kothe E. Pre-symbiotic response of the compatible host spruce and low-compatibility host pine to the ectomycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma vaccinum. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1280485. [PMID: 38111643 PMCID: PMC10725908 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1280485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutualistic ectomycorrhizal symbiosis requires the exchange of signals even before direct contact of the partners. Volatiles, and specifically volatile terpenoids, can be detected at a distance and may trigger downstream signaling and reprogramming of metabolic responses. The late-stage ectomycorrhizal fungus Tricholoma vaccinum shows high host specificity with its main host spruce, Picea abies, while rarely associations can be found with pine, Pinus sylvestris. Hence, a comparison of the host and the low-compatibility host's responses can untangle differences in early signaling during mycorrhiza formation. We investigated sesquiterpenes and identified different patterns of phytohormone responses with spruce and pine. To test the specific role of volatiles, trees were exposed to the complete volatilome of the fungus versus volatiles present when terpene synthases were inhibited by rosuvastatin. The pleiotropic response in spruce included three non-identified products, a pyridine derivative as well as two diterpenes. In pine, other terpenoids responded to the fungal signal. Using exposure to the fungal volatilome with or without terpene synthesis inhibited, we could find a molecular explanation for the longer time needed to establish the low-compatibility interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marycolette Ndidi Ezediokpu
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Rayko Halitschke
- Mass Spectrometry and Metabolomics, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Katrin Krause
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Erika Kothe
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
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Rassbach J, Hilsberg N, Haensch VG, Dörner S, Gressler J, Sonnabend R, Semm C, Voigt K, Hertweck C, Gressler M. Non-canonical two-step biosynthesis of anti-oomycete indole alkaloids in Kickxellales. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 2023; 10:19. [PMID: 37670394 PMCID: PMC10478498 DOI: 10.1186/s40694-023-00166-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fungi are prolific producers of bioactive small molecules of pharmaceutical or agricultural interest. The secondary metabolism of higher fungi (Dikarya) has been well-investigated which led to > 39,000 described compounds. However, natural product researchers scarcely drew attention to early-diverging fungi (Mucoro- and Zoopagomycota) as they are considered to rarely produce secondary metabolites. Indeed, only 15 compounds have as yet been isolated from the entire phylum of the Zoopagomycota. RESULTS Here, we showcase eight species of the order Kickxellales (phylum Zoopagomycota) as potent producers of the indole-3-acetic acid (IAA)-derived compounds lindolins A and B. The compounds are produced both under laboratory conditions and in the natural soil habitat suggesting a specialized ecological function. Indeed, lindolin A is a selective agent against plant-pathogenic oomycetes such as Phytophthora sp. Lindolin biosynthesis was reconstituted in vitro and relies on the activity of two enzymes of dissimilar evolutionary origin: Whilst the IAA-CoA ligase LinA has evolved from fungal 4-coumaryl-CoA synthetases, the subsequently acting IAA-CoA:anthranilate N-indole-3-acetyltransferase LinB is a unique enzyme across all kingdoms of life. CONCLUSIONS This is the first report on bioactive secondary metabolites in the subphylum Kickxellomycotina and the first evidence for a non-clustered, two-step biosynthetic route of secondary metabolites in early-diverging fungi. Thus, the generally accepted "gene cluster hypothesis" for natural products needs to be reconsidered for early diverging fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Rassbach
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Nathalie Hilsberg
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Veit G Haensch
- Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Adolf-Reichwein-Strasse 23, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Gressler
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Robin Sonnabend
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Caroline Semm
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Jena Microbial Resource Collection (JMRC), Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Adolf-Reichwein-Strasse 23, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Kerstin Voigt
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
- Jena Microbial Resource Collection (JMRC), Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Adolf-Reichwein-Strasse 23, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Adolf-Reichwein-Strasse 23, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Markus Gressler
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany.
- Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans-Knöll-Institute, Winzerlaer Strasse 2, 07745, Jena, Germany.
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Tang J, Li Y, Zhang L, Mu J, Jiang Y, Fu H, Zhang Y, Cui H, Yu X, Ye Z. Biosynthetic Pathways and Functions of Indole-3-Acetic Acid in Microorganisms. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2077. [PMID: 37630637 PMCID: PMC10459833 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11082077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) belongs to the family of auxin indole derivatives. IAA regulates almost all aspects of plant growth and development, and is one of the most important plant hormones. In microorganisms too, IAA plays an important role in growth, development, and even plant interaction. Therefore, mechanism studies on the biosynthesis and functions of IAA in microorganisms can promote the production and utilization of IAA in agriculture. This mini-review mainly summarizes the biosynthesis pathways that have been reported in microorganisms, including the indole-3-acetamide pathway, indole-3-pyruvate pathway, tryptamine pathway, indole-3-acetonitrile pathway, tryptophan side chain oxidase pathway, and non-tryptophan dependent pathway. Some pathways interact with each other through common key genes to constitute a network of IAA biosynthesis. In addition, functional studies of IAA in microorganisms, divided into three categories, have also been summarized: the effects on microorganisms, the virulence on plants, and the beneficial impacts on plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Zihong Ye
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Biometrology and Inspection & Quarantine, College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, China; (J.T.); (L.Z.)
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Nuclear Genome Sequence and Gene Expression of an Intracellular Fungal Endophyte Stimulating the Growth of Cranberry Plants. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9010126. [PMID: 36675947 PMCID: PMC9861600 DOI: 10.3390/jof9010126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Ericaceae thrive in poor soil, which we postulate is facilitated by microbes living inside those plants. Here, we investigate the growth stimulation of the American cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) by one of its fungal endosymbionts, EC4. We show that the symbiont resides inside the epidermal root cells of the host but extends into the rhizosphere via its hyphae. Morphological classification of this fungus is ambiguous, but phylogenetic inference based on 28S rRNA identifies EC4 as a Codinaeella species (Chaetosphaeriaceae, Sordariomycetes, Ascomycetes). We sequenced the genome and transcriptome of EC4, providing the first 'Omics' information of a Chaetosphaeriaceae fungus. The 55.3-Mbp nuclear genome contains 17,582 potential protein-coding genes, of which nearly 500 have the capacity to promote plant growth. For comparing gene sets involved in biofertilization, we annotated the published genome assembly of the plant-growth-promoting Trichoderma hamatum. The number of proteins involved in phosphate transport and solubilization is similar in the two fungi. In contrast, EC4 has ~50% more genes associated with ammonium, nitrate/nitrite transport, and phytohormone synthesis. The expression of 36 presumed plant-growth-promoting EC4 genes is stimulated when the fungus is in contact with the plant. Thus, Omics and in-plantae tests make EC4 a promising candidate for cranberry biofertilization on nutrient-poor soils.
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Feng W, Sun X, Ding G. Morphological and Transcriptional Characteristics of the Symbiotic Interaction between Pinus massoniana and Suillus bovinus. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:1162. [PMID: 36354929 PMCID: PMC9699607 DOI: 10.3390/jof8111162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ectomycorrhiza (ECM) function has been well studied; however, there is little detailed information regarding the establishment of ECM symbioses. We investigated the morphological and transcriptional changes that occur during the establishment of the Pinus massoniana-Suillus bovinus ECM. S. bovinus promoted the growth of P. massoniana via the release of volatile organic compounds and exudates during the pre-symbiotic stage. Exudate-induced effects showed host plant specificity. At seven days post-inoculation (dpi), the mycelium started to penetrate P. massoniana roots. At 28 dpi, the Hartig net and mantle formed. At the pre-symbiotic stage, most differentially expressed genes in P. massoniana roots were mapped to the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, signal transduction, and carbohydrate metabolism. At the symbiotic stage, S. bovinus colonization induced the reprogramming of pathways involved in genetic information processing in P. massoniana, particularly at the Hartig net and mantle formation stage. Phenylpropanoid biosynthesis was present at all stages and was regulated via S. bovinus colonization. Enzyme inhibitor tests suggested that hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA shikimate/quinate transferase is involved in the development of the Hartig net. Our findings outline the mechanism involved in the P. massoniana-S. bovinus ECM. Further studies are needed to clarify the role of phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in ECM formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyan Feng
- Institute for Forest Resources & Environment of Guizhou, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Cultivation in Plateau Mountain of Guizhou Province, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Xueguang Sun
- Institute for Forest Resources & Environment of Guizhou, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Cultivation in Plateau Mountain of Guizhou Province, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Guijie Ding
- Institute for Forest Resources & Environment of Guizhou, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- Key Laboratory of Forest Cultivation in Plateau Mountain of Guizhou Province, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
- College of Forestry, Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
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Santos Gomes D, de Andrade Silva EM, de Andrade Rosa EC, Silva Gualberto NG, de Jesus Souza MÁ, Santos G, Pirovani CP, Micheli F. Identification of a key protein set involved in Moniliophthora perniciosa necrotrophic mycelium and basidiocarp development. Fungal Genet Biol 2021; 157:103635. [PMID: 34700000 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2021.103635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Moniliophthora perniciosa is a hemibiotrophic fungus that causes witches' broom disease in cacao (Theobroma cacao L.). The biotrophic fungal phase initiates the disease and is characterized by a monokaryotic mycelium, while the necrotrophic phase is characterized by a dikaryotic mycelium and leads to necrosis of infected tissues. A study of the necrotrophic phase was conducted on bran-based solid medium, which is the only medium that enables basidiocarp and basidiospore production. Six different fungal developmental phases were observed according to the mycelium colour or the organ produced: white, yellow, pink, dark pink, primordium and basidiocarp. In this study, we identified notable proteins in each phase, particularly those accumulated prior to basidiocarp formation. Proteins were analysed by proteomics; 2-D gels showed 300-550 spots. Statistically differentially accumulated spots were sequenced by mass spectrometry and 259 proteins were identified and categorized into nine functional classes. Proteins related to energy metabolism, protein folding and morphogenesis that were potentially involved in primordium and basidiocarp formation were identified; these proteins may represent useful candidates for further analysis related to the spread and pathogenesis of this fungus. To the best of our knowledge, this report describes the first proteomic analysis of the developmental phases of Moniliophthora perniciosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayane Santos Gomes
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Edson Mario de Andrade Silva
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Emilly Caroline de Andrade Rosa
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Nina Gabriela Silva Gualberto
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Monaliza Átila de Jesus Souza
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Gesivaldo Santos
- Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia (UESB), Av. José Moreira Sobrinho, Jequié, Bahia 45206-190, Brazil
| | - Carlos Priminho Pirovani
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil
| | - Fabienne Micheli
- Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz (UESC), Centro de Biotecnologia e Genética, Rodovia Ilhéus-Itabuna, Km 16, Ilhéus, Bahia 45662-900, Brazil; CIRAD, UMR AGAP, F-34398 Montpellier, France.
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Bai XN, Hao H, Hu ZH, Leng PS. Ectomycorrhizal Inoculation Enhances the Salt Tolerance of Quercus mongolica Seedlings. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1790. [PMID: 34579323 PMCID: PMC8469051 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Salt stress harms the growth and development of plants, and the degree of soil salinization in North China is becoming increasingly severe. Ectomycorrhiza (ECM) is a symbiotic system formed by fungi and plants that can improve the growth and salt tolerance of plants. No studies to date have examined the salt tolerance of Quercus mongolica, a typical ectomycorrhizal tree species of temperate forests in the northern hemisphere. Here, we inoculated Q. mongolica with two ectomycorrhizal fungi (Gomphidius viscidus; Suillus luteus) under NaCl stress to characterize the effects of ECM. The results showed that the symbiotic relationship of Q. mongolica with G. viscidus was more stable than that with S. luteus. The cross-sectional area of roots increased after inoculation with the two types of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Compared with the control group, plant height, soluble sugar content, and soluble protein content of leaves were 1.62, 2.41, and 2.04 times higher in the G. viscidus group, respectively. Chlorophyll (Chl) content, stomatal conductance (Gs), and intracellular CO2 concentration (Ci) were significantly higher in Q. mongolica inoculated with ectomycorrhizal fungi than in the control, but differences in the net photosynthetic rate (Pn), transpiration rate (Tr), and photosystem II maximum photochemical efficiency (Fv/Fm) were lower. The relative conductivity of Q. mongolica inoculated with the two ectomycorrhizal fungi was consistently lower than that of non-mycorrhizal seedlings, with the effect of G. viscidus more pronounced than that of S. luteus. The malondialdehyde (MDA) content showed a similar pattern. Peroxidase (POD) and catylase (CAT) levels in mycorrhizal seedlings were generally higher than those of non-mycorrhizal seedlings under normal conditions, and were significantly higher than those of non-mycorrhizal seedlings on the 36th and 48th day after salt treatment, respectively. Overall, the results indicated that the salt tolerance of Q. mongolica seedlings was improved by ectomycorrhizal inoculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ning Bai
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (X.-N.B.); (H.H.)
| | - Han Hao
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (X.-N.B.); (H.H.)
- China Meteorological Press, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zeng-Hui Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (X.-N.B.); (H.H.)
| | - Ping-Sheng Leng
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Tree Breeding by Molecular Design, College of Landscape Architecture, Beijing University of Agriculture, Beijing 102206, China; (X.-N.B.); (H.H.)
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Quo vadis: signaling molecules and small secreted proteins from mycorrhizal fungi at the early stage of mycorrhiza formation. Symbiosis 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-021-00793-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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10
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Wollenberg A, Kretzschmar J, Drobot B, Hübner R, Freitag L, Lehmann F, Günther A, Stumpf T, Raff J. Uranium(VI) bioassociation by different fungi - a comparative study into molecular processes. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 411:125068. [PMID: 33454568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 12/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
After the Chernobyl and Fukushima incidents it has become clear that fungi can take up and accumulate large quantities of radionuclides and heavy metals, but the underlying processes are not well understood yet. For this study, the molecular interactions of uranium(VI) with the white-rot fungi, Schizophyllum commune and Pleurotus ostreatus, and the soil-living fungus, Leucoagaricus naucinus, were investigated. First, the uranium concentration in the biomass was determined by time-dependent bioassociation experiments. To characterize the molecular interactions, uranium was localized in the biomass by transmission electron microscopy analysis. Second, the formed uranyl complexes in both biomass and supernatant were determined by fluorescence spectroscopy. Additionally, possible bioligands in the supernatant were identified. The results show that the discernible interactions between metals and fungi are similar, namely biosorption, accumulation, and subsequent crystallization. But at the same time, the underlying biochemical mechanisms are different and specific to the fungal species. In addition, Schizophyllum commune was found to be the only fungus that, under the chosen experimental conditions, released tryptophan and other indole derivatives in the presence of uranium(VI) as determined by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. These released substances most likely act as messenger molecules rather than serving the direct detoxification of uranium(VI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Wollenberg
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jérôme Kretzschmar
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Björn Drobot
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - René Hübner
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Leander Freitag
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Falk Lehmann
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Helmholtz Institute Freiberg for Resource Technology, Chemnitzer Str. 40, 09599 Freiberg, Germany
| | - Alix Günther
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Thorsten Stumpf
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
| | - Johannes Raff
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf e.V., Institute of Resource Ecology, Bautzner Landstr. 400, 01328 Dresden, Germany
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11
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Peng Y, Li SJ, Yan J, Tang Y, Cheng JP, Gao AJ, Yao X, Ruan JJ, Xu BL. Research Progress on Phytopathogenic Fungi and Their Role as Biocontrol Agents. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:670135. [PMID: 34122383 PMCID: PMC8192705 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.670135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytopathogenic fungi decrease crop yield and quality and cause huge losses in agricultural production. To prevent the occurrence of crop diseases and insect pests, farmers have to use many synthetic chemical pesticides. The extensive use of these pesticides has resulted in a series of environmental and ecological problems, such as the increase in resistant weed populations, soil compaction, and water pollution, which seriously affect the sustainable development of agriculture. This review discusses the main advances in research on plant-pathogenic fungi in terms of their pathogenic factors such as cell wall-degrading enzymes, toxins, growth regulators, effector proteins, and fungal viruses, as well as their application as biocontrol agents for plant pests, diseases, and weeds. Finally, further studies on plant-pathogenic fungal resources with better biocontrol effects can help find new beneficial microbial resources that can control diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Peng
- College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Shi J Li
- College of Plant Protection, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Jun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Coarse Cereal Processing in Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Schools of Food and Biological Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yong Tang
- College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jian P Cheng
- College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - An J Gao
- College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Xin Yao
- College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Jing J Ruan
- College of Agriculture, Guizhou University, Guiyang, China
| | - Bing L Xu
- College of Plant Protection, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
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12
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Lofgren LA, Nguyen NH, Vilgalys R, Ruytinx J, Liao HL, Branco S, Kuo A, LaButti K, Lipzen A, Andreopoulos W, Pangilinan J, Riley R, Hundley H, Na H, Barry K, Grigoriev IV, Stajich JE, Kennedy PG. Comparative genomics reveals dynamic genome evolution in host specialist ectomycorrhizal fungi. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:774-792. [PMID: 33355923 PMCID: PMC7969408 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
While there has been significant progress characterizing the 'symbiotic toolkit' of ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi, how host specificity may be encoded into ECM fungal genomes remains poorly understood. We conducted a comparative genomic analysis of ECM fungal host specialists and generalists, focusing on the specialist genus Suillus. Global analyses of genome dynamics across 46 species were assessed, along with targeted analyses of three classes of molecules previously identified as important determinants of host specificity: small secreted proteins (SSPs), secondary metabolites (SMs) and G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs). Relative to other ECM fungi, including other host specialists, Suillus had highly dynamic genomes including numerous rapidly evolving gene families and many domain expansions and contractions. Targeted analyses supported a role for SMs but not SSPs or GPCRs in Suillus host specificity. Phylogenomic-based ancestral state reconstruction identified Larix as the ancestral host of Suillus, with multiple independent switches between white and red pine hosts. These results suggest that like other defining characteristics of the ECM lifestyle, host specificity is a dynamic process at the genome level. In the case of Suillus, both SMs and pathways involved in the deactivation of reactive oxygen species appear to be strongly associated with enhanced host specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotus A Lofgren
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92507, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
| | - Nhu H Nguyen
- Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Science, University of Hawaii, Manoa, HI, 96822, USA
| | - Rytas Vilgalys
- Department of Biology, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Joske Ruytinx
- Research group Microbiology, Department of Bio-engineering Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, BE1500, Belgium
| | - Hui-Ling Liao
- Department of Soil Microbial Ecology, University of Florida, Quincy, FL, 32351, USA
| | - Sara Branco
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Colorado Denver, Denver, CO, 80204, USA
| | - Alan Kuo
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Kurt LaButti
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Anna Lipzen
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - William Andreopoulos
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jasmyn Pangilinan
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Robert Riley
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Hope Hundley
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Hyunsoo Na
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Kerrie Barry
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Igor V Grigoriev
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Jason E Stajich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA, 92507, USA
| | - Peter G Kennedy
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Minnesota, St Paul, MN, 55108, USA
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13
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Abdulsalam O, Wagner K, Wirth S, Kunert M, David A, Kallenbach M, Boland W, Kothe E, Krause K. Phytohormones and volatile organic compounds, like geosmin, in the ectomycorrhiza of Tricholoma vaccinum and Norway spruce (Picea abies). MYCORRHIZA 2021; 31:173-188. [PMID: 33210234 PMCID: PMC7910269 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-020-01005-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The ectomycorrhizospheric habitat contains a diverse pool of organisms, including the host plant, mycorrhizal fungi, and other rhizospheric microorganisms. Different signaling molecules may influence the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis. Here, we investigated the potential of the basidiomycete Tricholoma vaccinum to produce communication molecules for the interaction with its coniferous host, Norway spruce (Picea abies). We focused on the production of volatile organic compounds and phytohormones in axenic T. vaccinum cultures, identified the potential biosynthesis genes, and investigated their expression by RNA-Seq analyses. T. vaccinum released volatiles not usually associated with fungi, like limonene and β-barbatene, and geosmin. Using stable isotope labeling, the biosynthesis of geosmin was elucidated. The geosmin biosynthesis gene ges1 of T. vaccinum was identified, and up-regulation was scored during mycorrhiza, while a different regulation was seen with mycorrhizosphere bacteria. The fungus also released the volatile phytohormone ethylene and excreted salicylic and abscisic acid as well as jasmonates into the medium. The tree excreted the auxin, indole-3-acetic acid, and its biosynthesis intermediate, indole-3-acetamide, as well as salicylic acid with its root exudates. These compounds could be shown for the first time in exudates as well as in soil of a natural ectomycorrhizospheric habitat. The effects of phytohormones present in the mycorrhizosphere on hyphal branching of T. vaccinum were assessed. Salicylic and abscisic acid changed hyphal branching in a concentration-dependent manner. Since extensive branching is important for mycorrhiza establishment, a well-balanced level of mycorrhizospheric phytohormones is necessary. The regulation thus can be expected to contribute to an interkingdom language.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oluwatosin Abdulsalam
- Institute of Microbiology, Microbial Communication, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Katharina Wagner
- Institute of Microbiology, Microbial Communication, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Sophia Wirth
- Institute of Microbiology, Microbial Communication, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Maritta Kunert
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Anja David
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Mario Kallenbach
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Erika Kothe
- Institute of Microbiology, Microbial Communication, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany
| | - Katrin Krause
- Institute of Microbiology, Microbial Communication, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Neugasse 25, 07743, Jena, Germany.
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14
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Fu W, Pan Y, Shi Y, Chen J, Gong D, Li Y, Hao G, Han D. Root Morphogenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana Tuned by Plant Growth-Promoting Streptomyces Isolated From Root-Associated Soil of Artemisia annua. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:802737. [PMID: 35082816 PMCID: PMC8786036 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.802737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the capacity to tune root morphogenesis by a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium, Streptomyces lincolnensis L4, was investigated from various aspects including microbial physiology, root development, and root endophytic microbial community. Strain L4 was isolated from the root-associated soil of 7-year plantation of Artemisia annua. Aiming at revealing the promotion mechanism of Streptomyces on root growth and development, this study first evaluated the growth promotion characters of S. lincolnensis L4, followed by investigation in the effect of L4 inoculation on root morphology, endophytic microbiota of root system, and expression of genes involved in root development in Arabidopsis thaliana. Streptomyces lincolnensis L4 is able to hydrolyze organic and inorganic phosphorus, fix nitrogen, and produce IAA, ACC deaminase, and siderophore, which shaped specific structure of endophytic bacterial community with dominant Streptomyces in roots and promoted the development of roots. From the observation of root development characteristics, root length, root diameter, and the number of root hairs were increased by inoculation of strain L4, which were verified by the differential expression of root development-related genes in A. thaliana. Genomic traits of S. lincolnensis L4 which further revealed its capacity for plant growth promotion in which genes involved in phosphorus solubilization, ACC deamination, iron transportation, and IAA production were identified. This root growth-promoting strain has the potential to develop green method for regulating plant development. These findings provide us ecological knowledge of microenvironment around root system and a new approach for regulating root development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbo Fu
- School of Life Sciences and Food Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, China
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yanshuo Pan
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest Agriculture and Forestry University, Yangling, China
| | - Yuhua Shi
- Key Laboratory of Beijing for Identification and Safety Evaluation of Chinese Medicine, Institute of Chinese Material Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jieyin Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Daozhi Gong
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuzhong Li
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Guangfei Hao
- School of Life Sciences and Food Engineering, Hebei University of Engineering, Handan, China
- *Correspondence: Guangfei Hao,
| | - Dongfei Han
- Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
- Dongfei Han,
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15
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Miyagi M, Wilson R, Saigusa D, Umeda K, Saijo R, Hager CL, Li Y, McCormick T, Ghannoum MA. Indole-3-acetic acid synthesized through the indole-3-pyruvate pathway promotes Candida tropicalis biofilm formation. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0244246. [PMID: 33332404 PMCID: PMC7746184 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0244246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously found that the elevated abundance of the fungus Candida tropicalis is positively correlated with the bacteria Escherichia coli and Serratia marcescens in Crohn’s disease patients and the three pathogens, when co-cultured, form a robust mixed-species biofilm. The finding suggests that these three pathogens communicate and promote biofilm formation, possibly through secretion of small signaling molecules. To identify candidate signaling molecules, we carried out a metabolomic analysis of the single-species and triple-species cultures of the three pathogens. This analysis identified 15 metabolites that were highly increased in the triple-species culture. One highly induced metabolite was indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which has been shown to induce filamentation of certain fungi. We thus tested the effect of IAA on biofilm formation of C. tropicalis and demonstrated that IAA promotes biofilm formation of C. tropicalis. Then, we carried out isotope tracing experiments using 13C-labeled-tryptophan as a precursor to uncover the biosynthesis pathway of IAA in C. tropicalis. The results indicated that C. tropicalis synthesizes IAA through the indole-3-pyruvate pathway. Further studies using inhibitors of the indole-3-pyruvate pathway are warranted to decipher the mechanisms by which IAA influences biofilm formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Miyagi
- Department of Pharmacology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MM); (MAG)
| | - Rachel Wilson
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Daisuke Saigusa
- Department of Integrative Genomics, Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Keiko Umeda
- Department of Integrative Genomics, Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Reina Saijo
- Department of Integrative Genomics, Tohoku Medical Megabank Organization, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Christopher L. Hager
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Yuejin Li
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Thomas McCormick
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Mahmoud A. Ghannoum
- Department of Dermatology, Center for Medical Mycology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MM); (MAG)
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16
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Szuba A, Marczak Ł, Ratajczak I. Metabolome adjustments in ectomycorrhizal Populus × canescens associated with strong promotion of plant growth by Paxillus involutus despite a very low root colonization rate. TREE PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 40:1726-1743. [PMID: 32761190 DOI: 10.1093/treephys/tpaa100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
It is believed that resource exchange, which is responsible for intensified growth of ectomycorrhizal plants, occurs in the fungus-plant interface. However, increasing evidence indicates that such intensified plant growth, especially root growth promotion, may be independent of root colonization. Nevertheless, the molecular adjustments in low-colonized plants remain poorly understood. Here, we analysed the metabolome of Populus × canescens microcuttings characterized by significantly increased growth triggered by inoculation with Paxillus involutus, which successfully colonized only 2.1 ± 0.3% of root tips. High-throughput metabolomic analyses of leaves, stems and roots of Populus × canescens microcuttings supplemented with leaf proteome data were performed to determine ectomycorrhiza-triggered changes in N-, P- and C-compounds. The molecular adjustments were relatively low in low-colonized (M) plants. Nevertheless, the levels of foliar phenolic compounds were significantly increased in M plants. Increases of total soluble carbohydrates, starch as well as P concentrations were also observed in M leaves along with the increased abundance of the majority of glycerophosphocholines detected in M roots. However, compared with the leaves of the non-inoculated controls, M leaves presented lower concentrations of both N and most photosynthesis-related proteins and all individual mono- and disaccharides. In M stems, only a few compounds with different abundances were detected, including a decrease in carbohydrates, which was also detected in M roots. Thus, these results suggest that the growth improvement of low-colonized poplar trees is independent of an increased photosynthesis rate, massively increased resource (C:N) exchange and delivery of most nutrients to leaves. The mechanism responsible for poplar growth promotion remains unknown but may be related to increased P uptake, subtle leaf pigment changes, the abundance of certain photosynthetic proteins, slight increases in stem and root amino acid levels and the increase in flavonoids (increasing the antioxidant capacity in poplar), all of which improve the fitness of low-colonized poplars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Szuba
- Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Parkowa 5, PL-62035 Kórnik, Poland
| | - Łukasz Marczak
- Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Z. Noskowskiego 12/14 PL-61704 Poznań, Poland
| | - Izabela Ratajczak
- Department of Chemistry, Poznań University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, PL-60625 Poznan, Poland
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17
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Pichler G, Stöggl W, Trippel D, Candotto Carniel F, Muggia L, Ametrano CG, Çimen T, Holzinger A, Tretiach M, Kranner I. Phytohormone release by three isolated lichen mycobionts and the effects of indole-3-acetic acid on their compatible photobionts. Symbiosis 2020; 82:95-108. [PMID: 33223597 PMCID: PMC7671983 DOI: 10.1007/s13199-020-00721-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Evidence is emerging that phytohormones represent key inter-kingdom signalling compounds supporting chemical communication between plants, fungi and bacteria. The roles of phytohormones for the lichen symbiosis are poorly understood, particularly in the process of lichenization, i.e. the key events which lead free-living microalgae and fungi to recognize each other, make physical contact and start developing a lichen thallus. Here, we studied cellular and extracellularly released phytohormones in three lichen mycobionts, Cladonia grayi, Xanthoria parietina and Tephromela atra, grown on solid medium, and the effects of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) on their respective photobionts, Asterochloris glomerata, Trebouxia decolorans, Trebouxia sp. Using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) we found that mycobionts produced IAA, salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA). IAA represented the most abundant phytohormone produced and released by all mycobionts, whereas SA was released by X. parietina and T. atra, and JA was released by C. grayi only. With a half-life of 5.2 days, IAA degraded exponentially in solid BBM in dim light. When IAA was exogenously offered to the mycobionts' compatible photobionts at "physiological" concentrations (as released by their respective mycobionts and accumulated in the medium over seven days), the photobionts' water contents increased up to 4.4%. Treatment with IAA had no effects on the maximum quantum yield of photosystem II, dry mass, and the contents of photosynthetic pigments and α-tocopherol of the photobionts. The data presented may be useful for designing studies aimed at elucidating the roles of phytohormones in lichens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Pichler
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Wolfgang Stöggl
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Daniela Trippel
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Fabio Candotto Carniel
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 10, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Lucia Muggia
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 10, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Claudio Gennaro Ametrano
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 10, 34127 Trieste, Italy
- Grainger Bioinformatics Center, The Field Museum, 1400 S. Lake Shore Dr, Chicago, IL 60605 USA
| | - Tuğçe Çimen
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, İzmir Institute of Technology, 35430 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Andreas Holzinger
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Mauro Tretiach
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Via Giorgieri 10, 34127 Trieste, Italy
| | - Ilse Kranner
- Department of Botany, University of Innsbruck, Sternwartestraße 15, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
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18
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Keswani C, Singh SP, Cueto L, García-Estrada C, Mezaache-Aichour S, Glare TR, Borriss R, Singh SP, Blázquez MA, Sansinenea E. Auxins of microbial origin and their use in agriculture. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:8549-8565. [PMID: 32918584 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10890-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
To maintain the world population demand, a sustainable agriculture is needed. Since current global vision is more friendly with the environment, eco-friendly alternatives are desirable. In this sense, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria could be the choice for the management of soil-borne diseases of crop plants. These rhizobacteria secrete chemical compounds which act as phytohormones. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is the most common plant hormone of the auxin class which regulates various processes of plant growth. IAA compound, in which structure can be found a carboxylic acid attached through a methylene group to the C-3 position of an indole ring, is produced both by plants and microorganisms. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and fungi secrete IAA to promote the plant growth. In this review, IAA production and mechanisms of action by bacteria and fungi along with the metabolic pathways evolved in the IAA secretion and commercial prospects are revised.Key points• Many microorganisms produce auxins which help the plant growth promotion.• These auxins improve the plant growth by several mechanisms.• The auxins are produced through different mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chetan Keswani
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Satyendra Pratap Singh
- Department of Mycology and Plant Pathology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Laura Cueto
- Instituto de Biotecnología de León (INBIOTEC), Parque Científico de León, Av, Real, 1, 24006, León, Spain
| | - Carlos García-Estrada
- Instituto de Biotecnología de León (INBIOTEC), Parque Científico de León, Av, Real, 1, 24006, León, Spain.,Departamento de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad de León, Campus de Vegazana s/n, 24071, León, Spain
| | | | - Travis R Glare
- Bio-Protection Research Centre, Lincoln University, PO Box 85084, Lincoln, 7647, New Zealand
| | - Rainer Borriss
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institut für Biologie, Berlin, Germany.,Nord Reet UG, Marienstr. 27a, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Surya Pratap Singh
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
| | - Miguel Angel Blázquez
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Plantas, CSIC-Universitat Politècnica de València, 46022, Valencia, Spain
| | - Estibaliz Sansinenea
- Facultad De Ciencias Químicas, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma De Puebla, 72590, Puebla, Pue, México.
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19
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Transcription analysis of Ganoderma lucidum reveals candidate genes and pathways in response to excess exogenous indoleacetic acid (IAA). MYCOSCIENCE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.myc.2020.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Wei X, Chen J, Zhang C, Liu H, Zheng X, Mu J. Ericoid mycorrhizal fungus enhances microcutting rooting of Rhododendron fortunei and subsequent growth. HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2020; 7:140. [PMID: 32922812 PMCID: PMC7459316 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-020-00361-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Adventitious root (AR) formation is a unique feature of plant reproduction and plays a vital role in crop production as many horticultural and forestry plants are propagated through cuttings. A growing number of reports have shown that microbes, particularly mycorrhizal fungi are able to promote AR formation, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unclear. This study established an in vitro culture system and investigated AR formation in microcuttings of Rhododendron fortunei Lindl. inoculated with Oidiodendron maius Barron Om19, an ericoid mycorrhizal fungus strain. Hormones and precursors involved in the biosynthesis of indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in Om19 mycelium were analyzed. Om19 was able to produce a large quantity of tryptophan (Trp) and also indole-3-pyruvate (IPA) and IAA, indicating that IAA biosynthesis in Om19 could be through a Trp-dependent pathway. After inoculation of Om19, ARs were quickly formed in microcuttings. Symbiosis related genes were activated in ARs, and Om19 effectively colonized the roots. YUC3, a key gene in plant biosynthesis of IAA and genes involved in nitrogen (N) uptake and metabolism, phosphorus (P) uptake were highly upregulated. Plants absorbed significantly greater quantity of mineral nutrients, and their growth was substantially enhanced compared to the control plants without Om19 inoculation. A working model for Om19 enhanced AR formation was proposed. The rapid formation of ARs in cuttings could be due in part to the induction of IAA biosynthesized by Om19 and also attributed to Trp catalyzed biosynthesis of IAA in plants. AR formation, in turn, provided Om19 preferred sites for colonization. Our study suggested that in addition to promoting AR formation, Om19 could potentially be used as a new biofertilizer for enhancing production of ericaceous plants, such as blueberry, cranberry, and rhododendron.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangying Wei
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, 350108 Fuzhou, Fujian Province China
- Department of Environmental Horticulture and Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, IFAS, Apopka, FL 32703 USA
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Department of Environmental Horticulture and Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, University of Florida, IFAS, Apopka, FL 32703 USA
| | - Chunying Zhang
- Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Plant Innovation, Shanghai Botanical Garden, 200231 Shanghai, China
| | - Hong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, 350002 Fuzhou, Fujian Province China
| | - Xiuxia Zheng
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, 350108 Fuzhou, Fujian Province China
| | - Jingli Mu
- Institute of Oceanography, Minjiang University, 350108 Fuzhou, Fujian Province China
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Wang G, Li M, Zhang C, Cheng H, Gao Y, Deng W, Li T. Transcriptome and proteome analyses reveal the regulatory networks and metabolite biosynthesis pathways during the development of Tolypocladium guangdongense. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2020; 18:2081-2094. [PMID: 32802280 PMCID: PMC7419252 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2020.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tolypocladium guangdongense has a similar metabolite profile to Ophiocordyceps sinensis, a highly regarded fungus used for traditional Chinese medicine with high nutritional and medicinal value. Although the genome sequence of T. guangdongense has been reported, relatively little is known about the regulatory networks for fruiting body development and about the metabolite biosynthesis pathways. In order to address this, an analysis of transcriptome and proteome at differential developmental stages of T. guangdongense was performed. In total, 9076 genes were found to be expressed and 2040 proteins were identified. There were a large number of genes that were significantly differentially expressed between the mycelial stage and the stages. Interestingly, the correlation between the transcriptomic and proteomic data was low, suggesting the importance of the post-transcriptional processes in the growth and development of T. guangdongense. Among the genes/proteins that were both differentially expressed during the developmental process, there were numerous heat shock proteins and transcription factors. In addition, there were numerous proteins involved in terpenoid, ergosterol, adenosine and polysaccharide biosynthesis that also showed significant downregulation in their expression levels during the developmental process. Furthermore, both tryptophan and tryptamine were present at higher levels in the primordium stage. However, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) levels continuously decreased as development proceeded, and the enzymes involved in IAA biosynthesis were also clearly differentially downregulated. These data could be meaningful in studying the molecular mechanisms of fungal development, and for the industrial and medicinal application of macro-fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gangzheng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Min Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China.,College of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, Tibet University, Nyingchi, 860000 Tibet, China
| | - Chenghua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Huijiao Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China.,South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Yu Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China.,College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Wangqiu Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Taihui Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
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Krause K, Jung EM, Lindner J, Hardiman I, Poetschner J, Madhavan S, Matthäus C, Kai M, Menezes RC, Popp J, Svatoš A, Kothe E. Response of the wood-decay fungus Schizophyllum commune to co-occurring microorganisms. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232145. [PMID: 32324822 PMCID: PMC7179906 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Microorganisms are constantly interacting in a given environment by a constant exchange of signaling molecules. In timber, wood-decay fungi will come into contact with other fungi and bacteria. In naturally bleached wood, dark, pigmented lines arising from confrontation of two fungi often hint at such interactions. The metabolites (and pigment) exchange was investigated using the lignicolous basidiomycete Schizophyllum commune, and co-occurring fungi and bacteria inoculated directly on sterilized wood, or on media. In interactions with competitive wood degrading fungi, yeasts or bacteria, different competition strategies and communication types were observed, and stress reactions, as well as competitor-induced enzymes or pigments were analyzed. Melanin, indole, flavonoids and carotenoids were shown to be induced in S. commune interactions. The induced genes included multi-copper oxidases lcc1, lcc2, mco1, mco2, mco3 and mco4, possibly involved in both pigment production and lignin degradation typical for wood bleaching by wood-decay fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Krause
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Elke-Martina Jung
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Julia Lindner
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Imam Hardiman
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Soumya Madhavan
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Matthäus
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Jena, Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Marco Kai
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Riya Christina Menezes
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Popp
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology, Jena, Germany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Aleš Svatoš
- Research Group Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Erika Kothe
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
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Kim SW, Goossens A, Libert C, Van Immerseel F, Staal J, Beyaert R. Phytohormones: Multifunctional nutraceuticals against metabolic syndrome and comorbid diseases. Biochem Pharmacol 2020; 175:113866. [PMID: 32088261 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2020.113866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome is characterized by the co-occurrence of diverse symptoms initiating the development of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and a variety of comorbid diseases. The complex constellation of numerous comorbidities makes it difficult to develop common therapeutic approaches that ameliorate these pathological features simultaneously. The plant hormones abscisic acid, salicylic acid, auxin, and cytokinins, have shown promising anti-inflammatory and pro-metabolic effects that could mitigate several disorders relevant to metabolic syndrome. Intriguingly, besides plants, human cells and gut microbes also endogenously produce these molecules, indicating a role in the complex interplay between inflammatory responses associated with metabolic syndrome, the gut microbiome, and nutrition. Here, we introduce how bioactive phytohormones can be generated endogenously and through the gut microbiome. These molecules subsequently influence immune responses and metabolism. We also elaborate on how phytohormones can beneficially modulate metabolic syndrome comorbidities, and propose them as nutraceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seo Woo Kim
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alain Goossens
- VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Claude Libert
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Immerseel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jens Staal
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Rudi Beyaert
- VIB-UGent Center for Inflammation Research, VIB, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
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Sun X, Wang N, Li P, Jiang Z, Liu X, Wang M, Su Z, Zhang C, Lin F, Liang Y. Endophytic fungus Falciphora oryzae promotes lateral root growth by producing indole derivatives after sensing plant signals. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2020; 43:358-373. [PMID: 31675439 DOI: 10.1111/pce.13667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The endophytic fungus Falciphora oryzae was initially isolated from wild rice (Oryza granulata) and colonizes many crop species and promotes plant growth. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying F. oryzae-mediated growth promotion are still unknown. We found that F. oryzae was able to colonize Arabidopsis thaliana. The most dramatic change after F. oryzae inoculation was observed in the root architecture, as evidenced by increased lateral root growth but reduced primary root length, similar to the effect of auxin, a significant plant growth hormone. The expression of genes responsible for auxin biosynthesis, transport, and signalling was regulated in Arabidopsis roots after F. oryzae cocultivation. Indole derivatives were detected at significantly higher levels in liquid media after cocultivation compared with separate cultivation of Arabidopsis and F. oryzae. Consistently, the expression of indole biosynthetic genes was highly upregulated in F. oryzae upon treatment with Arabidopsis exudates. Global analysis of Arabidopsis gene expression at the early stage after F. oryzae cocultivation suggested that signals were exchanged to initiate Arabidopsis-F. oryzae interactions. All these results suggest that signalling molecules from Arabidopsis roots are perceived by F. oryzae and induce the biosynthesis of indole derivatives in F. oryzae, consequently stimulating Arabidopsis lateral root growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Sun
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Ning Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Ping Li
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Zhiyan Jiang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Mengcen Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Zhenzhu Su
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Chulong Zhang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Fucheng Lin
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, State Key Laboratory of Rice Biology, Institute of Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China
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25
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A MATE Transporter is Involved in Pathogenicity and IAA Homeostasis in the Hyperplastic Plant Pathogen Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. nerii. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8020156. [PMID: 31979049 PMCID: PMC7074806 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
During the last years, many evidences have been accumulating about the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) as a multifaceted compound in the microbial world, with IAA playing a role as a bacterial intra and intercellular signaling molecule or as an effector during pathogenic or beneficial plant–bacteria interactions. However, pretty much nothing is known on the mechanisms that bacteria use to modulate IAA homeostasis, in particular on IAA active transport systems. Here, by an approach combining in silico three-dimensional (3D) structural modeling and docking, mutagenesis, quantitative gene expression analysis, and HPLC FLD auxin quantitative detection, for the first time a bacterial multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) transporter was demonstrated to be involved in the efflux of IAA, as well as of its conjugate IAA–Lysine, in the plant pathogenic hyperplastic bacterium Pseudomonas savastanoi pv. nerii strain Psn23. Furthermore, according to the role proved to be played by Psn23 MatE in the development of plant disease, and to the presence of Psn23 MatE homologs in all the genomospecies of the P. syringae complex, this membrane transporter could likely represent a promising target for the design of novel and selective anti-infective molecules for plant disease control.
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Kumla J, Suwannarach N, Matsui K, Lumyong S. Biosynthetic pathway of indole-3-acetic acid in ectomycorrhizal fungi collected from northern Thailand. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227478. [PMID: 31899917 PMCID: PMC6941825 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is an imperative phytohormone for plant growth and development. Ectomycorrhizal fungi (ECM) are able to produce IAA. However, only a few studies on IAA biosynthesis pathways in ECM fungi have been reported. This study aimed to investigate the IAA biosynthesis pathway of six ECM cultures including Astraeus odoratus, Gyrodon suthepensis, Phlebopus portentosus, Pisolithus albus, Pisolithus orientalis and Scleroderma suthepense. The results showed that all ECM fungi produced IAA in liquid medium that had been supplemented with L-tryptophan. Notably, fungal IAA levels vary for different fungal species. The detection of indole-3-lactic acid and indole-3-ethanol in the crude culture extracts of all ECM fungi indicated an enzymatic reduction of indole-3-pyruvic acid and indole-3-acetaldehyde, respectively in the IAA biosynthesis via the indole-3-pyruvic acid pathway. Moreover, the tryptophan aminotransferase activity confirmed that all ECM fungi synthesize IAA through the indole-3-pyruvic acid pathway. Additionally, the elongation of rice and oat coleoptiles was stimulated by crude culture extract. This is the first report of the biosynthesis pathway of IAA in the tested ECM fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaturong Kumla
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Thailand
| | - Nakarin Suwannarach
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Thailand
| | - Kenji Matsui
- Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Faculty of Agriculture, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 7 Japan
| | - Saisamorn Lumyong
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Microbial Diversity and Sustainable Utilization, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai Thailand
- Academy of Science, The Royal Society of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand
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Mastan A, Bharadwaj R, Kushwaha RK, Vivek Babu CS. Functional Fungal Endophytes in Coleus forskohlii Regulate Labdane Diterpene Biosynthesis for Elevated Forskolin Accumulation in Roots. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2019; 78:914-926. [PMID: 31001657 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-019-01376-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Coleus forskohlii is a perennial medicinal shrub cultivated mainly for its forskolin content. The plant has been used since ancient times in ayurvedic traditional medicines for the treatment of hypertension, glaucoma, asthma, congestive heart failures, obesity, and cancer. Use of endophytic microorganisms presents a special interest for the development of value-added bioactive compounds through agriculture. Limited investigations have been undertaken on in planta enhancement of forskolin content using endophytic fungus in sustainable agriculture. Here we report specific roles of three fungal endophytes, Fusarium redolens (RF1), Phialemoniopsis cornearis (SF1), and Macrophomina pseudophaseolina (SF2), functionally acting as plant probiotic fungus, regulating secondary metabolite (forskolin) biosynthesis in C. forskohlii. The root endophyte, RF1, and shoot endophytes, SF1 and SF2, were found to enhance forskolin content by 52 to 88% in pot and 60 to 84% in field experiments as compared to uninoculated control plants. The three endophytes also enhanced total biomass owing to plant growth promoting properties. The expression of diterpene synthases (CfTPSs) like CfTPS1, CfTPS2, CfTPS3, and CfTPS4 were significantly upregulated in endophyte-treated C. forskohlii plants. Elevated expression of key diterpene synthases (CfTPS2) in the forskolin biosynthesis pathway, exclusively present in the root cork of C. forskohlii, was observed following SF2 endophyte treatment. Furthermore, endophyte treatments conferred a variety of antagonistic activity against nematode galls (80%) and plant pathogens like Fusarium oxysporum, Colletotricum gloeosporioides, and Sclerotium rolfsii. RF1 and SF1 fungal endophytes showed positive for IAA production; however, SF1 also indicated phosphate solubilization activity. Overall, the qualitative and quantitative improvement of in planta forskolin enhancement represents an area of high commercial interest, and hence, our work focused on novel insights for the application of three fungal endophytes for in planta enhancement of forskolin content for C. forskohlii cultivation by a sustainable approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthati Mastan
- Microbial Technology Laboratory, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Research Center, Bangalore, 560065, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Rkb Bharadwaj
- Microbial Technology Laboratory, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Research Center, Bangalore, 560065, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Ramesh Kumar Kushwaha
- Microbial Technology Laboratory, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Research Center, Bangalore, 560065, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India
| | - Chikkarasanahalli Shivegowda Vivek Babu
- Microbial Technology Laboratory, CSIR- Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Research Center, Bangalore, 560065, India.
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, 201002, India.
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Holik L, Vranová V. Proteolytic Activity in Meadow Soil after the Application of Phytohormones. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9090507. [PMID: 31546949 PMCID: PMC6770191 DOI: 10.3390/biom9090507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Phytohormones, similar to soil enzymes, are synthesized and secreted into the soil environment by fungi and microorganisms. Phytohormones are involved in regulating microbial community activity in the rhizosphere. This paper examines how auxins, cytokinins, ethephon and chlorocholine chloride affect the activity of native soil proteases in the organo-mineral horizon of an alpine meadow. In the meadow habitat, native soil proteases were inhibited by auxins whereas the effect of cytokinins on these enzymes was not statistically significant. A similar inhibitory effect on the activity of proteases was shown for ethephon and chlorocholine chloride, both of which also inhibited the activity of native soil proteases in the alpine meadow soil. Overall, the inhibitory effect of phytohormones on the activity of native protease activity may affect plant nutrition by retarding the nitrogen cycle in the soil. This work contributes to our understanding of the influence of substances produced by the rhizosphere that can actively participate in the activity of soil microorganisms and consequently influence the soil nitrogen cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ladislav Holik
- Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Zemědělská 1, Czech Republic.
| | - Valerie Vranová
- Department of Geology and Pedology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Technology, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Zemědělská 1, Czech Republic.
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29
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Pellegrin C, Daguerre Y, Ruytinx J, Guinet F, Kemppainen M, Frey NFD, Puech‐Pagès V, Hecker A, Pardo AG, Martin FM, Veneault‐Fourrey C. Laccaria bicolor
MiSSP8 is a small‐secreted protein decisive for the establishment of the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:3765-3779. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Clément Pellegrin
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
| | - Yohann Daguerre
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
| | - Joske Ruytinx
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
| | - Frédéric Guinet
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
| | - Minna Kemppainen
- Laboratorio de Micología Molecular, Departamento de Ciencia y TecnologıaUniversidad Nacional de Quilmes and CONICET Roque Sáenz Peña 352 B1876 Bernal Provincia de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Nicolas Frei dit Frey
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences VégétalesUniversité de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS 24 chemin de Borde Rouge, Auzeville, BP42617 31326 Castanet Tolosan France
| | - Virginie Puech‐Pagès
- Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences VégétalesUniversité de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS 24 chemin de Borde Rouge, Auzeville, BP42617 31326 Castanet Tolosan France
| | - Arnaud Hecker
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
| | - Alejandro G. Pardo
- Laboratorio de Micología Molecular, Departamento de Ciencia y TecnologıaUniversidad Nacional de Quilmes and CONICET Roque Sáenz Peña 352 B1876 Bernal Provincia de Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Francis M. Martin
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
| | - Claire Veneault‐Fourrey
- INRA, UMR1136Interactions Arbres/microorganismes Centre Grand‐Est Champenoux France
- UMR 1136, Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes (IAM), Faculté des Sciences et TechnologiesUniversité de Lorraine Vandœuvre lès Nancy France
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Bunsangiam S, Sakpuntoon V, Srisuk N, Ohashi T, Fujiyama K, Limtong S. Biosynthetic Pathway of Indole-3-Acetic Acid in Basidiomycetous Yeast Rhodosporidiobolus fluvialis. MYCOBIOLOGY 2019; 47:292-300. [PMID: 31565465 PMCID: PMC6758620 DOI: 10.1080/12298093.2019.1638672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
IAA biosynthetic pathways in a basidiomycetous yeast, Rhodosporidiobolus fluvialis DMKU-CP293, were investigated. The yeast strain showed tryptophan (Trp)-dependent IAA biosynthesis when grown in tryptophan supplemented mineral salt medium. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used to further identify the pathway intermediates of Trp-dependent IAA biosynthesis. The results indicated that the main intermediates produced by R. fluvialis DMKU-CP293 were tryptamine (TAM), indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), and tryptophol (TOL), whereas indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) was not found. However, supplementation of IPA to the culture medium resulted in IAA peak detection by high-performance liquid chromatography analysis of the culture supernatant. Key enzymes of three IAA biosynthetic routes, i.e., IPA, IAM and TAM were investigated to clarify the IAA biosynthetic pathways of R. fluvialis DMKU-CP293. Results indicated that the activities of tryptophan aminotransferase, tryptophan 2-monooxygenase, and tryptophan decarboxylase were observed in cell crude extract. Overall results suggested that IAA biosynthetic in this yeast strain mainly occurred via the IPA route. Nevertheless, IAM and TAM pathway might be involved in R. fluvialis DMKU-CP293.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakaoduoen Bunsangiam
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Varunya Sakpuntoon
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Nantana Srisuk
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Takao Ohashi
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazuhito Fujiyama
- International Center for Biotechnology, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Savitree Limtong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok, Thailand
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31
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de Novais CB, Giovannetti M, de Faria SM, Sbrana C. Two herbicides, two fungicides and spore-associated bacteria affect Funneliformis mosseae extraradical mycelium structural traits and viability. MYCORRHIZA 2019; 29:341-349. [PMID: 31190279 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-019-00901-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The extraradical mycelium (ERM) produced by arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi is fundamental for the maintenance of biological fertility in agricultural soils, representing an important inoculum source, together with spores and mycorrhizal root fragments. Its viability and structural traits, such as density, extent and interconnectedness, which are positively correlated with the growth and nutrition of host plants, may be affected by different agronomic practices, including the use of pesticides and by different mycorrhizospheric communities. This work, carried out using a whole-plant experimental model system, showed that structural traits of ERM, such as length and density, were strongly decreased by the herbicides dicamba and glufosinolate and the fungicides benomyl and fenhexamid, while anastomosis frequency and hyphal branching were differentially modulated by singly inoculated mycorrhizospheric bacteria, depending on their identity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candido Barreto de Novais
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, 56126, Pisa, PI, Italy
- Forestry Institute, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Seropédica, Brazil
| | - Manuela Giovannetti
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, 56126, Pisa, PI, Italy
| | - Sergio Miana de Faria
- Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation - Embrapa Agrobiologia, Seropédica, Brazil
| | - Cristiana Sbrana
- CNR-Institute of Agricultural Biology and Biotechnology UOS Pisa, Pisa, Italy.
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32
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Wagner K, Krause K, Gallegos-Monterrosa R, Sammer D, Kovács ÁT, Kothe E. The Ectomycorrhizospheric Habitat of Norway Spruce and Tricholoma vaccinum: Promotion of Plant Growth and Fitness by a Rich Microorganismic Community. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:307. [PMID: 30842767 PMCID: PMC6391851 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The contribution of the mycorrhizospheric microbes in a stand of ectomycorrhizal Norway spruce (Picea abies) featuring mycorrhiza with the basidiomycete Tricholoma vaccinum was addressed by microbiome analysis and in vitro reconstruction of microbial as well as plant-microbe interactions. The protective role of the mycorrhizal fungus with respect to pathogen attack could be validated against Botrytis cinerea and Heterobasidion annosum in co-cultures revealing reduced pathogen growth, higher survival rate of the spruce trees and reduced symptoms on needles upon symbiosis with T. vaccinum. The community structure was shown to yield a high diversity in ECM forming basidiomycetes of Thelephorales and Agaricales associated with a rich bacterial diversity dominated by Rhizobiales with the most abundant Nitrobacter winogradski (3.9%). Isolated bacteria were then used to address plant growth promoting abilities, which included production of the phytohormone indole-3-acetic acid (performed by 74% of the bacterial isolates), siderophores (22%), and phosphate mobilization (23%). Among the isolates, mycorrhiza helper bacteria (MHB) were identified, with Bacillus cereus MRZ-1 inducing hyperbranching in T. vaccinum, supporting tree germination, shoot elongation, and root formation as well as higher mycorrhization rates. Thus, a huge pool of potential MHB and fungal community with widely distributed auxin-production potential extended the ability of T. vaccinum to form ectomycorrhiza. The forest community profited from the mycorrhizal fungus T. vaccinum, with spruce survival enhanced by 33% in microcosms using soil from the native habitat. A higher fungal abundance and diversity in cases where the tree had died during the experiment, showing that decomposition of plant litter from a dead tree supported a different community. T. vaccinum thus actively structured the community of microorganisms in its habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Wagner
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Katrin Krause
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Ramses Gallegos-Monterrosa
- Terrestrial Biofilms Group, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Dominik Sammer
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Ákos T Kovács
- Terrestrial Biofilms Group, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Erika Kothe
- Microbial Communication, Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
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Kothe E, Turnau K. Editorial: Mycorrhizosphere Communication: Mycorrhizal Fungi and Endophytic Fungus-Plant Interactions. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3015. [PMID: 30568649 PMCID: PMC6290029 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Erika Kothe
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
| | - Katarzyna Turnau
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Jagiellonian University in Krakow, Kraków, Poland
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Chagas FO, Pessotti RDC, Caraballo-Rodríguez AM, Pupo MT. Chemical signaling involved in plant-microbe interactions. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:1652-1704. [PMID: 29218336 DOI: 10.1039/c7cs00343a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Microorganisms are found everywhere, and they are closely associated with plants. Because the establishment of any plant-microbe association involves chemical communication, understanding crosstalk processes is fundamental to defining the type of relationship. Although several metabolites from plants and microbes have been fully characterized, their roles in the chemical interplay between these partners are not well understood in most cases, and they require further investigation. In this review, we describe different plant-microbe associations from colonization to microbial establishment processes in plants along with future prospects, including agricultural benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Oliveira Chagas
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo (FCFRP-USP), Avenida do Café, s/n, 14040-903, Ribeirão Preto-SP, Brazil.
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Sardar P, Kempken F. Characterization of indole-3-pyruvic acid pathway-mediated biosynthesis of auxin in Neurospora crassa. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0192293. [PMID: 29420579 PMCID: PMC5805262 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants, bacteria and some fungi are known to produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) by employing various pathways. Among these pathways, the indole-3-pyruvic acid (IPA) pathway is the best studied in green plants and plant-associated beneficial microbes. While IAA production circuitry in plants has been studied for decades, little is known regarding the IAA biosynthesis pathway in fungal species. Here, we present the first data for IAA-producing genes and the associated biosynthesis pathway in a non-pathogenic fungus, Neurospora crassa. For this purpose, we used a computational approach to determine the genes and outlined the IAA production circuitry in N. crassa. We then validated these data with experimental evidence. Here, we describe the homologous genes that are present in the IPA pathway of IAA production in N. crassa. High-performance liquid chromatography and thin-layer chromatography unambiguously identified IAA, indole-3-lactic acid (ILA) and tryptophol (TOL) from cultures supplemented with tryptophan. Deletion of the gene (cfp) that encodes the enzyme indole-3-pyruvate decarboxylase, which converts IPA to indole-3-acetaldehyde (IAAld), results in an accumulation of higher levels of ILA in the N. crassa culture medium. A double knock-out strain (Δcbs-3;Δahd-2) for the enzyme IAAld dehydrogenase, which converts IAAld to IAA, shows a many fold decrease in IAA production compared with the wild type strain. The Δcbs-3;Δahd-2 strain also displays slower conidiation and produces many fewer conidiospores than the wild type strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Puspendu Sardar
- Abteilung Botanische Genetik und Molekularbiologie, Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten, Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Kiel, Germany
| | - Frank Kempken
- Abteilung Botanische Genetik und Molekularbiologie, Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten, Christian-Albrechts-Universität, Kiel, Germany
- * E-mail:
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36
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Calabrese S, Kohler A, Niehl A, Veneault-Fourrey C, Boller T, Courty PE. Transcriptome analysis of the Populus trichocarpa-Rhizophagus irregularis Mycorrhizal Symbiosis: Regulation of Plant and Fungal Transportomes under Nitrogen Starvation. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 58:1003-1017. [PMID: 28387868 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcx044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Nutrient transfer is a key feature of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis. Valuable mineral nutrients are transferred from the AM fungus to the plant, increasing its fitness and productivity, and, in exchange, the AM fungus receives carbohydrates as an energy source from the plant. Here, we analyzed the transcriptome of the Populus trichocarpa-Rhizophagus irregularis symbiosis using RNA-sequencing of non-mycorrhizal or mycorrhizal fine roots, with a focus on the effect of nitrogen (N) starvation. In R. irregularis, we identified 1,015 differentially expressed genes, whereby N starvation led to a general induction of gene expression. Genes of the functional classes of cell growth, membrane biogenesis and cell structural components were highly abundant. Interestingly, N starvation also led to a general induction of fungal transporters, indicating increased nutrient demand upon N starvation. In non-mycorrhizal P. trichocarpa roots, 1,341 genes were differentially expressed under N starvation. Among the 953 down-regulated genes in N starvation, most were involved in metabolic processes including amino acids, carbohydrate and inorganic ion transport, while the 342 up-regulated genes included many defense-related genes. Mycorrhization led to the up-regulation of 549 genes mainly involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis and transport; only 24 genes were down-regulated. Mycorrhization specifically induced expression of three ammonium transporters and one phosphate transporter, independently of the N conditions, corroborating the hypothesis that these transporters are important for symbiotic nutrient exchange. In conclusion, our data establish a framework of gene expression in the two symbiotic partners under high-N and low-N conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Calabrese
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Botany, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Basel, Hebelstrasse, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Annegret Kohler
- INRA, UMR1136 Interactions Arbres-Microorganismes, Champenoux, France
- Université de Lorraine, UMR1136 Interactions Arbres-Microorganismes, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - Annette Niehl
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Botany, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Basel, Hebelstrasse, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Claire Veneault-Fourrey
- INRA, UMR1136 Interactions Arbres-Microorganismes, Champenoux, France
- Université de Lorraine, UMR1136 Interactions Arbres-Microorganismes, Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - Thomas Boller
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Botany, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Basel, Hebelstrasse, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pierre-Emmanuel Courty
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Botany, Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Basel, Hebelstrasse, Basel, Switzerland
- Agroécologie, AgroSupDijon, CNRS, INRA, Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
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Bilal S, Khan AL, Shahzad R, Asaf S, Kang SM, Lee IJ. Endophytic Paecilomyces formosus LHL10 Augments Glycine max L. Adaptation to Ni-Contamination through Affecting Endogenous Phytohormones and Oxidative Stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:870. [PMID: 28611799 PMCID: PMC5447229 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the Ni-removal efficiency of phytohormone-producing endophytic fungi Penicillium janthinellum, Paecilomyces formosus, Exophiala sp., and Preussia sp. Among four different endophytes, P. formosus LHL10 was able to tolerate up to 1 mM Ni in contaminated media as compared to copper and cadmium. P. formosus LHL10 was further assessed for its potential to enhance the phytoremediation of Glycine max (soybean) in response to dose-dependent increases in soil Ni (0.5, 1.0, and 5.0 mM). Inoculation with P. formosus LHL10 significantly increased plant biomass and growth attributes as compared to non-inoculated control plants with or without Ni contamination. LHL10 enhanced the translocation of Ni from the root to the shoot as compared to the control. In addition, P. formosus LHL10 modulated the physio-chemical apparatus of soybean plants during Ni-contamination by reducing lipid peroxidation and the accumulation of linolenic acid, glutathione, peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase. Stress-responsive phytohormones such as abscisic acid and jasmonic acid were significantly down-regulated in fungal-inoculated soybean plants under Ni stress. LHL10 Ni-remediation potential can be attributed to its phytohormonal synthesis related genetic makeup. RT-PCR analysis showed the expression of indole-3-acetamide hydrolase, aldehyde dehydrogenase for indole-acetic acid and geranylgeranyl-diphosphate synthase, ent-kaurene oxidase (P450-4), C13-oxidase (P450-3) for gibberellins synthesis. In conclusion, the inoculation of P. formosus can significantly improve plant growth in Ni-polluted soils, and assist in improving the phytoremediation abilities of economically important crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saqib Bilal
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National UniversityDaegu, South Korea
| | - Abdul L. Khan
- UoN Chair of Oman’s Medicinal Plants and Marine Natural Products, University of NizwaNizwa, Oman
| | - Raheem Shahzad
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National UniversityDaegu, South Korea
| | - Sajjad Asaf
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National UniversityDaegu, South Korea
| | - Sang-Mo Kang
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National UniversityDaegu, South Korea
| | - In-Jung Lee
- School of Applied Biosciences, Kyungpook National UniversityDaegu, South Korea
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38
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Sammer D, Krause K, Gube M, Wagner K, Kothe E. Hydrophobins in the Life Cycle of the Ectomycorrhizal Basidiomycete Tricholoma vaccinum. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167773. [PMID: 27936063 PMCID: PMC5147985 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydrophobins-secreted small cysteine-rich, amphipathic proteins-foster interactions of fungal hyphae with hydrophobic surfaces, and are involved in the formation of aerial hyphae. Phylogenetic analyses of Tricholoma vaccinum hydrophobins showed a grouping with hydrophobins of other ectomycorrhizal fungi, which might be a result of co-evolution. Further analyses indicate angiosperms as likely host trees for the last common ancestor of the genus Tricholoma. The nine hydrophobin genes in the T. vaccinum genome were investigated to infer their individual roles in different stages of the life cycle, host interaction, asexual and sexual development, and with respect to different stresses. In aerial mycelium, hyd8 was up-regulated. In silico analysis predicted three packing arrangements, i.e., ring-like, plus-like and sheet-like structure for Hyd8; the first two may assemble to rodlets of hydrophobin covering aerial hyphae, whereas the third is expected to be involved in forming a two-dimensional network of hydrophobins. Metal stress induced hydrophobin gene hyd5. In early steps of mycorrhization, induction of hyd4 and hyd5 by plant root exudates and root volatiles could be shown, followed by hyd5 up-regulation during formation of mantle, Hartig' net, and rhizomorphs with concomitant repression of hyd8 and hyd9. During fruiting body formation, mainly hyd3, but also hyd8 were induced. Host preference between the compatible host Picea abies and the low compatibility host Pinus sylvestris could be linked to a stronger induction of hyd4 and hyd5 by the preferred host and a stronger repression of hyd8, whereas the repression of hyd9 was comparable between the two hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominik Sammer
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Katrin Krause
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Matthias Gube
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Katharina Wagner
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Erika Kothe
- Institute of Microbiology, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
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39
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Martin F, Kohler A, Murat C, Veneault-Fourrey C, Hibbett DS. Unearthing the roots of ectomycorrhizal symbioses. Nat Rev Microbiol 2016; 14:760-773. [PMID: 27795567 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
During the diversification of Fungi and the rise of conifer-dominated and angiosperm- dominated forests, mutualistic symbioses developed between certain trees and ectomycorrhizal fungi that enabled these trees to colonize boreal and temperate regions. The evolutionary success of these symbioses is evident from phylogenomic analyses that suggest that ectomycorrhizal fungi have arisen in approximately 60 independent saprotrophic lineages, which has led to the wide range of ectomycorrhizal associations that exist today. In this Review, we discuss recent genomic studies that have revealed the adaptations that seem to be fundamental to the convergent evolution of ectomycorrhizal fungi, including the loss of some metabolic functions and the acquisition of effectors that facilitate mutualistic interactions with host plants. Finally, we consider how these insights can be integrated into a model of the development of ectomycorrhizal symbioses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis Martin
- Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche 1136 Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Laboratoire d'excellence Recherches Avancés sur la Biologie de l'Arbre et les Ecosystèmes Forestiers (ARBRE), Centre INRA-Lorraine, 54280 Champenoux, France
| | - Annegret Kohler
- Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche 1136 Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Laboratoire d'excellence Recherches Avancés sur la Biologie de l'Arbre et les Ecosystèmes Forestiers (ARBRE), Centre INRA-Lorraine, 54280 Champenoux, France
| | - Claude Murat
- Institut national de la recherche agronomique (INRA), Unité Mixte de Recherche 1136 Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Laboratoire d'excellence Recherches Avancés sur la Biologie de l'Arbre et les Ecosystèmes Forestiers (ARBRE), Centre INRA-Lorraine, 54280 Champenoux, France
| | - Claire Veneault-Fourrey
- Université de Lorraine, Unité Mixte de Recherche 1136 Interactions Arbres/Microorganismes, Laboratoire d'excellence Recherches Avancées sur la Biologie de l'Arbre et les Ecosystèmes Forestiers (ARBRE), 54500 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France
| | - David S Hibbett
- Biology Department, Clark University, Lasry Center for Bioscience, 950 Main Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610, USA
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Indole-3-acetic acid in plant-pathogen interactions: a key molecule for in planta bacterial virulence and fitness. Res Microbiol 2016; 167:774-787. [PMID: 27637152 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The plant pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas savastanoi, the causal agent of olive and oleander knot disease, uses the so-called "indole-3-acetamide pathway" to convert tryptophan to indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) via a two-step pathway catalyzed by enzymes encoded by the genes in the iaaM/iaaH operon. Moreover, pathovar nerii of P. savastanoi is able to conjugate IAA to lysine to generate the less biologically active compound IAA-Lys via the enzyme IAA-lysine synthase encoded by the iaaL gene. Interestingly, iaaL is now known to be widespread in many Pseudomonas syringae pathovars, even in the absence of the iaaM and iaaH genes for IAA biosynthesis. Here, two knockout mutants, ΔiaaL and ΔiaaM, of strain Psn23 of P. savastanoi pv. nerii were produced. Pathogenicity tests using the host plant Nerium oleander showed that ΔiaaL and ΔiaaM were hypervirulent and hypovirulent, respectively and these features appeared to be related to their differential production of free IAA. Using the Phenotype Microarray approach, the chemical sensitivity of these mutants was shown to be comparable to that of wild-type Psn23. The main exception was 8 hydroxyquinoline, a toxic compound that is naturally present in plant exudates and is used as a biocide, which severely impaired the growth of ΔiaaL and ΔiaaM, as well as growth of the non-pathogenic mutant ΔhrpA, which lacks a functional Type Three Secretion System (TTSS). According to bioinformatics analysis of the Psn23 genome, a gene encoding a putative Multidrug and Toxic compound Extrusion (MATE) transporter, was found upstream of iaaL. Similarly to iaaL and iaaM, its expression appeared to be TTSS-dependent. Moreover, auxin-responsive elements were identified for the first time in the modular promoters of both the iaaL gene and the iaaM/iaaH operon of P. savastanoi, suggesting their IAA-inducible transcription. Gene expression analysis of several genes related to TTSS, IAA metabolism and drug resistance confirmed the presence of a concerted regulatory network in this phytopathogen among virulence, fitness and drug efflux.
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Luo K, Rocheleau H, Qi PF, Zheng YL, Zhao HY, Ouellet T. Indole-3-acetic acid in Fusarium graminearum: Identification of biosynthetic pathways and characterization of physiological effects. Fungal Biol 2016; 120:1135-45. [PMID: 27567719 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2016.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum is a devastating pathogenic fungus causing fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat. This fungus can produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and a very large amount of IAA accumulates in wheat head tissues during the first few days of infection by F. graminearum. Using liquid culture conditions, we have determined that F. graminearum can use tryptamine (TAM) and indole-3-acetonitrile (IAN) as biosynthetic intermediates to produce IAA. It is the first time that F. graminearum is shown to use the l-tryptophan-dependent TAM and IAN pathways rather than the indole-3-acetamide or indole-3-pyruvic acid pathways to produce IAA. Our experiments also showed that exogenous IAA was metabolized by F. graminearum. Exogenous IAA, TAM, and IAN inhibited mycelial growth; IAA and IAN also affected the hyphae branching pattern and delayed macroconidium germination. IAA and TAM had a small positive effect on the production of the mycotoxin 15-ADON while IAN inhibited its production. Our results showed that IAA and biosynthetic intermediates had a significant effect on F. graminearum physiology and suggested a new area of exploration for fungicidal compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, Northwest A&F University, No.3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China; Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Ave, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada.
| | - Hélène Rocheleau
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Ave, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada.
| | - Peng-Fei Qi
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Ave, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada; Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, PR China.
| | - You-Liang Zheng
- Triticeae Research Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu, Sichuan 611130, PR China.
| | - Hui-Yan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology in Arid Areas, Northwest A&F University, No.3 Taicheng Road, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, PR China.
| | - Thérèse Ouellet
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 960 Carling Ave, Ottawa, ON K1A 0C6, Canada.
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Wagner K, Krause K, David A, Kai M, Jung EM, Sammer D, Kniemeyer O, Boland W, Kothe E. Influence of zygomycete-derived D'orenone on IAA signalling in T
richoloma
-spruce ectomycorrhiza. Environ Microbiol 2016; 18:2470-80. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Wagner
- Institute of Microbiology; Microbial Communication; Friedrich Schiller University Jena; Neugasse 25 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Katrin Krause
- Institute of Microbiology; Microbial Communication; Friedrich Schiller University Jena; Neugasse 25 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Anja David
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Straße 8 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Marco Kai
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Straße 8 07745 Jena Germany
- Department of Biochemistry; Institute of Biological Science; University of Rostock; Albert-Einstein Straße 3 18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Elke-Martina Jung
- Institute of Microbiology; Microbial Communication; Friedrich Schiller University Jena; Neugasse 25 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Dominik Sammer
- Institute of Microbiology; Microbial Communication; Friedrich Schiller University Jena; Neugasse 25 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Olaf Kniemeyer
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans-Knöll-Institute (HKI); Adolf-Reichwein-Str. 23 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Wilhelm Boland
- Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology; Hans-Knöll-Straße 8 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Erika Kothe
- Institute of Microbiology; Microbial Communication; Friedrich Schiller University Jena; Neugasse 25 07745 Jena Germany
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