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Spada M, Pugliesi C, Fambrini M, Pecchia S. Challenges and Opportunities Arising from Host- Botrytis cinerea Interactions to Outline Novel and Sustainable Control Strategies: The Key Role of RNA Interference. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:6798. [PMID: 38928507 PMCID: PMC11203536 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25126798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The necrotrophic plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea (Pers., 1794), the causative agent of gray mold disease, causes significant losses in agricultural production. Control of this fungal pathogen is quite difficult due to its wide host range and environmental persistence. Currently, the management of the disease is still mainly based on chemicals, which can have harmful effects not only on the environment and on human health but also because they favor the development of strains resistant to fungicides. The flexibility and plasticity of B. cinerea in challenging plant defense mechanisms and its ability to evolve strategies to escape chemicals require the development of new control strategies for successful disease management. In this review, some aspects of the host-pathogen interactions from which novel and sustainable control strategies could be developed (e.g., signaling pathways, molecules involved in plant immune mechanisms, hormones, post-transcriptional gene silencing) were analyzed. New biotechnological tools based on the use of RNA interference (RNAi) are emerging in the crop protection scenario as versatile, sustainable, effective, and environmentally friendly alternatives to the use of chemicals. RNAi-based fungicides are expected to be approved soon, although they will face several challenges before reaching the market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Spada
- Department of Agriculture Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Claudio Pugliesi
- Department of Agriculture Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Marco Fambrini
- Department of Agriculture Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Susanna Pecchia
- Department of Agriculture Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
- Interdepartmental Research Center Nutrafood “Nutraceuticals and Food for Health”, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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2
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Avasiloaiei DI, Calara M, Brezeanu PM, Murariu OC, Brezeanu C. On the Future Perspectives of Some Medicinal Plants within Lamiaceae Botanic Family Regarding Their Comprehensive Properties and Resistance against Biotic and Abiotic Stresses. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14050955. [PMID: 37239315 DOI: 10.3390/genes14050955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Lamiaceae is one of the largest botanical families, encompassing over 6000 species that include a variety of aromatic and medicinal spices. The current study is focused on three plants within this botanical family: basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), and summer savory (Satureja hortensis L.). These three species contain primary and secondary metabolites such as phenolic and flavonoid compounds, fatty acids, antioxidants, and essential oils and have traditionally been used for flavoring, food preservation, and medicinal purposes. The goal of this study is to provide an overview of the nutraceutical, therapeutic, antioxidant, and antibacterial key features of these three aromatics to explore new breeding challenges and opportunities for varietal development. In this context, a literature search has been performed to describe the phytochemical profile of both primary and secondary metabolites and their pharmacological uses, as well as to further explore accession availability in the medicine industry and also to emphasize their bioactive roles in plant ecology and biotic and abiotic stress adaptability. The aim of this review is to explore future perspectives on the development of new, highly valuable basil, summer savory, and thyme cultivars. The findings of the current review emphasize the importance of identifying the key compounds and genes involved in stress resistance that can also provide valuable insights for further improvement of these important medicinal plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mariana Calara
- Vegetable Research and Development Station, 600388 Bacău, Romania
| | | | - Otilia Cristina Murariu
- Department of Food Technology, Iasi University of Life Sciences (IULS), 700490 Iasi, Romania
| | - Creola Brezeanu
- Vegetable Research and Development Station, 600388 Bacău, Romania
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3
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The Identification and Characterization of Endopolygalacturonases in a South African Isolate of Phytophthora cinnamomi. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10051061. [PMID: 35630501 PMCID: PMC9146145 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10051061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytophthora cinnamomi is an economically important plant pathogen that has caused devastating losses to the avocado industry worldwide. To facilitate penetration and successful colonization of the host plant, pathogens have been reported to secrete polygalacturonases (PGs). Although a large PG gene family has been reported in P. cinnamomi, in-depth bioinformatics analyses and characterization of these genes is still lacking. In this study we used bioinformatics tools and molecular biology techniques to identify and characterize endopolygalacturonases in the genome of a South African P. cinnamomi isolate, GKB4. We identified 37 PGs, with 19 characteristics of full-length PGs. Although eight PcPGs were induced in planta during infection, only three showed significant up- and down-regulation when compared with in vitro mycelial growth, suggesting their possible roles in infection. The phylogenetic analysis of PcPGs showed both gain and loss of introns in the evolution of PGs in P. cinnamomi. Furthermore, 17 PGs were related to characterized PGs from oomycete species, providing insight on possible function. This study provides new data on endoPGs in P. cinnamomi and the evolution of introns in PcPG genes. We also provide a baseline for future functional characterization of PGs suspected to contribute to P. cinnamomi pathogenicity/virulence in avocado.
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Bradley EL, Ökmen B, Doehlemann G, Henrissat B, Bradshaw RE, Mesarich CH. Secreted Glycoside Hydrolase Proteins as Effectors and Invasion Patterns of Plant-Associated Fungi and Oomycetes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:853106. [PMID: 35360318 PMCID: PMC8960721 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.853106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
During host colonization, plant-associated microbes, including fungi and oomycetes, deliver a collection of glycoside hydrolases (GHs) to their cell surfaces and surrounding extracellular environments. The number and type of GHs secreted by each organism is typically associated with their lifestyle or mode of nutrient acquisition. Secreted GHs of plant-associated fungi and oomycetes serve a number of different functions, with many of them acting as virulence factors (effectors) to promote microbial host colonization. Specific functions involve, for example, nutrient acquisition, the detoxification of antimicrobial compounds, the manipulation of plant microbiota, and the suppression or prevention of plant immune responses. In contrast, secreted GHs of plant-associated fungi and oomycetes can also activate the plant immune system, either by acting as microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs), or through the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) as a consequence of their enzymatic activity. In this review, we highlight the critical roles that secreted GHs from plant-associated fungi and oomycetes play in plant-microbe interactions, provide an overview of existing knowledge gaps and summarize future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellie L. Bradley
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Bilal Ökmen
- Institute for Plant Sciences and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
- Department of Microbial Interactions, IMIT/ZMBP, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gunther Doehlemann
- Institute for Plant Sciences and Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences (CEPLAS), University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Bernard Henrissat
- DTU Bioengineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
- Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques (AFMB), UMR 7257 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Université Aix-Marseille, Marseille, France
- Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rosie E. Bradshaw
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, School of Natural Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - Carl H. Mesarich
- Bioprotection Aotearoa, School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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5
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Stocchi N, Revuelta MV, Castronuovo PAL, Vera DMA, Ten Have A. Molecular dynamics and structure function analysis show that substrate binding and specificity are major forces in the functional diversification of Eqolisins. BMC Bioinformatics 2018; 19:338. [PMID: 30249179 PMCID: PMC6154417 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-018-2348-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Eqolisins are rare acid proteases found in archaea, bacteria and fungi. Certain fungi secrete acids as part of their lifestyle and interestingly these also have many eqolisin paralogs, up to nine paralogs have been recorded. This suggests a process of functional redundancy and diversification has occurred, which was the subject of the research we performed and describe here. Results We identified eqolisin homologs by means of iterative HMMER analysis of the NR database. The identified sequences were scrutinized for which new hallmarks were identified by molecular dynamics simulations of mutants in highly conserved positions, using the structure of an eqolisin that was crystallized in the presence of a transition state inhibitor. Four conserved glycines were shown to be important for functionality. A substitution of W67F is shown to be accompanied by the L105W substitution. Molecular dynamics shows that the W67 binds to the substrate via a π-π stacking and a salt bridge, the latter being stronger in a virtual W67F/L105W double mutant of the resolved structure of Scytalido-carboxyl peptidase-B (PDB ID: 2IFW). Additional problematic mutations are discussed. Upon sequence scrutiny we obtained a set of 233 sequences that was used to reconstruct a Bayesian phylogenetic tree. We identified 14 putative specificity determining positions (SDPs) of which four are explained by mere structural explanations and nine seem to correspond to functional diversification related with substrate binding and specificity. A first sub-network of SDPs is related to substrate specificity whereas the second sub-network seems to affect the dynamics of three loops that are involved in substrate binding. Conclusion The eqolisins form a small superfamily of acid proteases with nevertheless many paralogs in acidic fungi. Functional redundancy has resulted in diversification related to substrate specificity and substrate binding. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12859-018-2348-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolás Stocchi
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas (IIB-CONICET-UNMdP), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, CC 1245, 7600, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - María Victoria Revuelta
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas (IIB-CONICET-UNMdP), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, CC 1245, 7600, Mar del Plata, Argentina.,Pressent address: Department of Medicine, Hematology and Oncology Division, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, 10065, USA
| | - Priscila Ailín Lanza Castronuovo
- QUIAMM-INBIOTEC-CONICET, Department of Chemistry - Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Funes 3350, 7600, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - D Mariano A Vera
- QUIAMM-INBIOTEC-CONICET, Department of Chemistry - Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Funes 3350, 7600, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Arjen Ten Have
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas (IIB-CONICET-UNMdP), Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, CC 1245, 7600, Mar del Plata, Argentina.
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Morales J, Mendoza L, Cotoras M. Alteration of oxidative phosphorylation as a possible mechanism of the antifungal action ofp-coumaric acid againstBotrytis cinerea. J Appl Microbiol 2017; 123:969-976. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Morales
- Facultad de Química y Biología; Universidad de Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - L. Mendoza
- Facultad de Química y Biología; Universidad de Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
| | - M. Cotoras
- Facultad de Química y Biología; Universidad de Santiago de Chile; Santiago Chile
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Sarrocco S, Matarese F, Baroncelli R, Vannacci G, Seidl-Seiboth V, Kubicek CP, Vergara M. The Constitutive Endopolygalacturonase TvPG2 Regulates the Induction of Plant Systemic Resistance by Trichoderma virens. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2017; 107:537-544. [PMID: 28095207 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-03-16-0139-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma spp. are opportunistic fungi some of which are commonly present in the rhizosphere. Several species, such as T. virens, are also efficient biocontrol agents against phytopathogenic fungi and exert beneficial effects on plants. These effects are the consequence of interactions between Trichoderma and plant roots, which trigger enhanced plant growth and induce plant resistance. We have previously shown that T. virens I10 expresses two endopolygalacturonase genes, tvpg1 and tvpg2, during the interaction with plant roots; tvpg1 is inducible while tvpg2 is constitutively transcribed. Using the same system, the tomato polygalacturonase-inhibitor gene Lepgip1 was induced at the same time as tvpg1. Here we show by gene disruption that TvPG2 performs a regulatory role on the inducible tvpg1 gene and in triggering the plant immune response. A tvpg2-knockout strain fails to transcribe the inducible tvpg1 gene in neither in vitro in inducing media containing pectin or plant cell walls, nor during the in vivo interaction with tomato roots. Likewise, the in vivo induction of Lepgip1 does not occur, and its defense against the pathogen Botrytis cinerea is significantly reduced. Our data prove the importance of a T. virens constitutively produced endopolygalacturonase in eliciting plant induced systemic resistance against pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Sarrocco
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Fabiola Matarese
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Riccardo Baroncelli
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Vannacci
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Verena Seidl-Seiboth
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Christian Peter Kubicek
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
| | - Mariarosaria Vergara
- First, second, third, fourth, and seventh authors: Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Italy, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy; fifth and sixth authors: Research Area Biotechnology and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical Engineering, TU Wien, 1060 Vienna, Austria; and seventh author: Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, piazza dei Cavalieri 7, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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8
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An B, Li B, Li H, Zhang Z, Qin G, Tian S. Aquaporin8 regulates cellular development and reactive oxygen species production, a critical component of virulence in Botrytis cinerea. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 209:1668-80. [PMID: 26527167 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/21/2015] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Aquaporins (AQPs) are ubiquitous in nearly all organisms, mediating selective and rapid flux of water across biological membranes. The role of AQPs in phytopathogenic fungi is poorly understood. Orthologs of AQP genes in Botrytis cinerea were identified and knocked out. The effects of AQPs on hyphal growth and conidiation, formation of infection structures and virulence on plant hosts were examined. The role of AQP8 in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, distribution and transport were further determined. Among eight AQPs, only AQP8 was essential for the ability of B. cinerea to infect plants. AQP8 was demonstrated to be an intrinsic plasma membrane protein, which may function as a channel and mediate hydrogen peroxide uptake. Deletion of AQP8 in B. cinerea completely inhibited the development of conidia and infection structures, and significantly affected noxR expression. Further observations revealed that both AQP8 and noxR impacted ROS distribution in the hyphal tips of B. cinerea. Moreover, AQP8 affected the expression of a mitochondrial protein, NQO1. A knockout mutant of NQO1 was observed to display reduced virulence. These data lead to a better understanding of the important role of AQP8 in the development and pathogenesis of plant pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bang An
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Hua Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Zhanquan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Guozheng Qin
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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9
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Reem NT, Pogorelko G, Lionetti V, Chambers L, Held MA, Bellincampi D, Zabotina OA. Decreased Polysaccharide Feruloylation Compromises Plant Cell Wall Integrity and Increases Susceptibility to Necrotrophic Fungal Pathogens. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:630. [PMID: 27242834 PMCID: PMC4862258 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The complexity of cell wall composition and structure determines the strength, flexibility, and function of the primary cell wall in plants. However, the contribution of the various components to cell wall integrity (CWI) and function remains unclear. Modifications of cell wall composition can induce plant responses known as CWI control. In this study, we used transgenic expression of the fungal feruloyl esterase AnFAE to examine the effect of post-synthetic modification of Arabidopsis and Brachypodium cell walls. Transgenic Arabidopsis plants expressing AnFAE showed a significant reduction of monomeric ferulic acid, decreased amounts of wall-associated extensins, and increased susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea, compared with wild type. Transgenic Brachypodium showed reductions in monomeric and dimeric ferulic acids and increased susceptibility to Bipolaris sorokiniana. Upon infection, transgenic Arabidopsis and Brachypodium plants also showed increased expression of several defense-related genes compared with wild type. These results demonstrate a role, in both monocot and dicot plants, of polysaccharide feruloylation in plant CWI, which contributes to plant resistance to necrotrophic pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan T. Reem
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry,
Biophysiscs and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IAUSA
| | - Gennady Pogorelko
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry,
Biophysiscs and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IAUSA
| | - Vincenzo Lionetti
- Dipartmento di Biologia e Biotechnologie
“Charles Darwin,” Sapienza Universita di Roma, RomeItaly
| | - Lauran Chambers
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry,
Biophysiscs and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IAUSA
| | - Michael A. Held
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ohio
University, Athens, OHUSA
| | - Daniela Bellincampi
- Dipartmento di Biologia e Biotechnologie
“Charles Darwin,” Sapienza Universita di Roma, RomeItaly
| | - Olga A. Zabotina
- Roy J. Carver Department of Biochemistry,
Biophysiscs and Molecular Biology, Iowa State University, Ames, IAUSA
- *Correspondence: Olga A. Zabotina,
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10
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Lyu M, Liang Y, Yu Y, Ma Z, Song L, Yue X, Cao J. Identification and expression analysis of BoMF25, a novel polygalacturonase gene involved in pollen development of Brassica oleracea. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2015; 28:121-132. [PMID: 25967087 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-015-0263-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
BoMF25 acts on pollen wall. Polygalacturonase (PG) is a pectin-digesting enzyme involved in numerous plant developmental processes and is described to be of critical importance for pollen wall development. In the present study, a PG gene, BoMF25, was isolated from Brassica oleracea. BoMF25 is the homologous gene of At4g35670, a PG gene in Arabidopsis thaliana with a high expression level at the tricellular pollen stage. Collinear analysis revealed that the orthologous gene of BoMF25 in Brassica campestris (syn. B. rapa) genome was probably lost because of genome deletion and reshuffling. Sequence analysis indicated that BoMF25 contained four classical conserved domains (I, II, III, and IV) of PG protein. Homology and phylogenetic analyses showed that BoMF25 was clustered in Clade F. The putative promoter sequence, containing classical cis-acting elements and pollen-specific motifs, could drive green fluorescence protein expression in onion epidermal cells. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis suggested that BoMF25 was mainly expressed in the anther at the late stage of pollen development. In situ hybridization analysis also indicated that the strong and specific expression signal of BoMF25 existed in pollen grains at the mature pollen stage. Subcellular localization showed that the fluorescence signal was observed in the cell wall of onion epidermal cells, which suggested that BoMF25 may be a secreted protein localized in the pollen wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meiling Lyu
- Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology, Institute of Vegetable Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China,
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11
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Zhang L, Hua C, Stassen JHM, Chatterjee S, Cornelissen M, van Kan JAL. Genome-wide analysis of pectate-induced gene expression in Botrytis cinerea: identification and functional analysis of putative d-galacturonate transporters. Fungal Genet Biol 2014; 72:182-191. [PMID: 24140151 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2013.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The fungal plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea produces a spectrum of cell wall degrading enzymes for the decomposition of host cell wall polysaccharides and the consumption of the monosaccharides that are released. Especially pectin is an abundant cell wall component, and the decomposition of pectin by B. cinerea has been extensively studied. An effective concerted action of the appropriate pectin depolymerising enzymes, monosaccharide transporters and catabolic enzymes is important for complete d-galacturonic acid utilization by B. cinerea. In this study, we performed RNA sequencing to compare genome-wide transcriptional profiles between B. cinerea cultures grown in media containing pectate or glucose as sole carbon source. Transcript levels of 32 genes that are induced by pectate were further examined in cultures grown on six different monosaccharides, by means of quantitative RT-PCR, leading to the identification of 8 genes that are exclusively induced by d-galacturonic acid. Among these, the hexose transporter encoding genes Bchxt15 and Bchxt19 were functionally characterised. The subcellular location was studied of BcHXT15-GFP and BcHXT19-GFP fusion proteins expressed under control of their native promoter, in a B. cinerea wild-type strain. Both genes are expressed during growth on d-galacturonic acid and the fusion proteins are localized in plasma membranes and intracellular vesicles. Target gene knockout analysis revealed that BcHXT15 contributes to d-galacturonic acid uptake at pH 5∼5.6. The virulence of all B. cinerea hexose transporter mutants tested was unaltered on tomato and Nicotiana benthamiana leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisha Zhang
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Biology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany.
| | - Chenlei Hua
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost H M Stassen
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands; Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Sayantani Chatterjee
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Maxim Cornelissen
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jan A L van Kan
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Zhang L, Kars I, Essenstam B, Liebrand TW, Wagemakers L, Elberse J, Tagkalaki P, Tjoitang D, van den Ackerveken G, van Kan JA. Fungal endopolygalacturonases are recognized as microbe-associated molecular patterns by the arabidopsis receptor-like protein RESPONSIVENESS TO BOTRYTIS POLYGALACTURONASES1. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 164:352-64. [PMID: 24259685 PMCID: PMC3875813 DOI: 10.1104/pp.113.230698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plants perceive microbial invaders using pattern recognition receptors that recognize microbe-associated molecular patterns. In this study, we identified RESPONSIVENESS TO BOTRYTIS POLYGALACTURONASES1 (RBPG1), an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein, AtRLP42, that recognizes fungal endopolygalacturonases (PGs) and acts as a novel microbe-associated molecular pattern receptor. RBPG1 recognizes several PGs from the plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea as well as one from the saprotroph Aspergillus niger. Infiltration of B. cinerea PGs into Arabidopsis accession Columbia induced a necrotic response, whereas accession Brno (Br-0) showed no symptoms. A map-based cloning strategy, combined with comparative and functional genomics, led to the identification of the Columbia RBPG1 gene and showed that this gene is essential for the responsiveness of Arabidopsis to the PGs. Transformation of RBPG1 into accession Br-0 resulted in a gain of PG responsiveness. Transgenic Br-0 plants expressing RBPG1 were equally susceptible as the recipient Br-0 to the necrotroph B. cinerea and to the biotroph Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis. Pretreating leaves of the transgenic plants with a PG resulted in increased resistance to H. arabidopsidis. Coimmunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated that RBPG1 and PG form a complex in Nicotiana benthamiana, which also involves the Arabidopsis leucine-rich repeat receptor-like protein SOBIR1 (for SUPPRESSOR OF BIR1). sobir1 mutant plants did not induce necrosis in response to PGs and were compromised in PG-induced resistance to H. arabidopsidis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ilona Kars
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
| | - Bert Essenstam
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
| | - Thomas W.H. Liebrand
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
| | | | - Joyce Elberse
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
| | - Panagiota Tagkalaki
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
| | - Devlin Tjoitang
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
| | - Guido van den Ackerveken
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands (L.Z., I.K., T.W.H.L., L.W., P.T., D.T., J.A.L.v.K.)
- Wageningen University and Research Centre, Unifarm, 6708 PE Wageningen, The Netherlands (B.E.); and
- Utrecht University, Plant-Microbe Interactions Group, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands (J.E., G.v.d.A.)
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Argôlo Santos Carvalho H, de Andrade Silva EM, Carvalho Santos S, Micheli F. Polygalacturonases from Moniliophthora perniciosa are regulated by fermentable carbon sources and possible post-translational modifications. Fungal Genet Biol 2013; 60:110-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2013.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2013] [Revised: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 10/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Postharvest pathogens can start its attack process immediately after spores land on wounded tissue, whereas other pathogens can forcibly breach the unripe fruit cuticle and then remain quiescent for months until fruit ripens and then cause major losses. RECENT ADVANCES Postharvest fungal pathogens activate their development by secreting organic acids or ammonia that acidify or alkalinize the host ambient surroundings. CRITICAL ISSUES These fungal pH modulations of host environment regulate an arsenal of enzymes to increase fungal pathogenicity. This arsenal includes genes and processes that compromise host defenses, contribute to intracellular signaling, produce cell wall-degrading enzymes, regulate specific transporters, induce redox protectant systems, and generate factors needed by the pathogen to effectively cope with the hostile environment found within the host. Further, evidence is accumulating that the secreted molecules (organic acids and ammonia) are multifunctional and together with effect of the ambient pH, they activate virulence factors and simultaneously hijack the plant defense response and induce program cell death to further enhance their necrotrophic attack. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Global studies of the effect of secreted molecules on fruit pathogen interaction, will determine the importance of these molecules on quiescence release and the initiation of fungal colonization leading to fruit and vegetable losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noam Alkan
- Department of Plant Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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15
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Khan M, Nakkeeran E, Umesh-Kumar S. Potential Application of Pectinase in Developing Functional Foods. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-030212-182525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The understanding that enzymatic degradation of fruit pectin can clarify juices and improve juice yields resulted in the search for microbial pectinases and application in vegetable- and fruit-processing industries. Identified enzymes were classified on the basis of their catalytic activity to pectin or its derivatives and in terms of industrial use. Discovery of gene sequences that coded the enzymes, protein engineering, and molecular biology tools resulted in defined microbial strains that over-produced the enzymes for cost-effective technologies. Recent perspectives on the use of pectin and its derivatives as dietary fibers suggest enzymatic synthesis of the right oligomers from pectin for use in human nutrition. While summarizing the activities of pectin-degrading enzymes, their industrial applications, and gene sources, this review projects another application for pectinases, which is the use of enzymatically derived pectin moieties in functional food preparation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahejibin Khan
- Department of Food Microbiology, Central Food Technological Research Institute (CSIR), Mysore 570020, India
| | - Ekambaram Nakkeeran
- School of Biosciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology University, Vellore 632014, India
| | - Sukumaran Umesh-Kumar
- Department of Food Microbiology, Central Food Technological Research Institute (CSIR), Mysore 570020, India
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Transcriptome profiling of Botrytis cinerea conidial germination reveals upregulation of infection-related genes during the prepenetration stage. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2013; 12:614-26. [PMID: 23417562 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00295-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea causes gray mold on a great number of host plants. Infection is initiated by airborne conidia that invade the host tissue, often by penetration of intact epidermal cells. To mimic the surface properties of natural plant surfaces, conidia were incubated on apple wax-coated surfaces, resulting in rapid germination and appressorium formation. Global changes in gene expression were analyzed by microarray hybridization between conidia incubated for 0 h (dormant), 1 h (pregermination), 2.5 h (postgermination), 4 h (appressoria), and 15 h (early mycelium). Considerable changes were observed, in particular between 0 h and 1 h. Genes induced during germination were enriched in those genes encoding secreted proteins, including lytic enzymes. Comparison of wild-type and a nonpathogenic MAP kinase mutant (bmp1) revealed marked differences in germination-related gene expression, in particular related to secretory proteins. Using promoter-GFP reporter strains, we detected a strictly germination-specific expression pattern of a putative chitin deacetylase gene (cda1). In contrast, a cutinase gene (cutB) was found to be expressed only in the presence of plant lipids, in a developmentally less stringent pattern. We also identified a coregulated gene cluster possibly involved in secondary metabolite synthesis which was found to be controlled by a transcription factor also encoded in this cluster. Our data demonstrate that early conidial development in B. cinerea is accompanied by rapid shifts in gene expression that prepare the fungus for germ tube outgrowth and host cell invasion.
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Prusky D, Alkan N, Mengiste T, Fluhr R. Quiescent and necrotrophic lifestyle choice during postharvest disease development. ANNUAL REVIEW OF PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2013; 51:155-76. [PMID: 23682917 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-phyto-082712-102349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Insidious fungal infections by postharvest pathogens remain quiescent during fruit growth until, at a particular phase during fruit ripening and senescence, the pathogens switch to the necrotrophic lifestyle and cause decay. During ripening, fruits undergo physiological processes, such as activation of ethylene biosynthesis, cuticular changes, and cell-wall loosening-changes that are accompanied by a decline of antifungal compounds, both those that are preformed and those that are inducible secondary metabolites. Pathogen infection of the unripe host fruit initiates defensive signal-transduction cascades, culminating in accumulation of antifungal proteins that limit fungal growth and development. In contrast, development of the same pathogens during fruit ripening and storage activates a substantially different signaling network, one that facilitates aggressive fungal colonization. This review focuses on responses induced by the quiescent pathogens of postharvest diseases in unripe host fruits. New genome-scale experimental approaches have begun to delineate the complex and multiple networks of host and pathogen responses activated to maintain or to facilitate the transition from the quiescent to the necrotrophic lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dov Prusky
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, ARO, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, 50250 Israel.
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18
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Zhang L, van Kan JAL. Botrytis cinerea mutants deficient in D-galacturonic acid catabolism have a perturbed virulence on Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis, but not on tomato. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2013; 14:19-29. [PMID: 22937823 PMCID: PMC6638916 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2012.00825.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
D-Galacturonic acid is the most abundant monosaccharide component of pectic polysaccharides that comprise a significant part of most plant cell walls. Therefore, it is potentially an important nutritional factor for Botrytis cinerea when it grows in and through plant cell walls. The d-galacturonic acid catabolic pathway in B. cinerea consists of three catalytic steps converting d-galacturonic acid to pyruvate and l-glyceraldehyde, involving two nonhomologous galacturonate reductase genes (Bcgar1 and Bcgar2), a galactonate dehydratase gene (Bclgd1) and a 2-keto-3-deoxy-l-galactonate aldolase gene (Bclga1). Knockout mutants in each step of the pathway (ΔBcgar1/ΔBcgar2, ΔBclgd1 and ΔBclga1) showed reduced virulence on Nicotiana benthamiana and Arabidopsis thaliana leaves, but not on Solanum lycopersicum leaves. The cell walls of N. benthamiana and A. thaliana leaves were shown to have a higher d-galacturonic acid content relative to those of S. lycopersicum. The observation that mutants displayed a reduction in virulence, especially on plants with a high d-galacturonic acid content in the cell walls, suggests that, in these hosts, d-galacturonic acid has an important role as a carbon nutrient for B. cinerea. However, additional in vitro growth assays with the knockout mutants revealed that B. cinerea growth is reduced when d-galacturonic acid catabolic intermediates cannot proceed through the entire pathway, even when fructose is present as the major, alternative carbon source. These data suggest that the reduced virulence of d-galacturonic acid catabolism-deficient mutants on N. benthamiana and A. thaliana is not only a result of the inability of the mutants to utilize an abundant carbon source as nutrient, but also a result of the growth inhibition by catabolic intermediates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisha Zhang
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Droevendaalsesteeg 1, 6708 PB, Wageningen, The Netherlands
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19
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Hong YS, Martinez A, Liger-Belair G, Jeandet P, Nuzillard JM, Cilindre C. Metabolomics reveals simultaneous influences of plant defence system and fungal growth in Botrytis cinerea-infected Vitis vinifera cv. Chardonnay berries. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:5773-5785. [PMID: 22945941 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ers228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is a fungal plant pathogen of grape berries, leading to economic and quality losses in wine production. The global metabolite changes induced by B. cinerea infection in grape have not been established to date, even though B. cinerea infection is known to cause significant changes in chemicals or metabolites. In order to better understand metabolic mechanisms linked to the infection process and to identify the metabolites associated with B. cinerea infection, (1)H NMR spectroscopy was used in global metabolite profiling and multivariate statistical analysis of berries from healthy and botrytized bunches. Pattern recognition methods, such as principal component analysis, revealed clear metabolic discriminations between healthy and botrytized berries of botrytized bunches and healthy berries of healthy bunches. Significantly high levels of proline, glutamate, arginine, and alanine, which are accumulated upon plant stress, were found in healthy and botrytized berries of botrytized bunches. Moreover, largely degraded phenylpropanoids, flavonoid compounds, and sucrose together with markedly produced glycerol, gluconic acid, and succinate, all being directly associated with B. cinerea growth, were only found in botrytized berries of botrytized bunches. This study reports that B. cinerea infection causes significant metabolic changes in grape berry and highlights that both the metabolic perturbations associated with the plant defence system and those directly derived from fungal pathogen growth should be considered to better understand the interaction between metabolic variation and biotic pathogen stress in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Shick Hong
- Laboratoire d'Oenologie et Chimie Appliquée, URVVC UPRES EA 4707, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne: BP 1039, 51687 Reims Cedex 2, France.
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20
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Shah P, Powell ALT, Orlando R, Bergmann C, Gutierrez-Sanchez G. Proteomic analysis of ripening tomato fruit infected by Botrytis cinerea. J Proteome Res 2012; 11:2178-92. [PMID: 22364583 DOI: 10.1021/pr200965c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea, a model necrotrophic fungal pathogen that causes gray mold as it infects different organs on more than 200 plant species, is a significant contributor to postharvest rot in fresh fruit and vegetables, including tomatoes. By describing host and pathogen proteomes simultaneously in infected tissues, the plant proteins that provide resistance and allow susceptibility and the pathogen proteins that promote colonization and facilitate quiescence can be identified. This study characterizes fruit and fungal proteins solubilized in the B. cinerea-tomato interaction using shotgun proteomics. Mature green, red ripe wild type and ripening inhibited (rin) mutant tomato fruit were infected with B. cinerea B05.10, and the fruit and fungal proteomes were identified concurrently 3 days postinfection. One hundred eighty-six tomato proteins were identified in common among red ripe and red ripe-equivalent ripening inhibited (rin) mutant tomato fruit infected by B. cinerea. However, the limited infections by B. cinerea of mature green wild type fruit resulted in 25 and 33% fewer defense-related tomato proteins than in red and rin fruit, respectively. In contrast, the ripening stage of genotype of the fruit infected did not affect the secreted proteomes of B. cinerea. The composition of the collected proteins populations and the putative functions of the identified proteins argue for their role in plant-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punit Shah
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States
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21
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Haroldsen VM, Szczerba MW, Aktas H, Lopez-Baltazar J, Odias MJ, Chi-Ham CL, Labavitch JM, Bennett AB, Powell ALT. Mobility of Transgenic Nucleic Acids and Proteins within Grafted Rootstocks for Agricultural Improvement. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 3:39. [PMID: 22645583 PMCID: PMC3355758 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2012.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2011] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Grafting has been used in agriculture for over 2000 years. Disease resistance and environmental tolerance are highly beneficial traits that can be provided through use of grafting, although the mechanisms, in particular for resistance, have frequently been unknown. As information emerges that describes plant disease resistance mechanisms, the proteins, and nucleic acids that play a critical role in disease management can be expressed in genetically engineered (GE) plant lines. Utilizing transgrafting, the combination of a GE rootstock with a wild-type (WT) scion, or the reverse, has the potential to provide pest and pathogen resistance, impart biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, or increase plant vigor and productivity. Of central importance to these potential benefits is the question of to what extent nucleic acids and proteins are transmitted across a graft junction and whether the movement of these molecules will affect the efficacy of the transgrafting approach. Using a variety of specific examples, this review will report on the movement of organellar DNA, RNAs, and proteins across graft unions. Attention will be specifically drawn to the use of small RNAs and gene silencing within transgrafted plants, with a particular focus on pathogen resistance. The use of GE rootstocks or scions has the potential to extend the horticultural utility of grafting by combining this ancient technique with the molecular strategies of the modern era.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark W. Szczerba
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
| | - Hakan Aktas
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Suleyman DemirelIsparta, Turkey
| | - Javier Lopez-Baltazar
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
- Instituto Tecnologico del Valle de OaxacaOaxaca, Mexico
| | - Mar Joseph Odias
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
| | | | - John M. Labavitch
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
| | - Alan B. Bennett
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
| | - Ann L. T. Powell
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of CaliforniaDavis, CA, USA
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22
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Bertazzon N, Raiola A, Castiglioni C, Gardiman M, Angelini E, Borgo M, Ferrari S. Transient silencing of the grapevine gene VvPGIP1 by agroinfiltration with a construct for RNA interference. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2012; 31:133-43. [PMID: 21932028 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-011-1147-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Revised: 08/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Grapevine is an economically important crop, and the recent completion of its genome makes it possible to study the function of specific genes through reverse genetics. However, the analysis of gene function by RNA interference (RNAi) in grapevine is difficult, because the generation of stable transgenic plants has low efficiency and is time consuming. Recently, transient expression of genes in grapevine leaves has been obtained by Agrobacterium tumefaciens infiltration (agroinfiltration). We therefore tested the possibility to silence grapevine genes by agroinfiltration of RNAi constructs. A construct to express a double strand RNA (dsRNA) corresponding to the defense-related gene VvPGIP1, encoding a polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP), was obtained and transiently expressed by agroinfiltration in leaves of grapevine plants grown in vitro. Expression of VvPGIP1 and accumulation of PGIP activity were strongly induced by infiltration with control bacteria, but not with bacteria carrying the dsRNA construct, indicating that the gene was efficiently silenced. In contrast, expression of another defense-related gene, VST1, encoding a stilbene synthase, was unaffected by the dsRNA construct. We have therefore demonstrated the possibility of transient down-regulation of grapevine genes by agroinfiltration of constructs for the expression of dsRNA. This system can be employed to evaluate the effectiveness of constructs that can be subsequently used to generate stable RNAi transgenic plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Bertazzon
- CRA-VIT Centro di ricerca per la viticoltura, Conegliano, TV, Italy
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23
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The D-galacturonic acid catabolic pathway in Botrytis cinerea. Fungal Genet Biol 2011; 48:990-7. [PMID: 21683149 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2011.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2011] [Revised: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 06/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
D-galacturonic acid is the most abundant component of pectin, one of the major polysaccharide constituents of plant cell walls. Galacturonic acid potentially is an important carbon source for microorganisms living on (decaying) plant material. A catabolic pathway was proposed in filamentous fungi, comprising three enzymatic steps, involving D-galacturonate reductase, L-galactonate dehydratase, and 2-keto-3-deoxy-L-galactonate aldolase. We describe the functional, biochemical and genetic characterization of the entire D-galacturonate-specific catabolic pathway in the plant pathogenic fungus Botrytis cinerea. The B. cinerea genome contains two non-homologous galacturonate reductase genes (Bcgar1 and Bcgar2), a galactonate dehydratase gene (Bclgd1), and a 2-keto-3-deoxy-L-galactonate aldolase gene (Bclga1). Their expression levels were highly induced in cultures containing GalA, pectate, or pectin as the sole carbon source. The four proteins were expressed in Escherichia coli and their enzymatic activity was characterized. Targeted gene replacement of all four genes in B. cinerea, either separately or in combinations, yielded mutants that were affected in growth on D-galacturonic acid, pectate, or pectin as the sole carbon source. In Aspergillus nidulans and A. niger, the first catabolic conversion only involves the Bcgar2 ortholog, while in Hypocrea jecorina, it only involves the Bcgar1 ortholog. In B. cinerea, however, BcGAR1 and BcGAR2 jointly contribute to the first step of the catabolic pathway, albeit to different extent. The virulence of all B. cinerea mutants in the D-galacturonic acid catabolic pathway on tomato leaves, apple fruit and bell peppers was unaltered.
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Cloning, expression and characterization of an acidic endo-polygalacturonase from Bispora sp. MEY-1 and its potential application in juice clarification. Process Biochem 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2010.08.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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25
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Espino JJ, Gutiérrez-Sánchez G, Brito N, Shah P, Orlando R, González C. The Botrytis cinerea early secretome. Proteomics 2010; 10:3020-34. [PMID: 20564262 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201000037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular proteome, or secretome, of phytopathogenic fungi is presumed to be a key element of their infection strategy. Especially interesting constituents of this set are those proteins secreted at the beginning of the infection, during the germination of conidia on the plant surfaces or wounds, since they may play essential roles in the establishment of a successful infection. We have germinated Botrytis cinerea conidia in conditions that resemble the plant environment, a synthetic medium enriched with low molecular weight plant compounds, and we have collected the proteins secreted during the first 16 h by a double precipitation protocol. 2-D electrophoresis of the precipitated secretome showed a spot pattern similar for all conditions evaluated and for the control medium without plant extract. The proteins in 16 of these spots were identified by PMF and corresponded to 11 different polypeptides. Alternative determination of secretome composition by LC-MS/MS of tryptic fragments rendered a much larger number, 105 proteins, which included all previously identified by PMF. All proteins were functionally classified according to their putative function in the infection process. Key features of the early secretome include a large number of proteases, the abundance of proteins involved in the degradation of plant defensive barriers, and plenty of proteins with unknown function.
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Affiliation(s)
- José J Espino
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de La Laguna, La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
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26
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El Oirdi M, Trapani A, Bouarab K. The nature of tobacco resistance against Botrytis cinerea depends on the infection structures of the pathogen. Environ Microbiol 2010; 12:239-53. [PMID: 19799622 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.02063.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
To protect themselves, plants have evolved an armoury of defences in response to pathogens and other stress situations. These include the production of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and the accumulation of antimicrobial molecules such as phytoalexins. Here we report that resistance of tobacco to Botrytis cinerea is cultivar specific. Nicotiana tabacum cv. Petit Havana but not N. tabacum cv. Xanthi or cv. samsun is resistant to B. cinerea. This resistance is correlated with the accumulation of the phytoalexin scopoletin and PR proteins. We also show that this resistance depends on the type of B. cinerea stage. Nicotiana tabacum cv. Petit Havana is more resistant to spores than to mycelium of B. cinerea. This reduced resistance of N. tabacum cv. Petit Havana to the mycelium compared with spores is correlated with the suppression of PR proteins accumulation and the capacity of the mycelium, not the spores, to metabolize scopoletin. These data present an important advance in understanding the strategies used by B. cinerea to establish its disease on tobacco plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed El Oirdi
- Centre de Recherche en Amélioration Végétale, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke, Québec, J1K2R1, Canada
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Brunner PC, Keller N, McDonald BA. Wheat domestication accelerated evolution and triggered positive selection in the beta-xylosidase enzyme of Mycosphaerella graminicola. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7884. [PMID: 19924304 PMCID: PMC2774967 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2009] [Accepted: 10/06/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant cell wall degrading enzymes (PCWDEs) of plant pathogens are receiving increasing interest for their potential to trigger plant defense reactions. In an antagonistic co-evolutionary arms race between host and pathogen, PCWDEs could be under strong selection. Here, we tested the hypothesis that PCWDEs in the fungal wheat pathogen Mycosphaerella graminicola have been positively selected by analyzing ratios of non-synonymous and synonymous nucleotide changes in the genes encoding these enzymes. Analyses of five PCWDEs demonstrated that one (beta-xylosidase) has been under strong positive selection and experienced an accelerated rate of evolution. In contrast, PCWDEs in the closest relatives of M. graminicola collected from wild grasses did not show evidence for selection or deviation from a molecular clock. Since the genealogical divergence of M. graminicola from these latter species coincided with the onset of agriculture, we hypothesize that the recent domestication of the host plant and/or agricultural practices triggered positive selection in beta-xylosidase and that this enzyme played a key role in the emergence of a host-specialized pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick C Brunner
- Institute of Integrative Biology, Plant Pathology Group, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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28
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Shah P, Gutierrez-Sanchez G, Orlando R, Bergmann C. A proteomic study of pectin-degrading enzymes secreted by Botrytis cinerea grown in liquid culture. Proteomics 2009; 9:3126-35. [PMID: 19526562 PMCID: PMC2761233 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200800933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2008] [Accepted: 02/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is a pathogenic filamentous fungus, which infects more than 200 plant species. The enzymes secreted by B. cinerea play an important role in the successful colonization of a host plant. Some of the secreted enzymes are involved in the degradation of pectin, a major component of the plant cell wall. A total of 126 proteins secreted by B. cinerea were identified by growing the fungus on highly or partially esterified pectin, or on sucrose in liquid culture. Sixty-seven common proteins were identified in each of the growth conditions, of which 50 proteins exhibited a SignalP motif. Thirteen B. cinerea proteins with functions related to pectin degradation were identified in both pectin growth conditions, while only four were identified in sucrose. Our results indicate it is unlikely that the activation of B. cinerea from the dormant state to active infection is solely dependent on changes in the degree of esterification of the pectin component of the plant cell wall. Further, these results suggest that future studies of the B. cinerea secretome in infections of ripe and unripe fruits will provide important information that will describe the mechanisms that the fungus employs to access nutrients and decompose tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punit Shah
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-4712, USA
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Shah P, Atwood JA, Orlando R, El Mubarek H, Podila GK, Davis MR. Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Botrytis cinerea Secretome. J Proteome Res 2009; 8:1123-30. [DOI: 10.1021/pr8003002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Punit Shah
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and the Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama 35899
| | - James A. Atwood
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and the Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama 35899
| | - Ron Orlando
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and the Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama 35899
| | - Hind El Mubarek
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and the Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama 35899
| | - Gopi K. Podila
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and the Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama 35899
| | - Maria R. Davis
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center and the Departments of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Chemistry, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602, and Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alabama in Huntsville, Huntsville, Alabama 35899
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30
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Ribon ADOB, Ribeiro JB, Gonçalves DB, de Queiroz MV, de Araújo EF. Gel mobility shift scanning of pectin-inducible promoter from Penicillium griseoroseum reveals the involvement of a CCAAT element in the expression of a polygalacturonase gene. Genet Mol Biol 2009; 32:129-32. [PMID: 21637657 PMCID: PMC3032954 DOI: 10.1590/s1415-47572009005000021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Accepted: 07/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous reports have described pgg2, a polygalacturonase-encoding gene of Penicillium griseoroseum, as an attractive model for transcriptional regulation studies, due to its high expression throughout several in vitro growth conditions, even in the presence of non-inducing sugars such as sucrose. A search for regulatory motifs in the 5' upstream regulatory sequence of pgg2 identified a putative CCAAT box that could justify this expression profile. This element, located 270 bp upstream of the translational start codon, was tested as binding target for regulatory proteins. Analysis of a 170 bp promoter fragment by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) with nuclear extracts prepared from mycelia grown in pectin-containing culture medium revealed a high mobility complex that was subsequently confirmed by analyzing it with a double-stranded oligonucleotide spanning the CCAAT motif. A substitution in the core sequence for GTAGG partially abolished the formation of specific complexes, showing the involvement of the CCAAT box in the regulation of the polygalacturonase gene studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andréa de O B Ribon
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, MG Brazil
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31
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Mertens JA, Burdick RC, Rooney AP. Identification, biochemical characterization, and evolution of the Rhizopus oryzae 99–880 polygalacturonase gene family. Fungal Genet Biol 2008; 45:1616-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2008.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2008] [Revised: 09/22/2008] [Accepted: 09/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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32
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Cantu D, Vicente AR, Labavitch JM, Bennett AB, Powell ALT. Strangers in the matrix: plant cell walls and pathogen susceptibility. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2008; 13:610-7. [PMID: 18824396 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2008.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2008] [Revised: 08/29/2008] [Accepted: 09/03/2008] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Early in infection, pathogens encounter the outer wall of plant cells. Because pathogen hydrolases targeting the plant cell wall are well-known components of virulence, it has been assumed that wall disassembly by the plant itself also contributes to susceptibility, and now this has been established experimentally. Understanding how plant morphological and developmental remodeling and pathogen cell wall targeted virulence influence infections provides new perspectives about plant-pathogen interactions. The plant cell wall can be an effective physical barrier to pathogens, but also it is a matrix where many proteins involved in pathogen perception are delivered. By breaching the wall, a pathogen potentially reveals itself to the plant and activates responses, setting off events that might halt or limit its advance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Cantu
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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33
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Cettul E, Rekab D, Locci R, Firrao G. Evolutionary analysis of endopolygalacturonase-encoding genes of Botrytis cinerea. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2008; 9:675-685. [PMID: 19018996 PMCID: PMC6640430 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2008.00492.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Sequence analysis of five of the six endopolygalacturonase-encoding genes (Bcpg1, Bcpg2, Bcpg3, Bcpg4, Bcpg5) from 32 strains of Botrytis cinerea showed marked gene to gene differences in the amount of among-strains diversity. Bcpg4 was almost invariable in all strains; Bcpg3 and Bcpg5 showed a moderate variability, similar to that of non-pathogenicity-associated genes examined in other studies. Conversely, Bcpg1 and Bcpg2 were highly variable and were shown to be under positive selection based on the McDonald-Kreitman test and likelihood ratio test. The evolution of the five endopolygalacturonase genes is explained by their different ecophysiological role. Diversification and balancing selection, as detected in Bcpg1 and Bcpg2, can be used by the pathogen to escape recognition by the host and delay plant reaction in the early phases of infection. The analysis of the polymorphisms and the location of the sites with high probability of being positively selected highlighted the relevance of variability of the BcPG1 and BcPG2 proteins at their C-terminal end. By contrast, the absence of variability in Bcpg4 suggests that the efficiency of the product of this gene is critical for B. cinerea growth in late phases of infection or during intraspecific competition, thus markedly affecting strain fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Cettul
- Dipartimento di Biologia e Protezione delle Piante, Università di Udine, via Scienze 208, 33100 Udine, Italy
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Miyara I, Shafran H, Kramer Haimovich H, Rollins J, Sherman A, Prusky D. Multi-factor regulation of pectate lyase secretion by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides pathogenic on avocado fruits. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2008; 9:281-91. [PMID: 18705870 PMCID: PMC6640356 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2007.00462.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Tissue alkalinization during Colletotrichum gloeosporioides attack enhances the expression of PELB, which encodes pectate lyase (PL), and PL secretion, which is considered essential for full virulence. We studied the regulation of PL secretion by manipulation of C. gloeosporioides PELB. PELB was down-regulated by knocking out PAC1, which encodes the PacC transcription factor that regulates gene products with pH-sensitive activities. We functionally characterized a PACC gene homologue, PAC1, from C. gloeosporioides wild-type (WT) Cg-14 and two independent deletion strains, Deltapac1(372)and Deltapac1(761). Loss-of-function PAC1 mutants showed 85% reduction of PELB transcript expression, delayed PL secretion and dramatically reduced virulence, as detected in infection assays with avocado fruits. In contrast, PELB was up-regulated in the presence of carbon sources such as glucose. When glucose was used as a carbon source in the medium for the WT strain and the Deltapac1 mutant at pH 6.0, PELB transcript expression and PL secretion were activated. Other sugars, such as sucrose and fructose (but not galactose), also activated PELB expression. These results suggest that the pH-regulated response is only part of a multi-factor regulation of PELB, and that sugars are also needed to promote the transition from quiescent to active necrotrophic development by the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Miyara
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
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35
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Trigui-Lahiani HÃ, Ayadi M, Hadj-Taïeb N, Ali MB, Gargouri A. Genomic organization of a polygalacturonase gene from a hyperpectinolytic mutant strain of Penicillium occitanis. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2008; 281:23-9. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2008.01071.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
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36
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Wu CH, Yan HZ, Liu LF, Liou RF. Functional characterization of a gene family encoding Polygalacturonases in Phytophthora parasitica. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2008; 21:480-9. [PMID: 18321193 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-21-4-0480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Phytophthora parasitica is an oomycete plant pathogen that causes severe disease in a wide variety of plant species. In our previous study, we discovered a multigene family encoding endopolygalacturonases (endoPG) in Phytophthora parasitica. Here, we screened the genomic library of Phytophthora parasitica for the genes encoding endoPG named pppg2 through pppg10, and analyzed their functions. Results obtained by real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction demonstrated that some of these genes are highly induced during plant infection, which suggests their important roles in the pathogenesis of Phytophthora parasitica. Analysis by in-gel activity assay of recombinant proteins obtained from Pichia pastoris indicated that each of these genes encodes a functional endoPG. Investigation of the function of pppg genes in planta by a Potato virus X agroinfection system in tobacco revealed that each pppg caused specific effects, varying from no symptoms to dwarfism, necrosis, leaf curl, silvery leaf, and cracks in leaf stalks. Appearance of these effects depends on the expression of a pppg protein with a normal active site in the apoplast. These results indicated that each pppg plays a distinct role in the decomposition of plant cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hang Wu
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
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37
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Cantu D, Vicente AR, Greve LC, Dewey FM, Bennett AB, Labavitch JM, Powell ALT. The intersection between cell wall disassembly, ripening, and fruit susceptibility to Botrytis cinerea. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:859-64. [PMID: 18199833 PMCID: PMC2242701 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0709813105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fruit ripening is characterized by processes that modify texture and flavor but also by a dramatic increase in susceptibility to necrotrophic pathogens, such as Botrytis cinerea. Disassembly of the major structural polysaccharides of the cell wall (CW) is a significant process associated with ripening and contributes to fruit softening. In tomato, polygalacturonase (PG) and expansin (Exp) are among the CW proteins that cooperatively participate in ripening-associated CW disassembly. To determine whether endogenous CW disassembly influences the ripening-regulated increase in necrotropic pathogen susceptibility, B. cinerea susceptibility was assessed in transgenic fruit with suppressed polygalacturonase (LePG) and expansin (LeExp1) expression. Suppression of either LePG or LeExp1 alone did not reduce susceptibility but simultaneous suppression of both dramatically reduced the susceptibility of ripening fruit to B. cinerea, as measured by fungal biomass accumulation and by macerating lesion development. These results demonstrate that altering endogenous plant CW disassembly during ripening influences the course of infection by B. cinerea, perhaps by changing the structure or the accessibility of CW substrates to pathogen CW-degrading enzymes. Recognition of the role of ripening-associated CW metabolism in postharvest pathogen susceptibility may be useful in the design and development of strategies to limit pathogen losses during fruit storage, handling, and distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. Cantu
- Departments of *Plant Sciences and
| | - A. R. Vicente
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos (CONICET-UNLP) and Facultad de Ciencias Agrarias y Forestales, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CP 1900, Argentina; and
| | | | - F. M. Dewey
- Viticulture and Enology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RB, United Kingdom
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38
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Massa C, Clausen MH, Stojan J, Lamba D, Campa C. Study of the mode of action of a polygalacturonase from the phytopathogen Burkholderia cepacia. Biochem J 2008; 407:207-17. [PMID: 17627609 PMCID: PMC2049012 DOI: 10.1042/bj20061833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We have recently isolated and heterologously expressed BcPeh28A, an endopolygalacturonase from the phytopathogenic Gram-negative bacterium Burkholderia cepacia. Endopolygalacturonases belong to glycoside hydrolase family 28 and are responsible for the hydrolysis of the non-esterified regions of pectins. The mode of action of BcPeh28A on different substrates has been investigated and its enzymatic mechanism elucidated. The hydrolysis of polygalacturonate indicates that BcPeh28A is a non-processive enzyme that releases oligomers with chain lengths ranging from two to eight. By inspection of product progression curves, a kinetic model has been generated and extensively tested. It has been used to derive the kinetic parameters that describe the time course of the formation of six predominant products. Moreover, an investigation of the enzymatic activity on shorter substrates that differ in their overall length and methylation patterns sheds light on the architecture of the BcPeh28A active site. Specifically the tolerance of individual sites towards methylated saccharide units was rationalized on the basis of the hydrolysis of hexagalacturonides with different methylation patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Massa
- International School for Advanced Studies, Via Beirut 2/4, I-34014 Trieste, Italy.
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39
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Williamson B, Tudzynski B, Tudzynski P, van Kan JAL. Botrytis cinerea: the cause of grey mould disease. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2007; 8:561-80. [PMID: 20507522 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2007.00417.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 795] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Botrytis cinerea (teleomorph: Botryotinia fuckeliana) is an airborne plant pathogen with a necrotrophic lifestyle attacking over 200 crop hosts worldwide. Although there are fungicides for its control, many classes of fungicides have failed due to its genetic plasticity. It has become an important model for molecular study of necrotrophic fungi. TAXONOMY Kingdom: Fungi, phylum: Ascomycota, subphylum: Pezizomycotina, class: Leotiomycetes, order: Helotiales, family: Sclerotiniaceae, genus: Botryotinia. HOST RANGE AND SYMPTOMS Over 200 mainly dicotyledonous plant species, including important protein, oil, fibre and horticultural crops, are affected in temperate and subtropical regions. It can cause soft rotting of all aerial plant parts, and rotting of vegetables, fruits and flowers post-harvest to produce prolific grey conidiophores and (macro)conidia typical of the disease. PATHOGENICITY B. cinerea produces a range of cell-wall-degrading enzymes, toxins and other low-molecular-weight compounds such as oxalic acid. New evidence suggests that the pathogen triggers the host to induce programmed cell death as an attack strategy. Resistance: There are few examples of robust genetic host resistance, but recent work has identified quantitative trait loci in tomato that offer new approaches for stable polygenic resistance in future. USEFUL WEBSITES http://www.phi-base.org/query.php, http://www.broad.mit.edu/annotation/genome/botrytis_cinerea/Home.html, http://urgi.versailles.inra.fr/projects/Botrytis/, http://cogeme.ex.ac.uk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Williamson
- Scottish Crop Research Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
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40
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Rowe HC, Kliebenstein DJ. Elevated genetic variation within virulence-associated Botrytis cinerea polygalacturonase loci. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2007; 20:1126-37. [PMID: 17849715 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-20-9-1126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea, or gray mold, is a necrotrophic fungal pathogen of hundreds of plant species. The genetic diversity of B. cinerea may contribute to its broad host range; however, the level and structure of genetic variation at pathogenesis-associated loci has not been described. B. cinerea possesses six distinct cell-wall-degrading polygalacturonases (PGs), enzymes of demonstrated importance to pathogenesis and interaction with host plant defenses. Sequencing a collection of 34 B. cinerea isolates at three PG-encoding loci, BcPG1, BcPG2, and BcPG3, revealed limited evidence of host-mediated genetic subdivision within loci, yet suggested differences in the action of evolutionary forces among loci. BcPG1 and BcPG2 are highly polymorphic, particularly when compared with previously published data from nonpathogenicity loci, whereas BcPG3 is relatively conserved. Sequence variation at BcPG1 and BcPG2 did not appear to be associated with virulence on Arabidopsis leaves; however, BcPG2 variation showed a statistically significant association with growth rate on pectin. Rather than providing evidence for host-mediated genetic subdivision at individual PG loci, our data support specialization among PGs and the potential diversification of PGs interacting directly with host defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather C Rowe
- Department of Plant Sciences, Mail Stop 3, University of California, One Shields Ave, Davis 95616, USA
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41
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Joubert DA, Kars I, Wagemakers L, Bergmann C, Kemp G, Vivier MA, van Kan JAL. A polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein from grapevine reduces the symptoms of the endopolygalacturonase BcPG2 from Botrytis cinerea in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves without any evidence for in vitro interaction. MOLECULAR PLANT-MICROBE INTERACTIONS : MPMI 2007; 20:392-402. [PMID: 17427809 DOI: 10.1094/mpmi-20-4-0392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Six endopolygalacturonases from Botrytis cinerea (BcPG1 to BcPG6) as well as mutated forms of BcPG1 and BcPG2 were expressed transiently in leaves of Nicotiana benthamiana using agroinfiltration. Expression of BcPG1, BcPG2, BcPG4, BcPG5, and mutant BcPG1-D203A caused symptoms, whereas BcPG3, BcPG6, and mutant BcPG2-D192A caused no symptoms. Expression of BcPG2 caused the most severe symptoms, including wilting and necrosis. BcPG2 previously has been shown to be essential for B. cinerea virulence. The in vivo effect of this enzyme and the inhibition by a polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (PGIP) was examined by coexpressing Bcpg2 and the Vvpgipl gene from Vitis vinifera in N. benthamiana. Coinfiltration resulted in a substantial reduction of the symptoms inflicted by the activity of BcPG2 in planta, as evidenced by quantifying the variable chlorophyll fluorescence yield. In vitro, however, no interaction between pure VvPGIP1 and pure BcPG2 was detected. Specifically, VvPGIP1 neither inhibited BcPG2 activity nor altered the degradation profile of polygalacturonic acid by BcPG2. Furthermore, using surface plasmon resonance technology, no physical interaction between VvPGIP1 and BcPG2 was detected in vitro. The data suggest that the in planta environment provided a context to support the interaction between BcPG2 and VvPGIP1, leading to a reduction in symptom development, whereas neither of the in vitro assays detected any interaction between these proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk A Joubert
- Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Department of Viticulture and Oenology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, 7600, South Africa
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Prusky D, Lichter A. Activation of quiescent infections by postharvest pathogens during transition from the biotrophic to the necrotrophic stage. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2007; 268:1-8. [PMID: 17227463 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.2006.00603.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Insidious fungal infections of postharvest pathogens remain quiescent, as biotrophs, during fruit growth and harvest, but activate their development and transform to necrotrophs, which elicit decay symptoms, during ripening and senescence. Exposure of unripe hosts to pathogens quickly initiates defensive signal-transduction cascades that limit fungal growth and development, but exposure to the same pathogens during ripening and storage activates a substantially different signaling cascade that facilitates fungal colonization. The first step in the activation of quiescent infections may involve the fungal capability to cope with plant defense responses by detoxification and efflux transport of antifungals, or by overcoming the suppression of pathogenicity factors. The second step toward the activation of quiescent infections is actively modulated by the pathogen in response to a host signal(s), and includes alkalization or ammonification of the host tissue, which sensitizes the host and activates the transcription and secretion of fungal-degradative enzymes that promote maceration of the host tissue. Feedback signals involving, for example, nitrogen and sugar further enhance pH changes, synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes and saprophytic development in the macerated tissue. This review describes the coordinated series of mechanisms that regulate the activation of quiescent infections in various fruit/vegetable-pathogen interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dov Prusky
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, Agricultural Research Organization, Bet Dagan, Israel.
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43
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El Oirdi M, Bouarab K. Plant signalling components EDS1 and SGT1 enhance disease caused by the necrotrophic pathogen Botrytis cinerea. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2007; 175:131-139. [PMID: 17547673 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02086.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
* Botrytis cinerea is a necrotrophic fungus that causes grey mould on a wide range of food plants, especially grapevine, tomato, soft fruits and vegetables. This disease brings about important economic losses in both pre- and postharvest crops. Successful protection of host plants against this pathogen is severely hampered by a lack of resistance genes in the hosts and the considerable phenotypic diversity of the fungus. * The aim of this study was to test whether B. cinerea manipulates the immunity-signalling pathways in plants to restore its disease. * We showed that B. cinerea caused disease in Nicotiana benthamiana through the activation of two plant signalling genes, EDS1 and SGT1, which have been shown to be essential for resistance against biotrophic pathogens; and more interestingly, virus-induced gene silencing of these two plant signalling components enhanced N. benthamiana resistance to B. cinerea. Finally, plants expressing the baculovirus antiapoptotic protein p35 were more resistant to this necrotrophic pathogen than wild-type plants. * This work highlights a new strategy used by B. cinerea to establish disease. This information is important for the design of strategies to improve plant pathogen resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed El Oirdi
- Centre de Recherche en Amélioration Végétale, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke (Québec), J1K2R1, Canada
| | - Kamal Bouarab
- Centre de Recherche en Amélioration Végétale, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, 2500 Boulevard de l'Université, Sherbrooke (Québec), J1K2R1, Canada
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44
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Joubert DA, Slaughter AR, Kemp G, Becker JVW, Krooshof GH, Bergmann C, Benen J, Pretorius IS, Vivier MA. The grapevine polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (VvPGIP1) reduces Botrytis cinerea susceptibility in transgenic tobacco and differentially inhibits fungal polygalacturonases. Transgenic Res 2006; 15:687-702. [PMID: 17072564 DOI: 10.1007/s11248-006-9019-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2005] [Accepted: 06/06/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) selectively inhibit polygalacturonases (PGs) secreted by invading plant pathogenic fungi. PGIPs display differential inhibition towards PGs from different fungi, also towards different isoforms of PGs originating from a specific pathogen. Recently, a PGIP-encoding gene from Vitis vinifera (Vvpgip1) was isolated and characterised. PGIP purified from grapevine was shown to inhibit crude polygalacturonase extracts from Botrytis cinerea, but this inhibitory activity has not yet been linked conclusively to the activity of the Vvpgip1 gene product. Here we use a transgenic over-expression approach to show that the PGIP encoded by the Vvpgip1 gene is active against PGs of B. cinerea and that over-expression of this gene in transgenic tobacco confers a reduced susceptibility to infection by this pathogen. A calculated reduction in disease susceptibility of 47-69% was observed for a homogeneous group of transgenic lines that was statistically clearly separated from untransformed control plants following infection with Botrytis over a 15-day-period. VvPGIP1 was subsequently purified from transgenic tobacco and used to study the specific inhibition profile of individual PGs from Botrytis and Aspergillus. The heterologously expressed and purified VvPGIP1 selectively inhibited PGs from both A. niger and B. cinerea, including BcPG1, a PG from B. cinerea that has previously been shown to be essential for virulence and symptom development. Altogether our data confirm the antifungal nature of the VvPGIP1, and the in vitro inhibition data suggest at least in part, that the VvPGIP1 contributed to the observed reduction in disease symptoms by inhibiting the macerating action of certain Botrytis PGs in planta. The ability to correlate inhibition profiles to individual PGs provides a more comprehensive analysis of PGIPs as antifungal genes with biotechnological potential, and adds to our understanding of the importance of PGIP:PG interactions during disease and symptom development in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk A Joubert
- Department of Viticulture & Oenology, Institute for Wine Biotechnology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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45
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van Kan JAL. Licensed to kill: the lifestyle of a necrotrophic plant pathogen. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2006; 11:247-53. [PMID: 16616579 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2006.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2005] [Revised: 02/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/24/2006] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Necrotrophic plant pathogens have received an increasing amount of attention over the past decade. Initially considered to invade their hosts in a rather unsophisticated manner, necrotrophs are now known to use subtle mechanisms to subdue host plants. The gray mould pathogen Botrytis cinerea is one of the most comprehensively studied necrotrophic fungal plant pathogens. The genome sequences of two strains have been determined. Targeted mutagenesis studies are unraveling the roles played in the infection process by a variety of B. cinerea genes that are required for penetration, host cell killing, plant tissue decomposition or signaling. Our increasing understanding of the tools used by a necrotrophic fungal pathogen to invade plants will be instrumental to designing rational strategies for disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A L van Kan
- Wageningen University, Laboratory of Phytopathology, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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46
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Oelofse D, Dubery IA, Meyer R, Arendse MS, Gazendam I, Berger DK. Apple polygalacturonase inhibiting protein1 expressed in transgenic tobacco inhibits polygalacturonases from fungal pathogens of apple and the anthracnose pathogen of lupins. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2006; 67:255-63. [PMID: 16364381 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.10.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2004] [Revised: 09/21/2005] [Accepted: 10/18/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Extracts from apple fruit (cultivar "Granny Smith") inhibited the cell-wall degrading polygalacturonase (PG) activity of Colletotrichum lupini, the causal agent of anthracnose on lupins, as well as Aspergillus niger PG. Southern blot analysis indicated that this cultivar of apple has a small gene family of polygalacturonase inhibiting proteins (pgips), and therefore heterologous expression in transgenic tobacco was used to identify the specific gene product responsible for the inhibitory activity. A previously isolated pgip gene, termed Mdpgip1, was introduced into tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The mature MdPGIP1 protein was purified to apparent homogeneity from tobacco leaves by high salt extraction, clarification by DEAE-Sepharose and cation exchange HPLC. Purified MdPGIP1 inhibited PGs from C. lupini and PGs from two economically important pathogens of apple trees, Botryosphaeria obtusa and Diaporthe ambigua. It did not inhibit the A. niger PG, which was in contrast to the apple fruit extract used in this study. We conclude that there are at least two active PGIPs expressed in apple, which differ in their charge properties and ability to inhibit A. niger PG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dean Oelofse
- Agricultural Research Council (ARC)-Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute, Biotechnology Division, Private Bag X293, Pretoria 0001, South Africa.
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47
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Sicilia F, Fernandez-Recio J, Caprari C, De Lorenzo G, Tsernoglou D, Cervone F, Federici L. The polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein PGIP2 of Phaseolus vulgaris has evolved a mixed mode of inhibition of endopolygalacturonase PG1 of Botrytis cinerea. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 139:1380-8. [PMID: 16244152 PMCID: PMC1283773 DOI: 10.1104/pp.105.067546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Botrytis cinerea is a phytopathogenic fungus that causes gray mold in >1,000 plant species. During infection, it secretes several endopolygalacturonases (PGs) to degrade cell wall pectin, and among them, BcPG1 is constitutively expressed and is an important virulence factor. To counteract the action of PGs, plants express polygalacturonase-inhibiting proteins (PGIPs) that have been shown to inhibit a variety of PGs with different inhibition kinetics, both competitive and noncompetitive. The PG-PGIP interaction promotes the accumulation of oligogalacturonides, fragments of the plant cell wall that are general elicitors of plant defense responses. Here, we characterize the enzymatic activity of BcPG1 and investigate its interaction with PGIP isoform 2 from Phaseolus vulgaris (PvPGIP2) by means of inhibition assays, homology modeling, and molecular docking simulations. Our results indicate a mixed mode of inhibition. This is compatible with a model for the interaction where PvPGIP2 binds the N-terminal portion of BcPG1, partially covering its active site and decreasing the enzyme affinity for the substrate. The structural framework provided by the docking model is confirmed by site-directed mutagenesis of the residues that distinguish PvPGIP2 from the isoform PvPGIP1. The finding that PvPGIP2 inhibits BcPG1 with a mixed-type kinetics further indicates the versatility of PGIPs to evolve different recognition specificities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Sicilia
- Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Università di Roma La Sapienza, 00185 Rome, Italy
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48
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Mehli L, Kjellsen TD, Dewey FM, Hietala AM. A case study from the interaction of strawberry and Botrytis cinerea highlights the benefits of comonitoring both partners at genomic and mRNA level. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2005; 168:465-74. [PMID: 16219085 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01526.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Strawberry Fragaria x ananassa (cv. Korona) was inoculated with Botrytis cinerea by dipping berries in a conidial suspension. Colonization by the pathogen was monitored using real-time PCR, ELISA and ergosterol assays, the first showing the highest sensitivity. The expression of pathogen beta-tubulin and six polygalacturonases (Bcpg1-6) and three host defence genes (polygalacturonase-inhibiting protein (FaPGIP) and two class II chitinases) were monitored using real-time RT-PCR. The maximum transcript levels of the host defence genes occurred at 16 h postinoculation (hpi) at the presumed initial penetration stage. The unique transcript profile of Bcpg2 over the 96-h incubation time and its high transcript levels relative to those of the other Bcpgs at 8-24 hpi suggest that the gene has a specific role in the penetration stage. Bcpg1 was expressed constitutively at a relatively high level in actively growing mycelia throughout the experimental period. Comparison of the transcript profiles indicated that Bcpg1 and Bcpg3-6 were coordinately regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisbeth Mehli
- Sør-Trøndelag University College, Faculty of Food Science and Medical Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
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49
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Kars I, Krooshof GH, Wagemakers L, Joosten R, Benen JAE, van Kan JAL. Necrotizing activity of five Botrytis cinerea endopolygalacturonases produced in Pichia pastoris. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2005; 43:213-25. [PMID: 15998308 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2005.02436.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Five Botrytis cinerea endopolygalacturonase enzymes (BcPGs) were individually expressed in Pichia pastoris, purified to homogeneity and biochemically characterized. While the pH optima of the five enzymes were similar (approximately pH 4.5) the maximum activity of individual enzymes differed significantly. For hydrolysis of polygalacturonic acid (PGA), the V(max,app) ranged from 10 to 900 U mg(-1), while the K(m,app) ranged from 0.16 to 0.6 mg ml(-1). Although all BcPGs are true endopolygalacturonases, they apparently have different modes of action. PGA hydrolysis by BcPG1, BcPG2 and BcPG4 leads to the transient accumulation of oligomers with DP < 7, whereas PGA hydrolysis by BcPG3 and BcPG6 leads to the immediate accumulation of monomers and dimers. The necrotizing activity (NA) of all BcPGs was tested separately in tomato, broad bean and Arabidopsis thaliana. They showed different NAs on these plants. BcPG1 and BcPG2 possessed the strongest NA as tissue collapse was observed within 10 min after infiltration of broad bean leaves. The amino acid (aa) D192A substitution in the active site of BcPG2 not only abolished enzyme activity but also the NA, indicating that the NA is dependent on enzyme activity. Furthermore, deletion of the Bcpg2 gene in B. cinerea resulted in a strong reduction in virulence on tomato and broad bean. Primary lesion formation was delayed by approximately 24 h and the lesion expansion rate was reduced by 50-85%. These data indicate that BcPG2 is an important virulence factor for B. cinerea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Kars
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Binnenhaven 5, 6709 PD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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50
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Yan HZ, Liou RF. Cloning and analysis of pppg1, an inducible endopolygalacturonase gene from the oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora parasitica. Fungal Genet Biol 2005; 42:339-50. [PMID: 15749053 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2005.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2004] [Revised: 12/19/2004] [Accepted: 01/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Phytophthora parasitica is an oomycete plant pathogen that causes severe disease in a wide variety of crops. Here, we report the isolation of a gene, named pppg1, which encodes an extracellular endopolygalacturonase in P. parasitica. Both cDNA and a genomic clone were isolated and sequenced. The pppg1 gene showed standard characteristics with respect to core promoter and intron sequences of Phytophthora. The predicted protein of pppg1 has a calculated molecular mass of 39.7 kDa and a pI value of 5.2, and contains a putative signal peptide of 20 amino acid residues on the N-terminus. The deduced amino acid sequence is highly conserved with those of other Phytophthora and fungal endopolygalacturonases. Analysis by reverse transcription followed by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction showed that transcription of pppg1 was repressed by glucose, but induced by pectin in the culture. Moreover, pppg1 is highly expressed during interaction of P. parasitica with the host plant, suggesting its involvement in the process of host infection. Heterologous expression of pppg1 in Pichia pastoris produced proteins with molecular mass ranging from 75 to 200 kDa, very likely due to differential glycosylation by the yeast. Deglycosylation of the recombinant protein resulted in a complete loss of the endopolygalacturonase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Zhi Yan
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
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