Fungal Skn7 stress responses and their relationship to virulence

Functionality of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Plants: Toxicity and Control in Poaceae Crops Exposed to Abiotic Stress

Agriculture and changing environmental conditions are closely related, as weather changes could adversely affect living organisms or regions of crop cultivation. Changing environmental conditions trigger different abiotic stresses, which ultimately cause the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants. Common ROS production sites are the chloroplast, endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane, mitochondria, peroxisomes, etc. The imbalance in ROS production and ROS detoxification in plant cells leads to oxidative damage to biomolecules such as lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. At low concentrations, ROS initiates signaling events related to development and adaptations to abiotic stress in plants by inducing signal transduction pathways. In plants, a stress signal is perceived by various receptors that induce a signal transduction pathway that activates numerous signaling networks, which disrupt gene expression, impair the diversity of kinase/phosphatase signaling cascades that manage the stress response in the plant, and result in changes in physiological responses under various stresses. ROS production also regulates ABA-dependent and ABA-independent pathways to mitigate drought stress. This review focuses on the common subcellular location of manufacturing, complex signaling mechanisms, and networks of ROS, with an emphasis on cellular effects and enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant scavenging mechanisms of ROS in Poaceae crops against drought stress and how the manipulation of ROS regulates stress tolerance in plants. Understanding ROS systems in plants could help to create innovative strategies to evolve paths of cell protection against the negative effects of excessive ROS in attempts to improve crop productivity in adverse environments.

Antioxidant Systems of Plant Pathogenic Fungi: Functions in Oxidative Stress Response and Their Regulatory Mechanisms

During the infection process, plant pathogenic fungi encounter plant-derived oxidative stress, and an appropriate response to this stress is crucial to their survival and establishment of the disease. Plant pathogenic fungi have evolved several mechanisms to eliminate oxidants from the external environment and maintain cellular redox homeostasis. When oxidative stress is perceived, various signaling transduction pathways are triggered and activate the downstream genes responsible for the oxidative stress response. Despite extensive research on antioxidant systems and their regulatory mechanisms in plant pathogenic fungi, the specific functions of individual antioxidants and their impacts on pathogenicity have not recently been systematically summarized. Therefore, our objective is to consolidate previous research on the antioxidant systems of plant pathogenic fungi. In this review, we explore the plant immune responses during fungal infection, with a focus on the generation and function of reactive oxygen species. Furthermore, we delve into the three antioxidant systems, summarizing their functions and regulatory mechanisms involved in oxidative stress response. This comprehensive review provides an integrated overview of the antioxidant mechanisms within plant pathogenic fungi, revealing how the oxidative stress response contributes to their pathogenicity.

A network of transcription factors in complex with a regulating cell cycle cyclin orchestrates fungal oxidative stress responses

BACKGROUND

Response to oxidative stress is universal in almost all organisms and the mitochondrial membrane protein, BbOhmm, negatively affects oxidative stress responses and virulence in the insect fungal pathogen, Beauveria bassiana. Nothing further, however, is known concerning how BbOhmm and this phenomenon is regulated.

RESULTS

Three oxidative stress response regulating Zn2Cys6 transcription factors (BbOsrR1, 2, and 3) were identified and verified via chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP)-qPCR analysis as binding to the BbOhmm promoter region, with BbOsrR2 showing the strongest binding. Targeted gene knockout of BbOsrR1 or BbOsrR3 led to decreased BbOhmm expression and consequently increased tolerances to free radical generating compounds (H2O2 and menadione), whereas the ΔBbOsrR2 strain showed increased BbOhmm expression with concomitant decreased tolerances to these compounds. RNA and ChIP sequencing analysis revealed that BbOsrR1 directly regulated a wide range of antioxidation and transcription-associated genes, negatively affecting the expression of the BbClp1 cyclin and BbOsrR2. BbClp1 was shown to localize to the cell nucleus and negatively mediate oxidative stress responses. BbOsrR2 and BbOsrR3 were shown to feed into the Fus3-MAPK pathway in addition to regulating antioxidation and detoxification genes. Binding motifs for the three transcription factors were found to partially overlap in the promoter region of BbOhmm and other target genes. Whereas BbOsrR1 appeared to function independently, co-immunoprecipitation revealed complex formation between BbClp1, BbOsrR2, and BbOsrR3, with BbClp1 partially regulating BbOsrR2 phosphorylation.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings reveal a regulatory network mediated by BbOsrR1 and the formation of a BbClp1-BbOsrR2-BbOsrR3 complex that orchestrates fungal oxidative stress responses.

The role of VdSti1 in Verticillium dahliae: insights into pathogenicity and stress responses

Sti1/Hop, a stress-induced co-chaperone protein, serves as a crucial link between Hsp70 and Hsp90 during cellular stress responses. Despite its importance in stress defense mechanisms, the biological role of Sti1 in Verticillium dahliae, a destructive fungal pathogen, remains largely unexplored. This study focused on identifying and characterizing Sti1 homologues in V. dahliae by comparing them to those found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The results indicated that the VdSti1-deficient mutant displayed increased sensitivity to drugs targeting the ergosterol synthesis pathway, leading to a notable inhibition of ergosterol biosynthesis. Moreover, the mutant exhibited reduced production of microsclerotia and melanin, accompanied by decreased expression of microsclerotia and melanin-related genes VDH1, Vayg1, and VaflM. Additionally, the mutant's conidia showed more severe damage under heat shock conditions and displayed growth defects under various stressors such as temperature, SDS, and CR stress, as well as increased sensitivity to H2O2, while osmotic stress did not impact its growth. Importantly, the VdSti1-deficient mutant demonstrated significantly diminished pathogenicity compared to the wild-type strain. This study sheds light on the functional conservation and divergence of Sti1 homologues in fungal biology and underscores the critical role of VdSti1 in microsclerotia development, stress response, and pathogenicity of V. dahliae.

3-bromopyruvate induces morphological alteration and may initiate programmed cell death in Cryptococcus neoformans cells

3-Bromopyruvate (3BP), known for its potent anticancer properties, also exhibits remarkable efficacy against the pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans. So far it has been proven that the main fungicidal activity of 3BP is based on ATP depletion and a reduction of intracellular level of glutathione. The presented study includes a broad range of methods to further investigate the mechanistic effects of 3BP on C. neoformans cells. The use of flow cytometry allowed a thorough examination of their survival during 3BP treatment, while observations using electron microscopy made it possible to note the changes in cellular morphology. Utilizing ruthenium red, the study suggests a mitochondrial pathway may initiate programmed cell death in response to 3BP. Analysis of free radical generation and gene expression changes supports this hypothesis. These findings enhance comprehension of 3BP's mechanisms in fungal cells, paving the way for its potential application as a therapeutic agent against cryptococcosis.

Kluyveromyces marxianus MTCC 1389 Augments Multi-stress Tolerance After Adaptation to Ethanol Stress

During fermentation, yeast cells undergo various stresses that inhibit cell growth and ethanol production. Therefore, the ability to tolerate multiple stresses during fermentation is one of the important characteristics for yeast cells that can be used for commercial ethanol production. In the present study, we evaluated the multi-stress tolerance of parent and ethanol adapted Kluyveromyces marxianus MTCC1389 and their relative gene expression analysis. Multi-stress tolerance was confirmed by determining its cell viability, growth, and spot assay under oxidative, osmotic, thermal, and ethanol stress. During oxidative (0.8% H2O2) and osmotic stress (2 M NaCl), there was significant cell viability of 90% and 50%, respectively, by adapted strain. On the other hand, under 45 °C of thermal stress, the adapted strain was 80% viable while the parent strain was 60%. In gene expression analysis, the ethanol stress responsive gene ETP1 was significantly upregulated by 3.5 folds, the osmotic stress gene SLN1 was expressed by 3 folds, and the thermal stress responsive gene MSN2 was expressed by 7 folds. This study shows adaptive evolution for ethanol stress can develop other stress tolerances by changing relative gene expression of osmotic, oxidative, and thermal stress responsive genes.

Distinct transcriptional responses to fludioxonil in Aspergillus fumigatus and its ΔtcsC and Δskn7 mutants reveal a crucial role for Skn7 in the cell wall reorganizations triggered by this antifungal

BACKGROUND

Aspergillus fumigatus is a major fungal pathogen that causes severe problems due to its increasing resistance to many therapeutic agents. Fludioxonil is a compound that triggers a lethal activation of the fungal-specific High Osmolarity Glycerol pathway. Its pronounced antifungal activity against A. fumigatus and other pathogenic molds renders this agent an attractive lead substance for the development of new therapeutics. The group III hydride histidine kinase TcsC and its downstream target Skn7 are key elements of the multistep phosphorelay that represents the initial section of the High Osmolarity Glycerol pathway. Loss of tcsC results in resistance to fludioxonil, whereas a Δskn7 mutant is partially, but not completely resistant.

RESULTS

In this study, we compared the fludioxonil-induced transcriptional responses in the ΔtcsC and Δskn7 mutant and their parental A. fumigatus strain. The number of differentially expressed genes correlates well with the susceptibility level of the individual strains. The wild type and, to a lesser extend also the Δskn7 mutant, showed a multi-faceted stress response involving genes linked to ribosomal and peroxisomal function, iron homeostasis and oxidative stress. A marked difference between the sensitive wild type and the largely resistant Δskn7 mutant was evident for many cell wall-related genes and in particular those involved in the biosynthesis of chitin. Biochemical data corroborate this differential gene expression that does not occur in response to hyperosmotic stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data reveal that fludioxonil induces a strong and TcsC-dependent stress that affects many aspects of the cellular machinery. The data also demonstrate a link between Skn7 and the cell wall reorganizations that foster the characteristic ballooning and the subsequent lysis of fludioxonil-treated cells.

A combined transcriptomic and physiological approach to understanding the adaptive mechanisms to cope with oxidative stress in Fusarium graminearum

In plant-pathogen interactions, oxidative bursts are crucial for plants to defend themselves against pathogen infections. Rapid production and accumulation of reactive oxygen species kill pathogens directly and cause local cell death, preventing pathogens from spreading to adjacent cells. Meanwhile, the pathogens have developed several mechanisms to tolerate oxidative stress and successfully colonize plant tissues. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms responsible for resistance to oxidative stress by analyzing the transcriptomes of six oxidative stress-sensitive strains of the plant pathogenic fungus Fusarium graminearum. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis identified several pathways related to oxidative stress responses, including the DNA repair system, autophagy, and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. We also identified hub genes with high intramodular connectivity in key modules and generated deletion or conditional suppression mutants. Phenotypic characterization of those mutants showed that the deletion of FgHGG4, FgHGG10, and FgHGG13 caused sensitivity to oxidative stress, and further investigation on those genes revealed that transcriptional elongation and DNA damage responses play roles in oxidative stress response and pathogenicity. The suppression of FgHGL7 also led to hypersensitivity to oxidative stress, and we demonstrated that FgHGL7 plays a crucial role in heme biosynthesis and is essential for peroxidase activity. This study increases the understanding of the adaptive mechanisms to cope with oxidative stress in plant pathogenic fungi. IMPORTANCE Fungal pathogens have evolved various mechanisms to overcome host-derived stresses for successful infection. Oxidative stress is a representative defense system induced by the host plant, and fungi have complex response systems to cope with it. Fusarium graminearum is one of the devastating plant pathogenic fungi, and understanding its pathosystem is crucial for disease control. In this study, we investigated adaptive mechanisms for coping with oxidative stress at the transcriptome level using oxidative stress-sensitive strains. In addition, by introducing genetic modification technique such as CRISPR-Cas9 and the conditional gene expression system, we identified pathways/genes required for resistance to oxidative stress and also for virulence. Overall, this study advances the understanding of the oxidative stress response and related mechanisms in plant pathogenic fungi.

Histone H3K4 Methyltransferase PeSet1 Regulates Colonization, Patulin Biosynthesis, and Stress Responses of Penicillium expansum

Fruit blue mold disease and patulin contamination caused by Penicillium expansum lead to huge economic losses and food safety concerns worldwide. Many genes have been proven to be involved in the regulation of pathogenic and toxigenic processes of P. expansum. Histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methylation is well recognized for its association with chromatin regulation and gene transcription. However, it is not clear whether H3K4 methylation is related to infection and patulin biosynthesis in Penicillium. Here, we characterized PeSet1, which is responsible for H3K4me1/me2/me3 in P. expansum. The deletion of PeSet1 caused severe defects in hyphal growth, conidiation, colonization, patulin biosynthesis, and stress responses. Moreover, we demonstrated that PeSet1 is involved in the regulation of patulin biosynthesis by mediating the expression of patulin cluster genes and crucial global regulatory factors. Likewise, PeSet1 positively regulated key genes in β-1,3-glucan biosynthesis and the reactive oxygen species scavenging process to modulate cell wall integrity and oxidative stress responses, respectively. Collectively, we have proven for the first time the function of Set1 in patulin biosynthesis and the crucial role of Set1 in colonization and stress responses in P. expansum. IMPORTANCE Penicillium expansum is one of the most important plant fungal pathogens, which not only causes blue mold rot in various fruits, leading to huge decay losses, but also produces mycotoxin patulin, posing a threat to human health. Both pathogenesis and patulin biosynthesis in P. expansum are regulated by complex and sophisticated networks. We focused on the epigenetic modification and identified a conserved histone H3K4 methyltransferase PeSet1 in P. expansum. Our work revealed the important role of PeSet1 in growth, development, colonization, patulin production, and stress responses of P. expansum. In particular, we originally described the regulation of Set1 on patulin biosynthetic pathway. These findings will provide new targets for the prevention and control of blue mold disease and patulin contamination.

VdERG2 was involved in ergosterol biosynthesis, nutritional differentiation and virulence of Verticillium dahliae

The ergosterol biosynthesis pathway plays an important role in model pathogenic bacteria Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but little is known about the biosynthesis of ergosterol in the pathogenic fungus Verticillium dahliae. In this study, we identified the VdERG2 gene encoding sterol C-8 isomerase from V. dahliae and investigated its function in virulence by generating gene deletion mutants (ΔVdERG2) and complemented mutants (C-ΔVdERG2). Knockout of VdERG2 reduced ergosterol content. The conidial germination rate and conidial yield of ΔVdERG2 significantly decreased and abnormal conidia were produced. In spite of VdERG2 did not affect the utilization of carbon sources by V. dahliae, but the melanin production of ΔVdERG2 was decreased in cellulose and pectin were used as the sole carbon sources. Furthermore, the ΔVdERG2 mutants produced less microsclerotia and melanin with a significant decrease in the expression of microsclerotia and melanin-related genes VaflM, Vayg1, VDH1, VdLAC, VdSCD and VT4HR. In addition, mutants ΔVdERG2 were very sensitive to congo red (CR), sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) stresses, indicating that VdERG2 was involved in the cell wall and oxidative stress response. The absence of VdERG2 weakened the penetration ability of mycelium on cellophane and affected the growth of mycelium. Although ΔVdERG2 could infect cotton, its pathogenicity was significantly impaired. These phenotypic defects in ΔVdERG2 could be complemented by the reintroduction of a full-length VdERG2 gene. In summary, as a single conservative secretory protein, VdERG2 played a crucial role in ergosterol biosynthesis, nutritional differentiation and virulence in V. dahliae.

Oxidative stress response pathways in fungi

Fungal response to any stress is intricate, specific, and multilayered, though it employs only a few evolutionarily conserved regulators. This comes with the assumption that one regulator operates more than one stress-specific response. Although the assumption holds true, the current understanding of molecular mechanisms that drive response specificity and adequacy remains rudimentary. Deciphering the response of fungi to oxidative stress may help fill those knowledge gaps since it is one of the most encountered stress types in any kind of fungal niche. Data have been accumulating on the roles of the HOG pathway and Yap1- and Skn7-related pathways in mounting distinct and robust responses in fungi upon exposure to oxidative stress. Herein, we review recent and most relevant studies reporting the contribution of each of these pathways in response to oxidative stress in pathogenic and opportunistic fungi after giving a paralleled overview in two divergent models, the budding and fission yeasts. With the concept of stress-specific response and the importance of reactive oxygen species in fungal development, we first present a preface on the expanding domain of redox biology and oxidative stress.

Histidine kinase two-component response regulators Ssk1, Skn7 and Rim15 differentially control growth, developmental and volatile organic compounds emissions as stress responses in Trichoderma atroviride

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Ssk1 may function as a hub-like RR in T. atroviride, as growth, and differentiation (conidiation).

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Skn7 has a significant role in the production of volatile organic compounds.

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Ssk1 and Rim15 have a role in mycoparasitism and both are negative regulators of volatile organic compounds. Rim15 seems to be a negative regulator of either the accumulation or biosynthesis of terpenes.

The Skn7, Ssk1 and Rim15 proteins are response regulators involved in osmotic, oxidative and nutritional stress in fungi. In order to verify the involvement of these genes in Trichoderma atroviride IMI206040’s growth, conidiation, direct antagonism against plant pathogens (Rhizoctonia solani and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum), production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with fungistatic effect, and interaction with plants (growth promotion), single mutants were generated, and the phenotypic patterns were analysed in comparison to the wild-type (wt) strain. The mutants were submitted to osmotic, oxidative, membrane and cell wall stress conditions in vitro. The Δskn7 and Δrim15 mutants did not show either significant differences at morphological level, or marked decreases in mycelial growth and conidiation in relation to wt, whereas Δssk1 had altered phenotypes in most conditions tested. The plant-growth promotion of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings induced by VOCs was not quantitatively modified by any of the mutants in relation to the wt strain, although possible differences in secondary root hairs was noticed for Δrim15. The fungistatic activity was significantly altered for Δssk1 and Δrim15. Overall, the Δssk1 strain showed remarkable morphological differences, with decrease in mycelial growth and conidiation, being also affected in the antagonistic capacity against plant pathogens. The impacts demonstrated by the deletion of ssk1 suggest this gene has a relevant participation in the signalling response to different stresses in T. atroviride and in the interactive metabolism with phytopathogens and plants. On the other hand, unlike other fungal models, Skn7 did not appear to have a critical participation in the above-mentioned processes; Rim15 seemed to confirm its involvement in modulating cellular responses to nutritional status, although with a possible cross-talk with other cellular processes. Our results suggest that Ssk1 likely plays a key regulatory role, not only in basic metabolisms of T. atroviride, but also in biocontrol-related characteristics.

A comprehensive transcription factor and DNA-binding motif resource for the construction of gene regulatory networks in Botrytis cinerea and Trichoderma atroviride

Botrytis cinerea and Trichoderma atroviride are two relevant fungi in agricultural systems. To gain insights into these organisms' transcriptional gene regulatory networks (GRNs), we generated a manually curated transcription factor (TF) dataset for each of them, followed by a GRN inference utilizing available sequence motifs describing DNA-binding specificity and global gene expression data. As a proof of concept of the usefulness of this resource to pinpoint key transcriptional regulators, we employed publicly available transcriptomics data and a newly generated dual RNA-seq dataset to build context-specific Botrytis and Trichoderma GRNs under two different biological paradigms: exposure to continuous light and Botrytis-Trichoderma confrontation assays. Network analysis of fungal responses to constant light revealed striking differences in the transcriptional landscape of both fungi. On the other hand, we found that the confrontation of both microorganisms elicited a distinct set of differentially expressed genes with changes in T. atroviride exceeding those in B. cinerea. Using our regulatory network data, we were able to determine, in both fungi, central TFs involved in this interaction response, including TFs controlling a large set of extracellular peptidases in the biocontrol agent T. atroviride. In summary, our work provides a comprehensive catalog of transcription factors and regulatory interactions for both organisms. This catalog can now serve as a basis for generating novel hypotheses on transcriptional regulatory circuits in different experimental contexts.

The high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway in fungi†

While fungi are widely occupying nature, many species are responsible for devastating mycosis in humans. Such niche diversity explains how quick fungal adaptation is necessary to endow the capacity of withstanding fluctuating environments and to cope with host-imposed conditions. Among all the molecular mechanisms evolved by fungi, the most studied one is the activation of the phosphorelay signalling pathways, of which the high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway constitutes one of the key molecular apparatus underpinning fungal adaptation and virulence. In this review, we summarize the seminal knowledge of the HOG pathway with its more recent developments. We specifically described the HOG-mediated stress adaptation, with a particular focus on osmotic and oxidative stress, and point out some lags in our understanding of its involvement in the virulence of pathogenic species including, the medically important fungi Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, and Aspergillus fumigatus, compared to the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Finally, we also highlighted some possible applications of the HOG pathway modifications to improve the fungal-based production of natural products in the industry.

Distinct and essential roles of bZIP transcription factors in the stress response and pathogenesis in Alternaria alternata

The ability to cope with environmental abiotic stress and biotic stress is crucial for the survival of plants and microorganisms, which enable them to occupy multiple niches in the environment. Previous studies have shown that transcription factors play crucial roles in regulating various biological processes including multiple stress tolerance and response in eukaryotes. This work identified multiple critical transcription factor genes, metabolic pathways and gene ontology (GO) terms related to abiotic stress response were broadly activated by analyzing the transcriptome of phytopathogenic fungus Alternaria alternata under metal ions stresses, oxidative stress, salt stresses, and host-pathogen interaction. We investigated the biological functions and regulatory roles of the bZIP transcriptional factor (TF) genes in the phytopathogenic fungus A.alternata by analyzing targeted gene disrupted mutants. Morphological analysis provides evidence that the bZIP transcription factors (Gcn4, MeaB, Atf1, the ER stress regulator Hac1, and the all development altered-1 gene Ada1) are required for morphogenesis as the colony morphology of these gene deletion mutants was significantly different from that of the wild-type. In addition, bZIPs are involved in the resistance to multiple stresses such as oxidative stress (Ada1, Yap1, MetR) and virulence (Hac1, MetR, Yap1, Ada1) at varying degrees. Transcriptome data demonstrated that the inactivation of bZIPs (Hac1, Atf1, Ada1 and Yap1) significantly affected many genes in multiple critical metabolism pathways and gene ontology (GO) terms. Moreover,the ΔHac1 mutants displayed reduced aerial hypha and are hypersensitivity to endoplasmic reticulum disruptors such as tunicamycin and dithiothreitol. Transcriptome analysis showed that inactivation of Hac1 significantly affected the proteasome process and its downstream unfolded protein binding, indicating that Hac1 participates in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response through the conserved unfolded protein response. Taken together, our findings reveal that bZIP transcription factors function as key regulators of fungal morphogenesis, abiotic stress response and pathogenesis, and expand our understanding of how microbial pathogens utilize these genes to deal with environmental stresses and achieve successful infection in the host plant.

Predicted Functional and Structural Diversity of Receiver Domains in Fungal Two-Component Regulatory Systems

Fungal two-component regulatory systems incorporate receiver domains into hybrid histidine kinases (HHKs) and response regulators. We constructed a nonredundant database of 670 fungal receiver domain sequences from 51 species sampled from nine fungal phyla. A much greater proportion (21%) of predicted fungal response regulators did not belong to known groups than previously appreciated. Receiver domains in Rim15 response regulators from Ascomycota and other phyla are very different from one another, as are the duplicate receiver domains in group XII HHKs. Fungal receiver domains from five known types of response regulators and 20 known types of HHKs exhibit distinct patterns of amino acids at conserved and variable positions known to be structurally and functionally important in bacterial receiver domains. We inferred structure/activity relationships from the patterns and propose multiple experimentally testable hypotheses about the mechanisms of signal transduction mediated by fungal receiver domains.

Coprinopsis cinerea uses laccase Lcc9 as a defense strategy to eliminate oxidative stress during fungal-fungal interactions

Frequently, laccases are triggered during fungal cocultivation for overexpression. The function of these activated laccases during coculture has not been clarified. Previously, we reported that Gongronella sp. w5 (w5) (Mucoromycota, Mucoromycetes) specifically triggered the laccase Lcc9 overexpression in Coprinopsis cinerea (Basidiomycota, Agaricomycetes). To systematically analyze the function of the overexpressed laccase during fungal interaction, C. cinerea mycelia before and after the initial Lcc9 overexpression were chosen for transcriptome analysis. Results showed that accompanied by specific utilization of fructose as carbohydrate substrate, oxidative stress derived from antagonistic compounds secreted by w5 appears to be a signal critical for laccase production in C. cinerea. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) decrease in the C. cinerea wild-type strain followed the increase in laccase production and then, lcc9 transcription and laccase activity stopped. By comparison, increased H₂O₂ content and mycelial ROS levels were observed during the entire cocultivation in lcc9 silenced C. cinerea strains. Moreover, lcc9 silencing slowed down the C. cinerea mycelial growth, affected hyphal morphology, and decreased the asexual sporulation in coculture. Our results showed that intracellular ROS acted as signal molecules to stimulate defense responses by C. cinerea with the expression of oxidative stress response regulator Skn7 and various detoxification proteins. Lcc9 takes part as a defense strategy to eliminate oxidative stress during the interspecific interaction with w5. Importance: The overproduction of laccase during interspecific fungal interactions is notoriously known. However, the exact role of the up-regulated laccases remains underexplored. Based on comparative transcriptomic analysis of C. cinerea and gene silencing of laccase Lcc9, here we show that oxidative stress derived from antagonistic compounds secreted by Gongronella sp. w5 was a signal critical for laccase Lcc9 production in Coprinopsis cinerea. Intracellular ROS acted as signal molecules to stimulate defense responses by C. cinerea with the expression of oxidative stress response regulator Skn7 and various detoxification proteins. Ultimately, Lcc9 takes part as a defense strategy to eliminate oxidative stress and help cell growth and development during the interspecific interaction with Gongronella sp. w5. These findings deepened our understanding of fungal interactions in their natural population and communities.

Global analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth in mucin

Metagenomic profiling of the human gut microbiome has discovered DNA from dietary yeasts like Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, it is unknown if the S. cerevisiae detected by common metagenomic methods are from dead dietary sources, or from live S. cerevisiae colonizing the gut similar to their close relative Candida albicans. While S. cerevisiae can adapt to minimal oxygen and acidic environments, it has not been explored whether this yeast can metabolize mucin, the large, gel-forming, highly glycosylated proteins representing a major source of carbon in the gut mucosa. We reveal that S. cerevisiae can utilize mucin as their main carbon source, as well as perform both a transcriptome analysis and a chemogenomic screen to identify biological pathways required for this yeast to grow optimally in mucin. In total, 739 genes demonstrate significant differential expression in mucin culture, and deletion of 21 genes impact growth in mucin. Both screens suggest that mitochondrial function is required for proper growth in mucin, and through secondary assays we determine that mucin exposure induces mitogenesis and cellular respiration. We further show that deletion of an uncharacterized ORF, YCR095W-A, led to dysfunction in mitochondrial morphology and oxygen consumption in mucin. Finally, we demonstrate that Yps7, an aspartyl protease and homolog to mucin-degrading proteins in C. albicans, is important for growth on mucin. Collectively, our work serves as the initial step toward establishing how this common dietary fungus can survive in the mucus environment of the human gut.

A unique cell wall synthetic response evoked by glucosamine determines pathogenicity-associated fungal cellular differentiation

The yeast-to-hypha transition is tightly associated with pathogenicity in many human pathogenic fungi, such as the model fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans, which is responsible for approximately 180,000 deaths annually. In this pathogen, the yeast-to-hypha transition can be initiated by distinct stimuli: mating stimulation or glucosamine (GlcN), the monomer of cell wall chitosan. However, it remains poorly understood how the signal specificity for Cryptococcus morphological transition by disparate stimuli is ensured. Here, by integrating temporal expression signature analysis and phenome-based clustering evaluation, we demonstrate that GlcN specifically triggers a unique cellular response, which acts as a critical determinant underlying the activation of GlcN-induced filamentation (GIF). This cellular response is defined by an unusually hyperactive cell wall synthesis that is highly ATP-consuming. A novel cell surface protein Gis1 was identified as the indicator molecule for the GlcN-induced cell wall response. The Mpk1-directed cell wall pathway critically bridges global cell wall gene induction and intracellular ATP supply, ensuring the Gis1-dependent cell wall response and the stimulus specificity of GIF. We further reveal that the ability of Mpk1 to coordinate the cell wall response and GIF activation is conserved in different Cryptococcus pathogens. Phosphoproteomics-based profiling together with genetic and phenotypic analysis revealed that the Mpk1 kinase mediates the regulatory specificity of GIF through a coordinated downstream regulatory network centered on Skn7 and Crz1. Overall, our findings discover an unprecedented and conserved cell wall biosynthesis-dependent fungal differentiation commitment mechanism, which enables the signal specificity of pathogenicity-related dimorphism induced by GlcN in Cryptococcus pathogens.

Many human fungal pathogens can undergo dimorphic transition between yeast and hyphal forms in response to different external stimuli, and this morphological transition is generally and critically linked with their infections. In Cryptococcus neoformans, a model pathogenic fungus, the yeast-to-hypha transition can be elicited by mating stimulation or glucosamine (GlcN), the monomer of cell wall chitosan. Here, we show that GlcN specifically evokes a unique hyperactive cell wall synthetic response, which determines GlcN-induced filamentation (GIF) as a key commitment event. The Mpk1-directed cell wall signaling pathway as a core and conserved cascade connects the cell wall synthetic response and GIF activation in different Cryptococcus pathogens. Overall, the findings reveal a previously unrecognized function of GlcN in stimulating cell wall signaling and biosynthetic machinery, which enables a unique dimorphism commitment mechanism underlying the signal specificity of the mating-independent yeast-to-hypha transition in Cryptococcus pathogens.

Regulation of biotic interactions and responses to abiotic stresses by MAP kinase pathways in plant pathogenic fungi

Like other eukaryotes, fungi use MAP kinase (MAPK) pathways to mediate cellular changes responding to external stimuli. In the past two decades, three well-conserved MAP kinase pathways have been characterized in various plant pathogenic fungi for regulating responses and adaptations to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses encountered during plant infection or survival in nature. The invasive growth (IG) pathway is homologous to the yeast pheromone response and filamentation pathways. In plant pathogens, the IG pathway often is essential for pathogenesis by regulating infection-related morphogenesis, such as appressorium formation, penetration, and invasive growth. The cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway also is important for plant infection although the infection processes it regulates vary among fungal pathogens. Besides its universal function in cell wall integrity, it often plays a minor role in responses to oxidative and cell wall stresses. Both the IG and CWI pathways are involved in regulating known virulence factors as well as effector genes during plant infection and mediating defenses against mycoviruses, bacteria, and other fungi. In contrast, the high osmolarity growth (HOG) pathway is dispensable for virulence in some fungi although it is essential for plant infection in others. It regulates osmoregulation in hyphae and is dispensable for appressorium turgor generation. The HOG pathway also plays a major role for responding to oxidative, heat, and other environmental stresses and is overstimulated by phenylpyrrole fungicides. Moreover, these three MAPK pathways crosstalk and coordinately regulate responses to various biotic and abiotic stresses. The IG and CWI pathways, particularly the latter, also are involved in responding to abiotic stresses to various degrees in different fungal pathogens, and the HOG pathway also plays a role in interactions with other microbes or fungi. Furthermore, some infection processes or stress responses are co-regulated by MAPK pathways with cAMP or Ca2+/CaM signaling. Overall, functions of individual MAP kinase pathways in pathogenesis and stress responses have been well characterized in a number of fungal pathogens, showing the conserved genetic elements with diverged functions, likely by rewiring transcriptional regulatory networks. In the near future, applications of genomics and proteomics approaches will likely lead to better understanding of crosstalk among the MAPKs and with other signaling pathways as well as roles of MAPKs in defense against other microbes (biotic interactions).

The response regulator Skn7 of Aspergillus fumigatus is essential for the antifungal effect of fludioxonil

Aspergillus fumigatus is an important fungal pathogen that represents a major threat for severely immunocompromised patients. Cases of invasive aspergillosis are associated with a high mortality rate, which reflects the limited treatment options that are currently available. The development of novel therapeutic approaches is therefore an urgent task. An interesting compound is fludioxonil, a derivative of the bacterial secondary metabolite pyrrolnitrin. Both agents possess potent antimicrobial activity against A. fumigatus and trigger a lethal activation of the group III hybrid histidine kinase TcsC, the major sensor kinase of the High Osmolarity Glycerol (HOG) pathway in A. fumigatus. In the current study, we have characterized proteins that operate downstream of TcsC and analyzed their roles in the antifungal activity of fludioxonil and in other stress situations. We found that the SskA-SakA axis of the HOG pathway and Skn7 can independently induce an increase of the internal glycerol concentration, but each of these individual responses amounts for only half of the level found in the wild type. The lethal fludioxonil-induced ballooning occurs in the sskA and the sakA mutant, but not in the skn7-deficient strain, although all three strains show comparable glycerol responses. This indicates that an elevated osmotic pressure is necessary, but not sufficient and that a second, decisive and Skn7-dependent mechanism mediates the antifungal activity. We assume that fludioxonil triggers a reorganization in the fungal cell wall that reduces its rigidity, which in combination with the elevated osmotic pressure executes the lethal expansion of the fungal cells. Two findings link Skn7 to the cell wall of A. fumigatus: (1) the fludioxonil-induced massive increase in the chitin content depends on Skn7 and (2) the skn7 mutant is more resistant to the cell wall stressor Calcofluor white. In conclusion, our data suggest that the antifungal activity of fludioxonil in A. fumigatus relies on two distinct and synergistic processes: A high internal osmotic pressure and a weakened cell wall. The involvement of Skn7 in both processes most likely accounts for its particular importance in the antifungal activity of fludioxonil.

Convergent and distinctive functions of transcription factors VdYap1, VdAtf1, and VdSkn7 in the regulation of nitrosative stress resistance, microsclerotia formation, and virulence in Verticillium dahliae

Reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) play a fundamental role in plant-fungal interactions. How pathogenic fungi manipulate plant-derived ROS/RNS is of importance to the outcomes of these interactions. In this study, we explored the individual and combined contributions of three transcription factors, VdAtf1, VdYap1, and VdSkn7, in the response to ROS/RNS, microsclerotia formation, and virulence in the plant wilt pathogen Verticillium dahliae. We showed that VdYap1 is essential for ROS response. Additionally, mutants lacking any combination of the three genes shared significant hypersensitivity to nitro-oxidative stress like sodium nitroprusside dehydrate and double deletions lacking VdYap1 and VdAtf1 resulted in further increased sensitivity to ROS. Double deletion of VdAtf1 and VdSkn7 reduced melanin production and virulence while simultaneous lack of VdSkn7 and VdYap1 disrupted nitrogen metabolism and ROS resistance. Finally, comparison of transcriptional profiles of the respective single or double mutants in response to nitro-oxidative stress revealed that the three transcription factors are involved in denitrification of nitrated alkanes and lipids to protect against nitro-oxidative stress. Taken together, our results demonstrate convergent and distinctive functions of VdYap1, VdAtf1, and VdSkn7 in V. dahliae, and provide new data on their roles in response to ROS/RNS in fungi.

Cucurbitacin B Exerts Antiaging Effects in Yeast by Regulating Autophagy and Oxidative Stress

The budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae has been used as a model organism for the basic mechanism of aging, which provides useful assay systems for measuring both replicative and chronological lifespans. In the course of our screening program for substances that extend replicative lifespan, cucurbitacin B (CuB) was found as a hit compound from a compound library, which contains cerebrosides, phenols, sesquiterpenoid, triterpenoids, and sterols isolated from natural products by our research group. Importantly, it prolonged not only the replicative lifespan but also the chronological lifespan in yeast. CuB increased ATG32 gene expression, suggesting that CuB induces autophagy. Indeed, the GFP signal generated from the cleavage of GFP-Atg8, which is a signature of autophagy, was increased upon CuB treatment. On the other hand, CuB failed to increase the chronological lifespans when either ATG2 or ATG32, essential autophagy genes, was deleted, indicating that the lifespan extension by CuB depends on autophagy induction. Furthermore, CuB significantly increased superoxide dismutase (Sod) activity and the survival rate of yeast under oxidative stress, while it decreased the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) production, indicating that CuB has activity to antagonize oxidative stress. Additionally, CuB did not affect replicative lifespans of sod1, sod2, uth1, and skn7 mutants with the K6001 background, indicating that aging-related genes including SOD1, SOD2, UTH1, and SKN7 participate in the antiaging effect of CuB. These results suggest that CuB exerts antiaging activity by regulating autophagy, ROS, antioxidative ability, and aging-related genes. Finally, we discuss the possible intracellular targets of CuB based on the phenotypic comparison between the CuB and global gene deletion databases.

Robust Transcriptional Response to Heat Shock Impacting Diverse Cellular Processes despite Lack of Heat Shock Factor in Microsporidia

The majority of fungal species prefer the 12° to 30°C range, and relatively few species tolerate temperatures higher than 35°C. Our understanding of the mechanisms underpinning the ability of some species to grow at higher temperatures is incomplete. Nosema ceranae is an obligate intracellular fungal parasite that infects honey bees and can cause individual mortality and contribute to colony collapse. Despite a reduced genome, this species is strikingly thermotolerant, growing optimally at the colony temperature of 35°C. In characterizing the heat shock response (HSR) in N. ceranae, we found that this and other microsporidian species have lost the transcriptional regulator HSF and possess a reduced set of putative core HSF1-dependent HSR target genes. Despite these losses, N. ceranae demonstrates robust upregulation of the remaining HSR target genes after heat shock. In addition, thermal stress leads to alterations in genes involved in various metabolic pathways, ribosome biogenesis and translation, and DNA repair. These results provide important insight into the stress responses of microsporidia. Such a new understanding will allow new comparisons with other pathogenic fungi and potentially enable the discovery of novel treatment strategies for microsporidian infections affecting food production and human health.IMPORTANCE We do not fully understand why some fungal species are able to grow at temperatures approaching mammalian body temperature. Nosema ceranae, a microsporidium, is a type of fungal parasite that infects honey bees and grows optimally at the colony temperature of 35°C despite possessing cellular machinery for responding to heat stress that is notably simpler than that of other fungi. We find that N. ceranae demonstrates a robust and broad response to heat shock. These results provide important insight into the stress responses of this type of fungus, allow new comparisons with other pathogenic fungi, and potentially enable the discovery of novel treatment strategies for this type of fungus.

The Transcription Factor Sfp1 Regulates the Oxidative Stress Response in Candida albicans

Candida albicans is a commensal that inhabits the skin and mucous membranes of humans. Because of the increasing immunocompromised population and the limited classes of antifungal drugs available, C. albicans has emerged as an important opportunistic pathogen with high mortality rates. During infection and therapy, C. albicans frequently encounters immune cells and antifungal drugs, many of which exert their antimicrobial activity by inducing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Therefore, antioxidative capacity is important for the survival and pathogenesis of C. albicans. In this study, we characterized the roles of the zinc finger transcription factor Sfp1 in the oxidative stress response against C. albicans. A sfp1-deleted mutant was more resistant to oxidants and macrophage killing than wild-type C. albicans and processed an active oxidative stress response with the phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) Hog1 and high CAP1 expression. Moreover, the sfp1-deleted mutant exhibited high expression levels of antioxidant genes in response to oxidative stress, resulting in a higher total antioxidant capacity, glutathione content, and glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase enzyme activity than the wild-type C. albicans. Finally, the sfp1-deleted mutant was resistant to macrophage killing and ROS-generating antifungal drugs. Together, our findings provide a new understanding of the complex regulatory machinery in the C. albicans oxidative stress response.

Role of the highly conserved G68 residue in the yeast phosphorelay protein Ypd1: implications for interactions between histidine phosphotransfer (HPt) and response regulator proteins

Background

Many bacteria and certain eukaryotes utilize multi-step His-to-Asp phosphorelays for adaptive responses to their extracellular environments. Histidine phosphotransfer (HPt) proteins function as key components of these pathways. HPt proteins are genetically diverse, but share a common tertiary fold with conserved residues near the active site. A surface-exposed glycine at the H + 4 position relative to the phosphorylatable histidine is found in a significant number of annotated HPt protein sequences. Previous reports demonstrated that substitutions at this position result in diminished phosphotransfer activity between HPt proteins and their cognate signaling partners.

Results

We report the analysis of partner binding interactions and phosphotransfer activity of the prototypical HPt protein Ypd1 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae using a set of H + 4 (G68) substituted proteins. Substitutions at this position with large, hydrophobic, or charged amino acids nearly abolished phospho-acceptance from the receiver domain of its upstream signaling partner, Sln1 (Sln1-R1). An in vitro binding assay indicated that G68 substitutions caused only modest decreases in affinity between Ypd1 and Sln1-R1, and these differences did not appear to be large enough to account for the observed decrease in phosphotransfer activity. The crystal structure of one of these H + 4 mutants, Ypd1-G68Q, which exhibited a diminished ability to participate in phosphotransfer, shows a similar overall structure to that of wild-type. Molecular modelling suggests that the highly conserved active site residues within the receiver domain of Sln1 must undergo rearrangement to accommodate larger H + 4 substitutions in Ypd1.

Conclusions

Phosphotransfer reactions require precise arrangement of active site elements to align the donor-acceptor atoms and stabilize the transition state during the reaction. Any changes likely result in an inability to form a viable transition state during phosphotransfer. Our data suggest that the high degree of evolutionary conservation of residues with small side chains at the H + 4 position in HPt proteins is required for optimal activity and that the presence of larger residues at the H + 4 position would cause alterations in the positioning of active site residues in the partner response regulator.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12858-019-0104-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Roles of Three HSF Domain-Containing Proteins in Mediating Heat-Shock Protein Genes and Sustaining Asexual Cycle, Stress Tolerance, and Virulence in Beauveria bassiana

Heat-shock transcription factors (HSFs) with a HSF domain are regulators of fungal heat-shock protein (HSP) genes and many others vectoring heat-shock elements, to which the domain binds in response to heat shock and other stress cues. The fungal insect pathogen Beauveria bassiana harbors three HSF domain-containing orthologous to Hsf1, Sfl1, and Skn7 in many fungi. Here, we show that the three proteins are interrelated at transcription level, play overlapping or opposite roles in activating different families of 28 HSP genes and mediate differential expression of some genes required for asexual developmental and intracellular Na⁺ homeostasis. Expression levels of skn7 and sfl1 largely increased in Δhsf1, which is evidently lethal in some other fungi. Hsf1 was distinct from Sfl1 and Skn7 in activating most HSP genes under normal and heat-shocked conditions. Sfl1 and Skn7 played overlapping roles in activating more than half of the HSP genes under heat shock. Each protein also activated a few HSP genes not targeted by two others under certain conditions. Deletion of sfl1 resulted in most severe growth defects on rich medium and several minimal media at optimal 25°C while such growth defects were less severe in Δhsf1 and minor in Δskn7. Conidiation level was lowered by 76% in Δskn7, 62% in Δsfl1, and 39% in Δhsf1. These deletion mutants also showed differential changes in cell wall integrity, antioxidant activity, virulence and cellular tolerance to osmotic salt, heat shock, and UV-B irradiation. These results provide a global insight into vital roles of Hsf1, Sfl1, and Skn7 in B. bassiana adaptation to environment and host.

Roles of the Skn7 response regulator in stress resistance, cell wall integrity and GA biosynthesis in Ganoderma lucidum

The transcription factor Skn7 is a highly conserved fungal protein that participates in a variety of processes, including oxidative stress adaptation, fungicide sensitivity, cell wall biosynthesis, cell cycle, and sporulation. In this study, a homologous gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Skn7 was cloned from Ganoderma lucidum. RNA interference (RNAi) was used to study the functions of Skn7, and the two knockdown strains Skn7i-5 and Skn7i-7 were obtained in G. lucidum. The knockdown of GlSkn7 resulted in hypersensitivity to oxidative and cell wall stresses. The concentrations of chitin and β-1,3-glucan distinctly decreased in the GlSkn7 knockdown strains compared with those of the wild type (WT). In addition, the expression of cell wall biosynthesis related genes was also significantly down-regulated and the thickness of the cell wall also significantly reduced in the GlSkn7 knockdown strains. The intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) content and ganoderic acids biosynthesis increased significantly in the GlSkn7 knockdown strains. Interestingly, the level of intracellular ROS and the content of ganoderic acids decreased after N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), an ROS scavenger, was added, indicating that GlSkn7 might regulate ganoderic acids biosynthesis via the intracellular ROS level. The transcript level of GlSkn7 were up-regulated in osmotic stress, heat stress and fungicide condition. At the same time, the content of ganoderic acids in the GlSkn7 knockdown strains also changed distinctly in these conditions. Overall, GlSkn7 is involved in stress resistance, cell wall integrity and ganoderic acid biosynthesis in G. lucidum.

Reactive cold plasma particles generate oxidative stress in yeast but do not trigger apoptosis

Interactions of living cells with cold plasma of electrical discharges affect cell physiology, often resulting in the loss of viability. However, the mechanisms involved in cell killing are poorly understood, and dissection of cellular pathways or structures affected by plasma using simple eukaryotic models is needed. Using selected genetic mutants of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), we investigated the role of oxidative stress and yeast apoptosis in plasma-induced cell killing. Increased sensitivity of yeast strains deficient in superoxide dismutases indicated that reactive oxygen species generated in the plasma are among the most prominent factors involved in killing of yeast cells. In mutant strains with a deletion of the key components of yeast apoptotic pathway, the sensitivity of cells towards the plasma treatment remained unaffected. Yeast apoptosis, thus, does not appear to play a significant role in plasma-induced cell killing of yeast.

From Genes to Networks: The Regulatory Circuitry Controlling Candida albicans Morphogenesis

Candida albicans is a commensal yeast of most healthy individuals, but also one of the most prevalent human fungal pathogens. During adaptation to the mammalian host, C. albicans encounters different niches where it is exposed to several types of stress, including oxidative, nitrosative (e.g., immune system), osmotic (e.g., kidney and oral cavity) stresses and pH variation (e.g., gastrointestinal (GI) tract and vagina). C. albicans has developed the capacity to respond to the environmental changes by modifying its morphology, which comprises the yeast-to-hypha transition, white-opaque switching, and chlamydospore formation. The yeast-to-hypha transition has been very well characterized and was shown to be modulated by several external stimuli that mimic the host environment. For instance, temperature above 37 ℃, serum, alkaline pH, and CO₂ concentration are all reported to enhance filamentation. The transition is characterized by the activation of an intricate regulatory network of signaling pathways, involving many transcription factors. The regulatory pathways that control either the stress response or morphogenesis are required for full virulence and promote survival of C. albicans in the host. Many of these transcriptional circuitries have been characterized, highlighting the complexity and the interconnections between the different pathways. Here, we present the major signaling pathways and the main transcription factors involved in the yeast-to-hypha transition. Furthermore, we describe the role of heat shock transcription factors in the morphogenetic transition, providing an edifying example of the complex cross talk between pathways involved in morphogenesis and stress response.

The two-component response regulator VdSkn7 plays key roles in microsclerotial development, stress resistance and virulence of Verticillium dahliae

The fungus Verticillium dahliae causes vascular wilt disease on various plant species resulting in devastating yield losses worldwide. The capacity of V. dahliae to colonize in host plant xylem and disseminate by microsclerotia has led to studies to evaluate genes associated with pathogenesis and microsclerotia formation. Here, we identified and characterized a V. dahliae homolog to Skn7, a two-component stress response regulator of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Results showed that melanized microsclerotia formation and conidiation were significantly inhibited in the VdSkn7 deletion mutants. VdSkn7-deficient mutants displayed severe growth defect under heat shock, cell wall perturbing agents and H2O2, and were significantly less virulent but were not sensitive to osmotic stresses compared to the wild-type strain. Finally, we demonstrated that VdSkn7 is required for the plant penetration. Taken together, our study thus provides new evidence on the functional conservation and divergence of Skn7 orthologs among fungal organisms and indicates that VdSkn7 contributes to microsclerotial development, virulence and stress response of V. dahliae.

The two-component response regulator Skn7 belongs to a network of transcription factors regulating morphogenesis in Candida albicans and independently limits morphogenesis-induced ROS accumulation

Skn7 is a conserved fungal heat shock factor-type transcriptional regulator. It participates in maintaining cell wall integrity and regulates the osmotic/oxidative stress response (OSR) in S. cerevisiae, where it is part of a two-component signal transduction system. Here, we comprehensively address the function of Skn7 in the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans. We provide evidence reinforcing functional divergence, with loss of the cell wall/osmotic stress-protective roles and acquisition of the ability to regulate morphogenesis on solid medium. Mapping of the Skn7 transcriptional circuitry, through combination of genome-wide expression and location technologies, pointed to a dual regulatory role encompassing OSR and filamentous growth. Genetic interaction analyses revealed close functional interactions between Skn7 and master regulators of morphogenesis, including Efg1, Cph1 and Ume6. Intracellular biochemical assays revealed that Skn7 is crucial for limiting the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in filament-inducing conditions on solid medium. Interestingly, functional domain mapping using site-directed mutagenesis allowed decoupling of Skn7 function in morphogenesis from protection against intracellular ROS. Our work identifies Skn7 as an integral part of the transcriptional circuitry controlling C. albicans filamentous growth and illuminates how C. albicans relies on an evolutionarily-conserved regulator to protect itself from intracellular ROS during morphological development.

Stress Adaptation

Fungal species display an extraordinarily diverse range of lifestyles. Nevertheless, the survival of each species depends on its ability to sense and respond to changes in its natural environment. Environmental changes such as fluctuations in temperature, water balance or pH, or exposure to chemical insults such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species exert stresses that perturb cellular homeostasis and cause molecular damage to the fungal cell. Consequently, fungi have evolved mechanisms to repair this damage, detoxify chemical insults, and restore cellular homeostasis. Most stresses are fundamental in nature, and consequently, there has been significant evolutionary conservation in the nature of the resultant responses across the fungal kingdom and beyond. For example, heat shock generally induces the synthesis of chaperones that promote protein refolding, antioxidants are generally synthesized in response to an oxidative stress, and osmolyte levels are generally increased following a hyperosmotic shock. In this article we summarize the current understanding of these and other stress responses as well as the signaling pathways that regulate them in the fungi. Model yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae are compared with filamentous fungi, as well as with pathogens of plants and humans. We also discuss current challenges associated with defining the dynamics of stress responses and with the elaboration of fungal stress adaptation under conditions that reflect natural environments in which fungal cells may be exposed to different types of stresses, either sequentially or simultaneously.

Extended N-terminal region of the essential phosphorelay signaling protein Ypd1 from Cryptococcus neoformans contributes to structural stability, phosphostability and binding of calcium ions

Rapid response to external stimuli is crucial for survival and proliferation of microorganisms. Pathogenic fungi employ histidine-to-aspartate multistep phosphorelay systems to respond to environmental stress, progress through developmental stages and to produce virulence factors. Because these His-to-Asp phosphorelay systems are not found in humans, they are potential targets for the development of new antifungal therapies. Here we report the characterization of the histidine phosphotransfer (HPt) protein Ypd1 from the human fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans Results from this study demonstrate that CnYpd1 indeed functions as a phosphorelay protein in vitro, and that H138 is confirmed as the site of phosphorylation. We found that CnYpd1 exhibits unique characteristics in comparison to other histidine phosphotransfer proteins, such as an extended N-terminal amino acid sequence, which we find contributes to structural integrity, a longer phosphorylated life time and the ability to bind calcium ions.

bZIP transcription factor CgAP1 is essential for oxidative stress tolerance and full virulence of the poplar anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Yeast AP1 transcription factor is a regulator of oxidative stress response. Here, we report the identification and characterization of CgAP1, an ortholog of YAP1 in poplar anthracnose fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The expression of CgAP1 was highly induced by reactive oxygen species. CgAP1 deletion mutants displayed enhanced sensitivity to oxidative stress compared with the wild-type strain, and their poplar leaf virulence was obviously reduced. However, the mutants exhibited no obvious defects in aerial hyphal growth, conidia production, and appressoria formation. CgAP1::eGFP fusion protein localized to the nucleus after TBH (tert-Butyl hydroperoxide) treatment, suggesting that CgAP1 functions as a redox sensor in C. gloeosporioides. In addition, CgAP1 prevented the accumulation of ROS during early stages of biotrophic growth. CgAP1 also acted as a positive regulator of several ROS-related genes (i.e., Glr1, Hyr1, and Cyt1) involved in the antioxidative response. These results highlight the key regulatory role of CgAP1 transcription factor in oxidative stress response and provide insights into the function of ROS detoxification in virulence of C. gloeosporioides.

The transcription factor SKN7 regulates conidiation, thermotolerance, apoptotic-like cell death and parasitism in the nematode endoparasitic fungus Hirsutella minnesotensis

The transcription factor SKN7 is a highly conserved protein among fungi and was initially recognized as a response regulator that protects cells from oxidative stress and maintains cell wall integrity in yeast. Orthologs of SKN7 are extensively present in biocontrol agents of plant pathogens, but they had not been functionally characterized. Here, we identified and characterized the transcription factor SKN7 in the nematode endoparasitic fungus Hirsutella minnesotensis. Null mutant lacking HIM-SKN7 (HIM_03620), which was generated by a gene disruption strategy, demonstrated reduced conidiation, increased sensitivity to high temperature, hydrogen peroxide, mannitol and ethanol, and reduced fungal resistance to farnesol. However, over-expression mutant showed increased conidial production, thermotolerance and resistance to farnesol, suggesting that HIM-SKN7 regulates antiapoptotic-like cell death in H. minnesotensis. Moreover, the results showed that in null mutant, H. minnesotensis had decreased endoparasitic ability as compared to wild type and over-expression strain. During the infection process, the relative expression of the HIM-SKN7 gene was significantly induced in the wild type and over-expression strain. The results of the present study advance our understanding of the functions of the SKN7 gene in biocontrol agents, in particular, nematode endoparasitic fungi.

The Stress Response Regulator AflSkn7 Influences Morphological Development, Stress Response, and Pathogenicity in the Fungus Aspergillus flavus

This study focused on AflSkn7, which is a stress response regulator in the aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus flavus. The ΔAflSkn7 mutants exhibited partially defective conidial formation and a complete inability to generate sclerotia, indicating AflSkn7 affects A. flavus asexual and sexual development. The mutants tolerated osmotic stress but were partially susceptible to the effects of cell wall stress. Additionally, the ΔAflSkn7 mutants were especially sensitive to oxidative stress. These observations confirmed that AflSkn7 influences oxidative stress responses rather than osmotic stress responses. Additionally, AflSkn7 was observed to increase aflatoxin biosynthesis and seed infection rates. These results indicate AflSkn7 affects A. flavus morphological development, stress response, aflatoxin production, and pathogenicity. The results of this study may facilitate the development of new methods to manage A. flavus infections.

De novo Transcriptome Analysis of Rhizoctonia solani AG1 IA Strain Early Invasion in Zoysia japonica Root

Zoysia japonica brown spot was caused by necrotrophic fungus Rhizoctonia solani invasion, which led to severe financial loss in city lawn and golf ground maintenance. However, little was known about the molecular mechanism of R. solani pathogenicity in Z. japonica. In this study we examined early stage interaction between R. solani AG1 IA strain and Z. japonica cultivar “Zenith” root by cell ultra-structure analysis, pathogenesis-related proteins assay and transcriptome analysis to explore molecular clues for AG1 IA strain pathogenicity in Z. japonica. No obvious cell structure damage was found in infected roots and most pathogenesis-related protein activities showedg a downward trend especially in 36 h post inoculation, which exhibits AG1 IA strain stealthy invasion characteristic. According to Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database classification, most DEGs in infected “Zenith” roots dynamically changed especially in three aspects, signal transduction, gene translation, and protein synthesis. Total 3422 unigenes of “Zenith” root were predicted into 14 kinds of resistance (R) gene class. Potential fungal resistance related unigenes of “Zenith” root were involved in ligin biosynthesis, phytoalexin synthesis, oxidative burst, wax biosynthesis, while two down-regulated unigenes encoding leucine-rich repeat receptor protein kinase and subtilisin-like protease might be important for host-derived signal perception to AG1 IA strain invasion. According to Pathogen Host Interaction (PHI) database annotation, 1508 unigenes of AG1 IA strain were predicted and classified into 37 known pathogen species, in addition, unigenes encoding virulence, signaling, host stress tolerance, and potential effector were also predicted. This research uncovered transcriptional profiling during the early phase interaction between R. solani AG1 IA strain and Z. japonica, and will greatly help identify key pathogenicity of AG1 IA strain.

Structure of human heat-shock transcription factor 1 in complex with DNA

Heat-shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) has a central role in mediating the protective response to protein conformational stresses in eukaryotes. HSF1 consists of an N-terminal DNA-binding domain (DBD), a coiled-coil oligomerization domain, a regulatory domain and a transactivation domain. Upon stress, HSF1 trimerizes via its coiled-coil domain and binds to the promoters of heat shock protein-encoding genes. Here, we present cocrystal structures of the human HSF1 DBD in complex with cognate DNA. A comparative analysis of the HSF1 paralog Skn7 from Chaetomium thermophilum showed that single amino acid changes in the DBD can switch DNA binding specificity, thus revealing the structural basis for the interaction of HSF1 with cognate DNA. We used a crystal structure of the coiled-coil domain of C. thermophilum Skn7 to develop a model of the active human HSF1 trimer in which HSF1 embraces the heat-shock-element DNA.

Inhibition of Yap2 activity by MAPKAP kinase Rck1 affects yeast tolerance to cadmium

Yap2 is a cadmium responsive transcription factor that interacts with MAPK-activated protein (MAPKAP) kinase Rck1. We show that Rck1 deletion confers protection against cadmium toxicity and that the mechanism underlying this observation relies on Yap2. Rck1 removal from the yeast genome potentiates Yap2 activity by increasing protein half-life and delaying its nuclear export. As a consequence, several Yap2 antioxidant targets are over-activated by a mechanism that also requires Yap1. Several genes of the cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway are upregulated under cadmium stress in a Yap2 dependent way. We showed that deletion of CWI genes renders yeast cells more sensitive to cadmium. These findings led us to suggest that in response to cadmium stress Yap2 may serve a dual purpose: oxidative stress attenuation and cell wall maintenance.

Unraveling the Function of the Response Regulator BcSkn7 in the Stress Signaling Network of Botrytis cinerea

Important for the lifestyle and survival of every organism is the ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. The necrotrophic plant pathogen Botrytis cinerea triggers an oxidative burst in the course of plant infection and therefore needs efficient signal transduction to cope with this stress. The factors involved in this process and their precise roles are still not well known. Here, we show that the transcription factor Bap1 and the response regulator (RR) B. cinerea Skn7 (BcSkn7) are two key players in the oxidative stress response (OSR) of B. cinerea; both have a major influence on the regulation of classical OSR genes. A yeast-one-hybrid (Y1H) approach proved direct binding to the promoters of gsh1 and grx1 by Bap1 and of glr1 by BcSkn7. While the function of Bap1 is restricted to the regulation of oxidative stress, analyses of Δbcskn7 mutants revealed functions beyond the OSR. Involvement of BcSkn7 in development and virulence could be demonstrated, indicated by reduced vegetative growth, impaired formation of reproductive structures, and reduced infection cushion-mediated penetration of the host by the mutants. Furthermore, Δbcskn7 mutants were highly sensitive to oxidative, osmotic, and cell wall stress. Analyses of Δbap1 bcskn7 double mutants indicated that loss of BcSkn7 uncovers an underlying phenotype of Bap1. In contrast to Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the ortholog of the glutathione peroxidase Gpx3p is not required for nuclear translocation of Bap1. The presented results contribute to the understanding of the OSR in B. cinerea and prove that it differs substantially from that of yeast, demonstrating the complexity and versatility of components involved in signaling pathways.

The response regulator BcSkn7 is required for vegetative differentiation and adaptation to oxidative and osmotic stresses in Botrytis cinerea

The high-osmolarity glycerol pathway plays an important role in the responses of fungi to various environmental stresses. Saccharomyces cerevisiae Skn7 is a response regulator in the high-osmolarity glycerol pathway, which regulates the oxidative stress response, cell cycle and cell wall biosynthesis. In this study, we characterized an Skn7 orthologue BcSkn7 in Botrytis cinerea. BcSKN7 can partly restore the growth defects of S. cerevisiae SKN7 mutant and vice versa. The BcSKN7 mutant (ΔBcSkn7-1) revealed increased sensitivity to ionic osmotic and oxidative stresses and to ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitors. In addition, ΔBcSkn7-1 was also impaired dramatically in conidiation and sclerotial formation. Western blot analysis showed that BcSkn7 positively regulated the phosphorylation of BcSak1 (the orthologue of S. cerevisiae Hog1) under osmotic stress, indicating that BcSkn7 is associated with the high-osmolarity glycerol pathway in B. cinerea. In contrast with BcSak1, BcSkn7 is not involved in the regulation of B. cinerea virulence. All of the phenotypic defects of ΔBcSkn7-1 are restored by genetic complementation of the mutant with the wild-type BcSKN7. The results of this study indicate that BcSkn7 plays an important role in the regulation of vegetative differentiation and in the response to various stresses in B. cinerea.

MrSkn7 controls sporulation, cell wall integrity, autolysis, and virulence in Metarhizium robertsii

Two-component signaling pathways generally include sensor histidine kinases and response regulators. We identified an ortholog of the response regulator protein Skn7 in the insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii, which we named MrSkn7. Gene deletion assays and functional characterizations indicated that MrSkn7 functions as a transcription factor. The MrSkn7 null mutant of M. robertsii lost the ability to sporulate and had defects in cell wall biosynthesis but was not sensitive to oxidative and osmotic stresses compared to the wild type. However, the mutant was able to produce spores under salt stress. Insect bioassays using these spores showed that the virulence of the mutant was significantly impaired compared to that of the wild type due to the failures to form the infection structure appressorium and evade host immunity. In particular, deletion of MrSkn7 triggered cell autolysis with typical features such as cell vacuolization, downregulation of repressor genes, and upregulation of autolysis-related genes such as extracellular chitinases and proteases. Promoter binding assays confirmed that MrSkn7 could directly or indirectly control different putative target genes. Taken together, the results of this study help us understand the functional divergence of Skn7 orthologs as well as the mechanisms underlying the development and control of virulence in insect-pathogenic fungi.

FgSKN7 and FgATF1 have overlapping functions in ascosporogenesis, pathogenesis and stress responses in Fusarium graminearum

Fusarium head blight caused by Fusarium graminearum is one of the most destructive diseases of wheat and barley. Deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by the pathogen is an important mycotoxins and virulence factor. Because oxidative burst is a common defense response and reactive oxygen species (ROS) induces DON production, in this study, we characterized functional relationships of three stress-related transcription factor genes FgAP1, FgATF1 and FgSKN7. Although all of them played a role in tolerance to oxidative stress, deletion of FgAP1 or FgATF1 had no significant effect on DON production. In contrast, Fgskn7 mutants were reduced in DON production and defective in H2 O2 -induced TRI gene expression. The Fgap1 mutant had no detectable phenotype other than increased sensitivity to H2 O2 and Fgap1 Fgatf1 and Fgap1 Fgskn7 mutants lacked additional or more severe phenotypes than the single mutants. The Fgatf1, but not Fgskn7, mutant was significantly reduced in virulence and delayed in ascospore release. The Fgskn7 Fgatf1 double mutant had more severe defects in growth, conidiation and virulence than the Fgatf1 or Fgskn7 mutant. Instead of producing four-celled ascospores, it formed eight small, single-celled ascospores in each ascus. Therefore, FgSKN7 and FgATF1 must have overlapping functions in intracellular ROS signalling for growth, development and pathogenesis in F. graminearum.

Genome and transcriptome analysis of the fungal pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense causing banana vascular wilt disease

BACKGROUND

The asexual fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc) causing vascular wilt disease is one of the most devastating pathogens of banana (Musa spp.). To understand the molecular underpinning of pathogenicity in Foc, the genomes and transcriptomes of two Foc isolates were sequenced.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Genome analysis revealed that the genome structures of race 1 and race 4 isolates were highly syntenic with those of F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici strain Fol4287. A large number of putative virulence associated genes were identified in both Foc genomes, including genes putatively involved in root attachment, cell degradation, detoxification of toxin, transport, secondary metabolites biosynthesis and signal transductions. Importantly, relative to the Foc race 1 isolate (Foc1), the Foc race 4 isolate (Foc4) has evolved with some expanded gene families of transporters and transcription factors for transport of toxins and nutrients that may facilitate its ability to adapt to host environments and contribute to pathogenicity to banana. Transcriptome analysis disclosed a significant difference in transcriptional responses between Foc1 and Foc4 at 48 h post inoculation to the banana 'Brazil' in comparison with the vegetative growth stage. Of particular note, more virulence-associated genes were up regulated in Foc4 than in Foc1. Several signaling pathways like the mitogen-activated protein kinase Fmk1 mediated invasion growth pathway, the FGA1-mediated G protein signaling pathway and a pathogenicity associated two-component system were activated in Foc4 rather than in Foc1. Together, these differences in gene content and transcription response between Foc1 and Foc4 might account for variation in their virulence during infection of the banana variety 'Brazil'.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Foc genome sequences will facilitate us to identify pathogenicity mechanism involved in the banana vascular wilt disease development. These will thus advance us develop effective methods for managing the banana vascular wilt disease, including improvement of disease resistance in banana.

Genetic interaction of the stress response factors ChAP1 and Skn7 in the maize pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus

The transcription factors ChAP1 and Skn7 of the maize pathogen Cochliobolus heterostrophus are orthologs of Yap1 and Skn7 in yeast, where they are predicted to work together in a complex. Previous work showed that in C. heterostrophus, as in yeast, ChAP1 accumulates in the nucleus in response to reactive oxygen species (ROS). The expression of genes whose products counteract oxidative stress depends on ChAP1, as shown by impaired ability of a Δchap1 mutant to induce these 'antioxidant' genes. In this study, we found that under oxidative stress, antioxidant gene expression is also partially impaired in the Δskn7 mutant but to a milder extent than in the Δchap1 mutant, whereas in the double mutant - Δchap1-Δskn7 - none of the tested genes was induced, with the exception of one catalase gene, CAT2. Both single mutants are capable of infecting the plant, showing similar virulence to the WT. The double mutant, however, showed clearly decreased virulence, pointing to additive contributions of ChAP1 and Skn7. Possible mechanisms are discussed, including additive regulation of gene expression by oxidative stress.

Coupling of transcriptional response to oxidative stress and secondary metabolism regulation in filamentous fungi

To survive sudden and potentially lethal changes in their environment, filamentous fungi must sense and respond to a vast array of stresses, including oxidative stresses. The generation of reactive oxygen species, or ROS, is an inevitable aspect of existence under aerobic conditions. In addition, in the case of fungi with pathogenic lifestyles, ROS are produced by the infected hosts and serve as defense weapons via direct toxicity, as well as effectors in fungal cell death mechanisms. Filamentous fungi have thus developed complex and sophisticated responses to evade oxidative killing. Several steps are determinant in these responses, including the activation of transcriptional regulators involved in the control of the antioxidant machinery. Gathering and integrating the most recent advances in knowledge of oxidative stress responses in fungi are the main objectives of this review. Most of the knowledge coming from two models, the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and fungi of the genus Aspergillus, is summarized. Nonetheless, recent information on various other fungi is delivered when available. Finally, special attention is given on the potential link between the functional interaction between oxidative stress and secondary metabolism that has been suggested in recent reports, including the production of mycotoxins.

Elucidating the fungal stress response by proteomics

Fungal species need to cope with stress, both in the natural environment and during interaction of human- or plant pathogenic fungi with their host. Many regulatory circuits governing the fungal stress response have already been discovered. However, there are still large gaps in the knowledge concerning the changes of the proteome during adaptation to environmental stress conditions. With the application of proteomic methods, particularly 2D-gel and gel-free, LC/MS-based methods, first insights into the composition and dynamic changes of the fungal stress proteome could be obtained. Here, we review the recent proteome data generated for filamentous fungi and yeasts. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Trends in Microbial Proteomics.