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Xie J, Wang M, Cheng A, Jia R, Zhu D, Liu M, Chen S, Zhao X, Yang Q, Wu Y, Zhang S, Luo Q, Wang Y, Xu Z, Chen Z, Zhu L, Liu Y, Yu Y, Zhang L, Chen X. The role of SOCS proteins in the development of virus- induced hepatocellular carcinoma. Virol J 2021; 18:74. [PMID: 33849568 PMCID: PMC8045357 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-021-01544-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Liver cancer has become one of the most common cancers and has a high mortality rate. Hepatocellular carcinoma is one of the most common liver cancers, and its occurrence and development process are associated with chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections. Main body The serious consequences of chronic hepatitis virus infections are related to the viral invasion strategy. Furthermore, the viral escape mechanism has evolved during long-term struggles with the host. Studies have increasingly shown that suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins participate in the viral escape process. SOCS proteins play an important role in regulating cytokine signaling, particularly the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK-STAT) signaling pathway. Cytokines stimulate the expression of SOCS proteins, in turn, SOCS proteins inhibit cytokine signaling by blocking the JAK-STAT signaling pathway, thereby achieving homeostasis. By utilizing SOCS proteins, chronic hepatitis virus infection may destroy the host’s antiviral responses to achieve persistent infection. Conclusions This review provides recent knowledge regarding the role of SOCS proteins during chronic hepatitis virus infection and provides some new ideas for the future treatment of chronic hepatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyan Xie
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingshu Wang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Anchun Cheng
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. .,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China. .,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Renyong Jia
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Dekang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Mafeng Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Shun Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - XinXin Zhao
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiao Yang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Shaqiu Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Qihui Luo
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhiwen Xu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengli Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunya Liu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanling Yu
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Ling Zhang
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyue Chen
- Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Animal Disease and Human Health of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Avian Disease Research Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Wenjiang, Chengdu City, 611130, Sichuan, People's Republic of China
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2
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Ruan Z, Chen G, Xie T, Mo G, Wang G, Luo W, Li H, Shi M, Liu WS, Zhang X. Cytokine inducible SH2-containing protein potentiate J subgroup avian leukosis virus replication and suppress antiviral responses in DF-1 chicken fibroblast cells. Virus Res 2021; 296:198344. [PMID: 33636239 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Cytokine-inducible Srchomology2 (SH2)-containing protein (CIS) belongs to the suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) protein family function as a negative feedback loop inhibiting cytokine signal transduction. J subgroup avian leukosis virus (ALV-J), a commonly-seen avian virus with a feature of immunosuppression, poses an unmeasurable threat to the poultry industry across the world. However, commercial medicines or vaccines are still no available for this virus. This study aims to evaluate the potential effect of chicken CIS in antiviral response and its role on ALV-J replication. The results showed that ALV-J strain SCAU-HN06 infection induced CIS expression in DF-1 cells, which was derived from chicken embryo free of endogenous avian sarcoma-leukosis virus (ASLV) like sequences. By overexpressing CIS, the expression of chicken type I interferon (IFN-I) and interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs; PKR, ZAP, CH25H, CCL4, IFIT5, and ISG12) were both suppressed. Meanwhile, data showed that CIS overexpression also increased viral yield. Interestingly, knockdown of CIS enhanced induction of IFN-I and ISGs and inhibited viral replication. Collectively, we proved that modulation of CIS expression not only affected SCAU-HN06 replication in vitro but also altered the expression of IFN-I and ISGs that act as an essential part of antiviral innate immune system. Our data provide a potential target for developing antiviral agents for ALV-J.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuohao Ruan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China; College of Marine Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Genghua Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Tingting Xie
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Guodong Mo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Guiyan Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Wen Luo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Hongmei Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Meiqing Shi
- Division of Immunology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Maryland, College Park, MA, 20742, USA.
| | - Wen-Sheng Liu
- College of Marine Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Province Engineering Research Centre of Aquatic Immunization and Aquaculture Health Techniques, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Xiquan Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agro-animal Genomics and Molecular Breeding, College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Key Lab of Chicken Genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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3
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Hosszu KK, Valentino A, Peerschke EI, Ghebrehiwet B. SLE: Novel Postulates for Therapeutic Options. Front Immunol 2020; 11:583853. [PMID: 33117397 PMCID: PMC7575694 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.583853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic deficiency in C1q is a strong susceptibility factor for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). There are two major hypotheses that potentially explain the role of C1q in SLE. The first postulates that C1q deficiency abrogates apoptotic cell clearance, leading to persistently high loads of potentially immunogenic self-antigens that trigger autoimmune responses. While C1q undoubtedly plays an important role in apoptotic clearance, an essential biological process such as removal of self- waste is so critical for host survival that multiple ligand-receptor combinations do fortunately exist to ensure that proper disposal of apoptotic debris is accomplished even in the absence of C1q. The second hypothesis is based on the observation that locally synthesized C1q plays a critical role in regulating the earliest stages of monocyte to dendritic cell (DC) differentiation and function. Indeed, circulating C1q has been shown to keep monocytes in a pre-dendritic state by silencing key molecular players and ensuring that unwarranted DC-driven immune responses do not occur. Monocytes are also able to display macromolecular C1 on their surface, representing a novel mechanism for the recognition of circulating "danger." Translation of this danger signal in turn, provides the requisite "license" to trigger a differentiation pathway that leads to adaptive immune response. Based on this evidence, the second hypothesis proposes that deficiency in C1q dysregulates monocyte-to-DC differentiation and causes inefficient or defective maintenance of self-tolerance. The fact that C1q receptors (cC1qR and gC1qR) are also expressed on the surface of both monocytes and DCs, suggests that C1q/C1qR may regulate DC differentiation and function through specific cell-signaling pathways. While their primary ligand is C1q, C1qRs can also independently recognize a vast array of plasma proteins as well as pathogen-associated molecular ligands, indicating that these molecules may collaborate in antigen recognition and processing, and thus regulate DC-differentiation. This review will therefore focus on the role of C1q and C1qRs in SLE and explore the gC1qR/C1q axis as a potential target for therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kinga K Hosszu
- Department of Pediatrics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Alisa Valentino
- Department of Lab Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Ellinor I Peerschke
- Department of Lab Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, United States
| | - Berhane Ghebrehiwet
- The Department of Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, United States
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4
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Wahid B. Role of SOCS1 Gene in Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Patients: A Mini-Review. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2019; 40:454-459. [PMID: 30916604 DOI: 10.1089/jir.2018.0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a global health problem, with an estimated bioburden of >180 million. Every year about 350,000 people die from HCV-associated liver complications such as cirrhosis and cancer (e.g., hepatocellular carcinoma). Pakistan has the second highest prevalence of HCV. Treatment of this life-threatening disease has been a challenge, but recent developments in direct-acting antivirals have offered hope to many. Although direct-acting antivirals have dramatically improved viral clearance, their exorbitant costs put them out of reach for patients in developing countries. Thus, interferon therapy is still being used in Pakistan. Specifically, interferon-stimulating genes can alter treatment response. For example, interferons induce expression of many antiviral genes through signal transducer and activator of transcription/Janus kinase signaling. Suppressor of cytokine signaling genes play an eminent role in the inhibition of cytokine signaling pathways and regulation of both adaptive and innate immunity. The present review examines expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 in HCV-treated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braira Wahid
- School of Science, Department of Life Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
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5
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Wang Y, Su J, Yuan B, Fu D, Niu Y, Yue D. The role of C1QBP in CSF-1-dependent PKCζ activation and macrophage migration. Exp Cell Res 2017; 362:11-16. [PMID: 28965866 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2017.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2017] [Revised: 09/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages view as double agents in tumor progression. Trafficking of macrophages to the proximity of tumors is mediated by colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), a growth factor. In this study, we investigated the role of complement1q-binding protein (C1QBP)/ atypical protein kinase C ζ (PKCζ) in CSF-1-induced macrophage migration. Disruption of C1QBP expression impaired chemotaxis and adhesion of macrophage. Phosphorylation of PKCζ is an essential component in macrophage chemotaxis signaling pathway. C1QBP could interact with PKCζ in macrophage. C1QBP knockdown inhibited CSF-1 induced phosphorylation of PKCζ and integrin-β1. However, C1QBP knockdown didn't affect the phosphorylation of PKCζ induced by MCP-1. Furthermore, CSF-1 from RCC cell condition medium promoted macrophage chemotaxis and adhesion. Taken together, our results demonstrated that C1QBP plays an essential role in CSF-1 induced migration of macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Wang
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Medical University Second Hospital, Tianjin Institute of Urology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300211, China
| | - Jing Su
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300203, China
| | - Bo Yuan
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300203, China
| | - Donghe Fu
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300203, China
| | - Yuanjie Niu
- Department of Urology, Tianjin Medical University Second Hospital, Tianjin Institute of Urology, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300211, China
| | - Dan Yue
- School of Laboratory Medicine, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin 300203, China.
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6
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Ortega-Prieto AM, Dorner M. Immune Evasion Strategies during Chronic Hepatitis B and C Virus Infection. Vaccines (Basel) 2017; 5:E24. [PMID: 28862649 PMCID: PMC5620555 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines5030024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Both hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infections are a major global healthcare problem with more than 240 million and 70 million infected, respectively. Both viruses persist within the liver and result in progressive liver disease, resulting in liver fibrosis, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Strikingly, this pathogenesis is largely driven by immune responses, unable to clear an established infection, rather than by the viral pathogens themselves. Even though disease progression is very similar in both infections, HBV and HCV have evolved distinct mechanisms, by which they ensure persistence within the host. Whereas HCV utilizes a cloak-and-dagger approach, disguising itself as a lipid-like particle and immediately crippling essential pattern-recognition pathways, HBV has long been considered a "stealth" virus, due to the complete absence of innate immune responses during infection. Recent developments and access to improved model systems, however, revealed that even though it is among the smallest human-tropic viruses, HBV may, in addition to evading host responses, employ subtle immune evasion mechanisms directed at ensuring viral persistence in the absence of host responses. In this review, we compare the different strategies of both viruses to ensure viral persistence by actively interfering with viral recognition and innate immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcus Dorner
- Section of Virology, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London W2 1PG, UK.
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7
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Yi W, Zhang P, Liang Y, Zhou Y, Shen H, Fan C, Moorman JP, Yao ZQ, Jia Z, Zhang Y. T-bet-mediated Tim-3 expression dampens monocyte function during chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Immunology 2016; 150:301-311. [PMID: 27809352 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) induces a high rate of chronic infection via dysregulation of host immunity. We have previously shown that T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain protein-3 (Tim-3) is up-regulated on monocyte/macrophages (M/Mφ) during chronic HCV infection; little is known, however, about the transcription factor that controls its expression in these cells. In this study, we investigated the role of transcription factor, T-box expressed in T cells (T-bet), in Tim-3 expression in M/Mφ in the setting of HCV infection. We demonstrate that T-bet is constitutively expressed in resting CD14+ M/Mφ in the peripheral blood. M/Mφ from chronically HCV-infected individuals exhibit a significant increase in T-bet expression that positively correlates with an increased level of Tim-3 expression. Up-regulation of T-bet is also observed in CD14+ M/Mφ incubated with HCV+ Huh7.5 cells, as well as in primary M/Mφ or monocytic THP-1 cells exposed to HCV core protein in vitro, which is reversible by blocking HCV core/gC1qR interactions. Moreover, the HCV core-induced up-regulation of T-bet and Tim-3 expression in M/Mφ can be abrogated by incubating the cells with SP600125 - an inhibitor for the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) signalling pathway. Importantly, silencing T-bet gene expression decreases Tim-3 expression and enhances interleukin-12 secretion as well as signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 phosphorylation. These data suggest that T-bet, induced by the HCV core/gC1qR interaction, enhances Tim-3 expression via the JNK pathway, leading to dampened M/Mφ function during HCV infection. These findings reveal a novel mechanism for Tim-3 regulation via T-bet during HCV infection, providing new targets to combat this global epidemic viral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjing Yi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Peixin Zhang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Yan Liang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Yun Zhou
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Huanjun Shen
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Chao Fan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Jonathan P Moorman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, Center of Excellence in Immunity, Inflammatory and Infectious Diseases, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA
| | - Zhi Q Yao
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, Center of Excellence in Immunity, Inflammatory and Infectious Diseases, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA
| | - Zhansheng Jia
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xian, China
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8
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Hwang JY, Kwon MG, Seo JS, Do JW, Park MA, Jung SH, Ahn SJ. Differentially expressed genes after viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus infection in olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus). Vet Microbiol 2016; 193:72-82. [PMID: 27599933 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
A strain of viral haemorrhagic septicaemia virus (VHSV) was isolated from cultured olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) during epizootics in South Korean. This strain showed high mortality to olive flounder in in vivo challenge experiment. The complete genomic RNA sequences were determined and phylogenetic analysis of the amino acid sequences of glycoprotein revealed that this isolate was grouped into genotype IVa of genus Novirhabdovirus. Expression profile of genes in olive flounder was analyzed at day 1 and day3 after infection with this VHSV isolate by using cDNA microarray containing olive flounder 13K cDNA clones. Microarray analysis revealed 785 up-regulated genes and 641 down-regulated genes by at least two-fold in virus-infected fish compared to healthy control groups. Among 785 up-regulated genes, we identified seven immune response-associated genes, including the interferon (IFN)-induced 56-kDa protein (IFI56), suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), interleukin 8 (IL-8), cluster of differentiation 83 (CD83), α-globin (HBA), VHSV-induced protein-6 (VHSV6), and cluster of differentiation antigen 9 (CD9). Our results confirm previous reports that even virulent strain of VHSV induces expression of genes involved in protective immunity against VHSV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jee Youn Hwang
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Mun-Gyeong Kwon
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Soo Seo
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Wan Do
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Myoung-Ae Park
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung-Hee Jung
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Jung Ahn
- Pathology Division, National Institute of Fisheries Science (NIFS), 216 GijangHaean-Ro, Gijang-up, Gijang-Gun, Busan 46083, Republic of Korea.
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9
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Zhu DY, Deng XZ, Jiang LF, Xiao W, Pei JP, Li BJ, Wang CJ, Zhang JH, Zhang Q, Zhou ZX, Ding WL, Xu XD, Yue M. Potential Role of Hepatitis C Virus Alternate Reading Frame Protein in Negative Regulation of T-Bet Gene Expression. Inflammation 2016; 38:1823-34. [PMID: 25894282 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-015-0160-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a major cause of chronic liver disease and has led to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma in a majority of infected individuals. We have previously demonstrated that the HCV alternate reading frame protein (F protein) is related to Th1/Th2 bias in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients, and we aimed to explore the relative molecular mechanisms here. A total of 104 cases including CHC patients and healthy donors were enrolled. T-bet and GATA-3 expression levels were analyzed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The levels of signal transducer and activator of transcription-1/-6(STAT1/6) and phosphorylated STAT1/6(pSTAT1/6) in PBMCs were measured by Western blotting. Our results showed that the levels of T-bet in PBMCs, as well as the levels of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) in sera, were decreased in anti-F protein antibody seropositive patients compared with anti-F protein antibody seronegative patients, whereas the levels of GATA-3 did not show difference between the two groups. Moreover, the decreased pSTAT1 and increased pSTAT6 were observed in PBMCs by HCV core/F protein stimulation with constant STAT1/6 expression. Taken together, it suggested that T-bet may be involved in Th1/Th2 bias induced by HCV F protein, and the disruption of STAT phosphorylation may participate in this mediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Yan Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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10
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Vannata B, Arcaini L, Zucca E. Hepatitis C virus-associated B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphomas: what do we know? Ther Adv Hematol 2015; 7:94-107. [PMID: 27054025 DOI: 10.1177/2040620715623924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Epidemiological studies have shown an increased risk of developing B-cell lymphomas in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. There is, however, a great geographic variability and it remains unclear whether additional environmental and genetic factors are involved or whether the international discrepancies represent simply a consequence of the variable prevalence of HCV infection in different countries. Other confounding factors may affect the comparability of the different studies, including the method of HCV assessment, the selection of normal controls, the lymphoma classification used and the year of publication. The most convincing evidence for a causal relationship comes from the observation, mainly limited to some indolent subtypes, of B-cell lymphoma regressions after successful HCV eradication with antiviral treatment. Yet, the molecular mechanism of HCV-induced lymphomagenesis are mainly hypothetical. According to most plausible models, lymphoma growth is a consequence of continuous antigenic stimulation induced by the chronic viral infection. This review will summarize the current knowledge on HCV-associated lymphomas and their management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Vannata
- Lymphoma Unit, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, Bellinzona, Switzerland
| | - Luca Arcaini
- Department of Hematology Oncology, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo and Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Emanuele Zucca
- Lymphoma Unit, Oncology Institute of Southern Switzerland, Ospedale San Giovanni, Bellinzona 6500, Switzerland
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11
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Zhu DY, Jiang LF, Deng XZ, Xiao W, Pei JP, Li BJ, Wang CJ, Zhang JH, Zhang Q, Zhou ZX, Ding WL, Xu XD, Yue M. TBX21 polymorphisms are associated with virus persistence in hepatitis C virus infection patients from a high-risk Chinese population. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2015; 34:1309-18. [PMID: 25759111 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-015-2337-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/22/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is a major cause of chronic liver disease and the varied outcomes of the infection depend on both viral and host factors. We have demonstrated that the HCV alternate reading frame protein (F protein) is related to Th1/Th2 bias which is involved in virus persistence in chronic hepatitis C (CHC) patients. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that genetic variants of TBX21 (T cell specific T-box transcription factor) were associated with the outcomes of HCV infection and F protein generation. Three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) (rs17250932, rs2074190, rs4794067) in the TBX21 gene were genotyped in a case-control study in a cohort of a high-risk group, including 354 healthy controls and 747 CHC patients (190 anti-F protein antibody seronegative patients and 557 anti-F protein antibody seropositive patients). Results showed that the rs4794067 C allele in the TBX21 promoter was significantly more common in CHC patients (OR = 1.335, 95% CI = 1.058-1.684, P = 0.015), exceptionally in anti-F protein seropositive patients (OR = 1.547, 95% CI = 1.140-2.101, P = 0.005), compared with healthy controls. And the risk effect was also significantly high in patients with HCV 1b genotype and mild fibrosis (P = 0.021, P = 0.010, respectively). Compared with the most frequent haplotype TAT, haplotype analysis showed that the distribution of TAC was significantly different between the chronic HCV carrier group and the healthy group, and so was the anti-F antibody seronegativity group and the anti-F antibody seronegativity group (all P < 0.001). Our results suggested that TBX21 variants may be involved in the etiology of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Y Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Basic Medicine, Nanjing Medical University, No. 293, Zhongshan East Road, Nanjing, 210002, China
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12
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Wang Y, Guo SY, Gu PQ, Wang XM, Sun N, Gao LJ. The globular heads of the C1q receptor regulate apoptosis in human extravillous cytotrophoblast-derived transformed cells via a mitochondria-dependent pathway. Am J Reprod Immunol 2013; 71:73-85. [PMID: 24028077 DOI: 10.1111/aji.12160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 08/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM The receptor for the globular head of human C1q (gC1qR) predominantly localizes to the mitochondrial matrix. gC1qR mediates many biological responses, including growth perturbations, morphological abnormalities and the initiation of apoptosis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between gC1qR expression, mitochondrial dysfunction and the regulation of apoptosis in human extravillous cytotrophoblast (EVCT)-derived transformed cell lines (HTR-8/SVneo and HPT-8). METHOD OF STUDY gC1qR expression was examined in human placental villi using real-time qPCR and Western blot analysis. The apoptotic death of HTR-8/SVneo and HPT-8 cells was assessed using flow cytometric analysis. Mitochondrial function was assessed via ROS generation, the amount of cytosolic Ca(2+) and changes in the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm). RESULTS The expression of the gC1qR gene was significantly increased in spontaneous abortion samples relative to induced abortion samples. HTR-8/SVneo and HPT-8 cells transfected with a gC1qR vector showed upregulation of cellular apoptosis and mitochondrial dysfunction, interestingly, which were abrogated by the addition of metformin. Metformin may protect mitochondrial function. CONCLUSION These data support a mechanism whereby gC1qR induces apoptosis through mitochondria-dependent pathways in human EVCT-derived transformed cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Clinical Laboratory, Harbin Medical University Cancer Hospital, Harbin, China
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13
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Colonne PM, Sahni A, Sahni SK. Suppressor of cytokine signalling protein SOCS1 and UBP43 regulate the expression of type I interferon-stimulated genes in human microvascular endothelial cells infected with Rickettsia conorii. J Med Microbiol 2013; 62:968-979. [PMID: 23558133 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.054502-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rickettsia conorii, the causative agent of Mediterranean spotted fever, preferentially infects human microvascular endothelium and activates pro-inflammatory innate immune responses as evidenced by enhanced expression and secretion of cytokines and chemokines. Our recent studies reveal that human microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs) infected with R. conorii also launch 'antiviral' host defence mechanisms typically governed by type I interferons. To summarize, infected HMECs secrete IFN-β to activate STAT1 in an autocrine/paracrine manner and display increased expression of IFN-stimulated genes, for example ISG15, which in turn activate innate responses to interfere with intracellular replication of rickettsiae. We now present evidence that UBP43 and SOCS1, known negative regulators of JAK/STAT signalling, are also induced in R. conorii-infected HMECs, of which UBP43 but not SOCS1 functions to negatively regulate STAT1 activation. Interestingly, UBP43 induction is almost completely abolished in the presence of IFN-β-neutralizing antibody, implicating an important role for UBP43 as a feedback inhibitor for IFN-β-mediated STAT1 activation. In contrast, SOCS1 expression is only partially affected by IFN-β neutralization, implicating potential involvement of as-yet-unidentified IFN-independent mechanism(s) in SOCS1 induction during R. conorii infection. A number of IFN-stimulated genes, including ISG15, OAS1, MX1, IRF1, IRF9 and TAP1 are also induced in an IFN-β-dependent manner, whereas GBP1 remains unaffected by IFN-β neutralization. Increased STAT1 phosphorylation in HMECs subjected to UBP43 knockdown led to transcriptional activation of OAS1, MX1 and GBP1, confirming the negative regulatory role of UBP43. Although IRF1, IRF9 and TAP1 were induced by IFN-β, siRNA-mediated silencing of UBP43 or SOCS1 did not significantly affect their transcriptional activation. Expression of ISG15 was, however, increased in HMECs transfected with siRNA for UBP43 and SOCS1. Thus, unique regulatory patterns of induced expression of UBP43, SOCS1 and IFN-stimulated genes represent pathogen-specific responses underlying IFN-β-mediated host endothelial signalling during the pathogenesis of spotted fever group rickettsiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punsiri M Colonne
- Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Abha Sahni
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
| | - Sanjeev K Sahni
- Institute for Human Infections and Immunity, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA.,Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, 301 University Boulevard, Galveston, TX 77555, USA
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Chen ZL, Gu PQ, Liu K, Su YJ, Gao LJ. The globular heads of the C1q receptor regulate apoptosis in human cervical squamous carcinoma cells via a p53-dependent pathway. J Transl Med 2012; 10:255. [PMID: 23268996 PMCID: PMC3567992 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-10-255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The globular heads of the human C1q receptor (gC1qR) localize predominantly to the mitochondrial matrix. gC1qR mediates many biological responses, including growth perturbation, morphological abnormalities and the initiation of apoptosis. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction, p53 status and gC1qR expression and the regulation of apoptosis in human cervical squamous carcinoma cells (C33a and SiHa). Methods Here, gC1qR expression was examined in human cervical tissues using real-time PCR and Western blot analysis. Apoptotic death of C33a and SiHa cells was assessed by flow cytometric analysis that detected the subG1 population. Mitochondrial function was assessed via ROS generation, the content of cytosolic Ca2+, and the change in mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψm). The viability and migration of C33a and SiHa cells were detected via the water-soluble tetrazolium salt (WST-1) assay and the transwell assay, respectively. Results gC1qR expression was decreased in cervical squamous cell carcinoma tissues compared with normal tissues. C33a and SiHa cells transfected with a vector encoding gC1qR displayed mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis, which was abrogated by the addition of a mutant form of p53 or p53 small interference RNA (siRNA). Furthermore, upon overexpression of gC1qR, cell viability and migration were significantly enhanced, and the apoptosis of C33a and SiHa cells were decreased when cells were treated with mutant p53 or p53 siRNA. Conclusions These data support a mechanism whereby gC1qR induces apoptosis through the mitochondrial and p53-dependent pathways in cervical squamous cell carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Lin Chen
- Clinical Laboratory, Jiangsu Provicial Official Hospital, Nanjing 210024, China
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15
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Liu Z, Su YJ, Gu PQ, Ji ZY, Wang XG, Gao LJ. The role of the globular heads of C1q receptor (gC1qR) gene in regulating apoptosis of human cervical squamous cell carcinoma. Cell Physiol Biochem 2012; 30:1181-90. [PMID: 23052251 DOI: 10.1159/000343308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The globular heads of the human C1q receptor (gC1qR) are multi-compartmental and multi-functional cellular proteins. The list of biological responses mediated by the gC1qR includes growth perturbation and morphological abnormalities, along with the initiation of apoptosis. However, the effects of the gC1qR on the apoptosis of cervical squamous carcinoma cells (C33a and SiHa) have not been demonstrated. METHODS Here, human cervical tissues were examined for the expression of the gC1qR using real-time PCR and Western blot analysis. Apoptotic death of C33a and SiHa cells was assessed by flow cytometric analysis to detect the subG1 population. Viability, migration and proliferation of C33a and SiHa cells were detected via the water-soluble tetrazolium salt (WST-1) assay, the Transwell assay and the (3)H-thymidine incorporation into DNA assay ((3)H-TdR), respectively. RESULTS These data showed that expression of the gC1qR protein was significantly decreased in human cervical squamous cell carcinoma tissues relative to normal cervix tissues. C33a and SiHa cells transfected with a GFP-gC1qR vector resulted in the up-regulation of cellular apoptosis and an apparent increase in the expression of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK). Further, the changes in C33a and SiHa cells viability, migration and proliferation observed upon overexpression of gC1qR could be abrogated using the p38 MAPK inhibitor SB202190. CONCLUSION These data indicate that gC1qR inhibits viability, migration and proliferation of cervical squamous cells carcinoma via the p38 MAPK signalling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhu Liu
- Clinical Laboratory, Huangdao District of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Qingdao, China
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16
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Zhu W, Wu C, Deng W, Pei R, Wang Y, Cao L, Qin B, Lu M, Chen X. Inhibition of the HCV core protein on the immune response to HBV surface antigen and on HBV gene expression and replication in vivo. PLoS One 2012; 7:e45146. [PMID: 23024803 PMCID: PMC3443233 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis C virus (HCV) core protein is a multifunctional protein that can interfere with the induction of an immune response. It has been reported that the HCV core protein inhibits HBV replication in vitro. In this study, we test the effect of the HCV core gene on the priming of the immune response to hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and on the replication of HBV in vivo. Our results showed that the full-length HCV core gene inhibits the induction of an immune response to the heterogeneous antigen, HBsAg, at the site of inoculation when HCV core (pC191) and HBsAg (pHBsAg) expression plasmids are co-administered as DNA vaccines into BALB/c mice. The observed interference effect of the HCV core occurs in the priming stage and is limited to the DNA form of the HBsAg antigen, but not to the protein form. The HCV core reduces the protective effect of the HBsAg when the HBsAg and the HCV core are co-administered as vaccines in an HBV hydrodynamic mouse model because the HCV core induces immune tolerance to the heterogeneous HBsAg DNA antigen. These results suggest that HCV core may play an important role in viral persistence by the attenuation of host immune responses to different antigens. We further tested whether the HCV core interfered with the priming of the immune response in hepatocytes via the hydrodynamic co-injection of an HBV replication-competent plasmid and an HCV core plasmid. The HCV core inhibited HBV replication and antigen expression in both BALB/c (H-2d) and C57BL/6 (H-2b) mice, the mouse models of acute and chronic hepatitis B virus infections. Thus, the HCV core inhibits the induction of a specific immune response to an HBsAg DNA vaccine. However, HCV C also interferes with HBV gene expression and replication in vivo, as observed in patients with coinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbo Zhu
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Chunchen Wu
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- * E-mail: (XC)
| | - Wanyu Deng
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Rongjun Pei
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Yun Wang
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Liang Cao
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Bo Qin
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Mengji Lu
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
- Institute of Virology, University Hospital of Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Xinwen Chen
- State Key Lab of Virology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
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Ripoli M, Pazienza V. Impact of HCV genetic differences on pathobiology of disease. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2012; 9:747-59. [PMID: 21905784 DOI: 10.1586/eri.11.94] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Multiple HCV genotypes have been isolated worldwide. Genotype seems to be involved in the main pathological aspects of HCV infection. Insulin resistance, steatosis and progression toward cirrhosis, fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma establish and develop following genotype-specific mechanisms. Moreover genotype influences pharmacological treatment in term of dose and duration. Pathways involved in cell proliferation, apoptosis, lipid metabolism, insulin and interferon signaling are impaired to a different extent among genotypes, leading to distinct pathological settings. Genotype 1 is associated with a more aggressive disease with increased insulin resistance, worst response to therapy, higher risk of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma development, while genotype 3 is associated with increased steatosis and fibrosis. The identification and characterization of HCV types and subtypes provides insight into the different outcome of HCV infection and responsiveness to therapy. In the present article, we focused on the pathogenicity of HCV genotypes and their effect on disease progression and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ripoli
- Gastroenterology Unit IRCCS Casa Sollievo della Sofferenza Hospital, viale dei Cappuccini n.1, 71013 San Giovanni Rotondo, Italy
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18
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Lara J, Xia G, Purdy M, Khudyakov Y. Coevolution of the hepatitis C virus polyprotein sites in patients on combined pegylated interferon and ribavirin therapy. J Virol 2011; 85:3649-63. [PMID: 21248044 PMCID: PMC3067842 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02197-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 01/07/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Genotype-specific sensitivity of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) to interferon-ribavirin (IFN-RBV) combination therapy and reduced HCV response to IFN-RBV as infection progresses from acute to chronic infection suggest that HCV genetic factors and intrahost HCV evolution play important roles in therapy outcomes. HCV polyprotein sequences (n = 40) from 10 patients with unsustainable response (UR) (breakthrough and relapse) and 10 patients with no response (NR) following therapy were identified through the Virahep-C study. Bayesian networks (BNs) were constructed to relate interrelationships among HCV polymorphic sites to UR/NR outcomes. All models showed an extensive interdependence of HCV sites and strong connections (P ≤ 0.003) to therapy response. Although all HCV proteins contributed to the networks, the topological properties of sites differed among proteins. E2 and NS5A together contributed ∼40% of all sites and ∼62% of all links to the polyprotein BN. The NS5A BN and E2 BN predicted UR/NR outcomes with 85% and 97.5% accuracy, respectively, in 10-fold cross-validation experiments. The NS5A model constructed using physicochemical properties of only five sites was shown to predict the UR/NR outcomes with 83.3% accuracy for 6 UR and 12 NR cases of the HALT-C study. Thus, HCV adaptation to IFN-RBV is a complex trait encoded in the interrelationships among many sites along the entire HCV polyprotein. E2 and NS5A generate broad epistatic connectivity across the HCV polyprotein and essentially shape intrahost HCV evolution toward the IFN-RBV resistance. Both proteins can be used to accurately predict the outcomes of IFN-RBV therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Lara
- Molecular Epidemiology & Bioinformatics Laboratory, Laboratory Branch, Division of Viral Hepatitis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Guoliang Xia
- Molecular Epidemiology & Bioinformatics Laboratory, Laboratory Branch, Division of Viral Hepatitis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Mike Purdy
- Molecular Epidemiology & Bioinformatics Laboratory, Laboratory Branch, Division of Viral Hepatitis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
| | - Yury Khudyakov
- Molecular Epidemiology & Bioinformatics Laboratory, Laboratory Branch, Division of Viral Hepatitis, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, Georgia 30333
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The wild-type hepatitis C virus core inhibits initiation of antigen-specific T- and B-cell immune responses in BALB/c mice. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2010; 17:1139-47. [PMID: 20519445 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00490-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
In this study, the effects of wild-type and deletion mutant hepatitis C virus (HCV) core proteins on the induction of immune responses in BALB/c mice were assessed. p2HA-C145-S23, encoding a core protein with the C-terminal 46 amino acids truncated, significantly produced stronger antibody and cellular responses than p2HA-C191-S23. The induction of immune responses by p2HA-C145-S23 was dose dependent. However, increasing the doses or repeated administration did not enhance immune responses by the wild-type core protein. In addition, p2HA-C191-S23 was apparently able to interfere with the priming of specific immune responses by p2HA-C145-S23 when the two were coadministered. These results demonstrated that the wild-type HCV core protein itself could inhibit the priming of immune responses in the course of a DNA vaccination, whereas the truncated HCV core protein could provide potential applications for the development of DNA- and peptide-based HCV vaccines.
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Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV-1 are often harbored in the same host, establishing chronic infections typically characterized by persistent viremia. HIV-1 has deleterious effects on the course of HCV infection by increasing the rate of HCV viral persistence, quantitative HCV RNA levels, and ultimately the liver fibrosis progression rate. Conversely, HCV may blunt the effectiveness of immune reconstitution following antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected individuals. Better understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying these clinical observations may facilitate novel and effective therapeutic interventions that tackle the clinical conundrums raised by HIV/HCV coinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Y Kim
- Infectious Disease Unit and Partners AIDS Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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21
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Lood C, Gullstrand B, Truedsson L, Olin AI, Alm GV, Rönnblom L, Sturfelt G, Eloranta ML, Bengtsson AA. C1q inhibits immune complex-induced interferon-α production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells: A novel link between C1q deficiency and systemic lupus erythematosus pathogenesis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 60:3081-90. [DOI: 10.1002/art.24852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Fushimi S, Ogino T, Hara J, Takahata T, Wakabayashi H, Watanabe H, Arashima Y, Kubo M, Matsukawa A. Forced expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 in T cells protects the development of concanavalin A-induced hepatitis in mice. Clin Immunol 2009; 133:437-46. [PMID: 19766538 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2009.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2009] [Revised: 08/22/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
T cells play central roles in liver diseases, but the regulatory mechanism by cytokine signaling is not well understood. In the present study, we explored the role of SOCS3 in T cells in concanavalin A (ConA)-induced hepatitis. Mice with T-cell-specific overexpression of SOCS3 (SOCS3-cTg) showed reduced hepatic damage and improved mice survival relative to the control, an event that was associated with decreased apoptotic signals Fas and pStat1. Expression of Th1-cytokines/chemokines was decreased in SOCS3-cTg liver with reduced expression of T-bet, a Th1-transcription factor. Flow cytometric analysis of the liver lymphocytes demonstrated that activated CD4(+) T cells, cytotoxic T cells and natural killer T cells were significantly decreased in SOCS3-cTg liver with decreased expression of perforin and granzyme B, injurious molecules for hepatocyte damage. These results suggest that forced expression of SOCS3 in T cells prevents ConA-induced liver injury by inhibiting several phases of Th1 responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soichiro Fushimi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University, 2-5-1 Shikata, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
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23
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HBsAg inhibits TLR9-mediated activation and IFN-alpha production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Mol Immunol 2009; 46:2640-6. [PMID: 19501403 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2009.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2009] [Revised: 04/19/2009] [Accepted: 04/29/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), the professional producers of type I interferons (IFN-alpha/beta), play a pivotal role in innate and adaptive immune responses against viral infections. Although functional impairment of circulating pDCs in chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients has been reported previously, the mechanism responsible for these defects remains unclear. We hypothesize that HBsAg circulating in high amounts during HBV infection may interact with pDC and contribute to pDC dysfunction. In support of this hypothesis we show that pDCs treated with HBsAg secreted much less IFN-alpha than control pDCs. Furthermore, suppression is specific for TLR9, with no effects upon TLR7-mediated IFN-alpha secretion. HBsAg inhibited TLR9-mediated IRF-7 expression and nuclear translocation, which are important for induction of IFN-alpha gene transcription. HBsAg upregulated the SOCS-1 expression and bound to BDCA-2 receptors on the plasma membrane of pDCs, resulting in the inhibition of the IFN-alpha production. In conclusion, the above data suggested that HBsAg may directly interfere with the function of pDC through HBsAg-mediated upregulation of SOCS-1 expression and BDCA-2 ligation, which could partially explain how HBV evades the immune system to establish a persistent infection.
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Pazienza V, Clément S, Pugnale P, Conzelman S, Foti M, Mangia A, Negro F. The hepatitis C virus core protein of genotypes 3a and 1b downregulates insulin receptor substrate 1 through genotype-specific mechanisms. Hepatology 2007; 45:1164-71. [PMID: 17465001 DOI: 10.1002/hep.21634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Both molecular and clinical evidence support a link between HCV infection and insulin resistance. We examined the in vitro interaction between the HCV core protein of genotypes 3a and 1b with the insulin-signaling pathway. We measured the expression levels of insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1), IRS-2, and other factors involved in the insulin signal pathway in a human hepatoma cell line (Huh-7) transiently expressing the HCV core protein of genotypes 3a or 1b by molecular biology and biochemical techniques. The IRS-1 (but not IRS-2) protein level was significantly reduced in Huh-7 expressing the core protein of both genotypes 3a and 1b, as compared to cells transfected with the empty vector. However, while the core protein of genotype 3a promoted IRS-1 degradation through the downregulation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) and by upregulating the suppressor of cytokine signal 7 (SOCS-7), the core protein of genotype 1b activated the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). We confirmed these findings by using agonists for PPARgamma (rosiglitazone) or short interfering RNAs for SOCS-7. CONCLUSION Despite the small sequence divergence of the HCV core proteins of genotypes 3a and 1b, the 2 proteins appear to interfere with the insulin signaling pathway using genotype-specific mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Pazienza
- Division of Clinical Pathology, University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
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Peerschke EIB, Ghebrehiwet B. The contribution of gC1qR/p33 in infection and inflammation. Immunobiology 2007; 212:333-42. [PMID: 17544818 PMCID: PMC2001281 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2006.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2006] [Revised: 11/21/2006] [Accepted: 11/27/2006] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Human gC1qR/p33 is a multi-compartmental and multi-functional cellular protein expressed on a wide range of tissues and cell types including lymphocytes, endothelial cells, dendritic cells, and platelets. Although originally isolated as a receptor for C1q by virtue of its affinity (K(d)=15-50 nM), and specificity for the globular heads of this molecule, a large body of evidence has now been accumulated which shows that in addition to C1q, gC1qR can serve as a receptor for diverse proinflammatory ligands including proteins of the plasma kinin-forming system, most notably high molecular weight kininogen (HK; K(d)=9 nM). In addition, gC1qR has been reported to recognize and bind a number of functional antigens of viral and bacterial origin. It is its ability to interact with microbial antigens and its potential to serve as a cellular protein for bacterial attachment and/or entry that has been the focus of our laboratory in the past few years. On the surface of activated platelets, gC1qR has been shown to serve as a binding site for Staphylococcus aureus and this binding is mediated by protein A. Since the binding of S. aureus to platelets is postulated to play a major role in the pathogenesis of endocarditis, gC1qR may provide a suitable surface for the initial adhesion of the bacterium. Recent data also demonstrate that the exosporium of Bacillus cereus, a member of a genus of aerobic, Gram-positive, spore-forming rod-like bacilli, which includes the deadly Bacillus anthracis, contains a binding site for gC1qR. Therefore, by virtue of its ability to recognize plasma proteins such as C1q and HK, as well as bacterial and viral antigens, cell-surface gC1qR not only is able to generate proinflammatory byproducts from the complement and kinin/kallikrein systems, but also can be an efficient vehicle and platform for a plethora of pathogenic microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellinor I B Peerschke
- Department of Pathology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York Presbyterian Hospital, 525 East 68th Street, Room F715, NY 10021, USA.
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Ye Y, Hauns K, Langland JO, Jacobs BL, Hogue BG. Mouse hepatitis coronavirus A59 nucleocapsid protein is a type I interferon antagonist. J Virol 2006; 81:2554-63. [PMID: 17182678 PMCID: PMC1865977 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01634-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent emergence of several new coronaviruses, including the etiological cause of severe acute respiratory syndrome, has significantly increased the importance of understanding virus-host cell interactions of this virus family. We used mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) A59 as a model to gain insight into how coronaviruses affect the type I alpha/beta interferon (IFN) system. We demonstrate that MHV is resistant to type I IFN. Protein kinase R (PKR) and the alpha subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor are not phosphorylated in infected cells. The RNase L activity associated with 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase is not activated or is blocked, since cellular RNA is not degraded. These results are consistent with lack of protein translation shutoff early following infection. We used a well-established recombinant vaccinia virus (VV)-based expression system that lacks the viral IFN antagonist E3L to screen viral genes for their ability to rescue the IFN sensitivity of the mutant. The nucleocapsid (N) gene rescued VVDeltaE3L from IFN sensitivity. N gene expression prevents cellular RNA degradation and partially rescues the dramatic translation shutoff characteristic of the VVDeltaE3L virus. However, it does not prevent PKR phosphorylation. The results indicate that the MHV N protein is a type I IFN antagonist that likely plays a role in circumventing the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Ye
- The Biodesign Institute, P.O. Box 875401, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5401, USA
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Kondo Y, Sung VMH, Machida K, Liu M, Lai MMC. Hepatitis C virus infects T cells and affects interferon-gamma signaling in T cell lines. Virology 2006; 361:161-73. [PMID: 17175001 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2006] [Revised: 10/05/2006] [Accepted: 11/09/2006] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
It has been reported that hepatitis C virus (HCV) may infect and replicate in human T cells, particularly in perihepatic lymph nodes, but the extent and consequence of T-cell infection in patients is unclear. This study is conducted to characterize the parameters and functional consequences of HCV infection in T lymphocytes. By using a lymphotropic HCV strain, we showed that HCV could infect T cell lines (Molt-4 and Jurkat cells) in vitro. Both positive- and negative-strand HCV RNA were detected for several weeks after infection. Viral proteins could also be detected by immunofluorescence studies. Moreover, infectious HCV particles were produced from Molt-4 cell cultures, and could be used to infect naïve T cell lines. HCV could also infect human primary CD4+ T cells, particularly naïve (CD45RA+CD45RO-) CD4+ cells, in culture. The amounts of STAT-1 and phosphorylated STAT-1 proteins in the infected Molt-4 cells were significantly less than those in uninfected cultures, suggesting the possibility of defect in interferon-gamma signaling. Indeed, T-bet and STAT-1 mRNA levels after interferon-gamma stimulation in infected Molt-4 were suppressed. In conclusion, HCV could infect and transiently replicate in T cells and that HCV replication suppressed the IFN-gamma/STAT-1/T-bet signaling due to the reduction of STAT-1 and inhibition of its activation (phosphorylation).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuteru Kondo
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, 2011 Zonal Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Lin W, Kim SS, Yeung E, Kamegaya Y, Blackard JT, Kim KA, Holtzman MJ, Chung RT. Hepatitis C virus core protein blocks interferon signaling by interaction with the STAT1 SH2 domain. J Virol 2006; 80:9226-35. [PMID: 16940534 PMCID: PMC1563912 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00459-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging data have indicated that hepatitis C virus (HCV) subverts the host antiviral response to ensure its persistence. We previously demonstrated that HCV protein expression suppresses type I interferon (IFN) signaling by leading to the reduction of phosphorylated STAT1 (P-STAT1). We also demonstrated that HCV core protein directly bound to STAT1. However, the detailed mechanisms by which HCV core protein impacts IFN signaling components have not been fully clarified. In this report, we show that the STAT1 interaction domain resides in the N-terminal portion of HCV core (amino acids [aa] 1 to 23). This domain is also required to produce P-STAT1 reduction and inhibit IFN signaling transduction. Conversely, the C-terminal region of STAT1, specifically the SH2 domain (aa 577 to 684), is required for the interaction of HCV core with STAT1. The STAT1 SH2 domain is critical for STAT1 hetero- or homodimerization. We propose a model by which the binding of HCV core to STAT1 results in decreased P-STAT, blocked STAT1 heterodimerization to STAT2, and, therefore, reduced IFN-stimulated gene factor-3 binding to DNA and disrupted IFN-stimulated gene transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyu Lin
- Gastrointestinal Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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Bohlson SS, Fraser DA, Tenner AJ. Complement proteins C1q and MBL are pattern recognition molecules that signal immediate and long-term protective immune functions. Mol Immunol 2006; 44:33-43. [PMID: 16908067 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2006.06.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2006] [Revised: 06/21/2006] [Accepted: 06/26/2006] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
C1q and mannose binding lectin, members of the "defense collagen" family, are pattern recognition molecules that can trigger rapid enhanced phagocytosis resulting in efficient containment of pathogens or clearance of cellular debris, apoptotic cells and immune complexes. In addition, interaction of C1q and mannose binding lectin with the phagocyte alters subsequent phagocyte cytokine synthesis, and thus may have important implications in directing acute inflammation as well as long-term protective immunity. The importance of the role of defense collagens in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is highlighted by studies in vivo of mice deficient in C1q, pulmonary surfactant D and mannose binding lectin in which there is delayed clearance of apoptotic cells. Indeed, deficiency of C1q is a risk factor for the development of autoimmunity in both humans and mice, consistent with the hypothesis that inefficient clearance of apoptotic cells results in release of autoantigens and contributes to the pathology associated with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus. Further understanding of the importance of C1q and mannose binding lectin in the clearance of apoptotic cells and regulation of cytokine synthesis and identification of the receptors implicated in mediating these processes should provide novel targets for therapeutic intervention in the control and manipulation of the immune response in terms of both host defense against infectious disease and tissue repair and remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne S Bohlson
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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