Role of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate in Ras/Rac-induced disruption of the cortactin-actomyosin II complex and malignant transformation

An update of knowledge on cortactin as a metastatic driver and potential therapeutic target in oral squamous cell carcinoma

Cortactin is a protein encoded by the CTTN gene, localized on chromosome band 11q13. As a result of the amplification of this band, an important event in oral carcinogenesis, CTTN is also usually amplified, promoting the frequent overexpression of cortactin. Cortactin enhances cell migration in oral cancer, playing a key role in the regulation of filamentous actin and of protrusive structures (invadopodia and lamellipodia) on the cell membrane that are necessary for the acquisition of a migratory phenotype. We also analyze a series of emerging functions that cortactin may exert in oral cancer (cell proliferation, angiogenesis, regulation of exosomes, and interactions with the tumor microenvironment). We review its molecular structure, its most important interactions (with Src, Arp2/3 complex, and SH3-binding partners), the regulation of its functions, and its specific oncogenic role in oral cancer. We explore the mechanisms of its overexpression in cancer, mainly related to genetic amplification. We analyze the prognostic implications of the oncogenic activation of cortactin in potentially malignant disorders and in head and neck cancer, where it appears to be relevant in the development of lymph node metastasis. Finally, we discuss its usefulness as a therapeutic target and suggest future research lines.

CLIC4 regulates apical exocytosis and renal tube luminogenesis through retromer- and actin-mediated endocytic trafficking

Chloride intracellular channel 4 (CLIC4) is a mammalian homologue of EXC-4 whose mutation is associated with cystic excretory canals in nematodes. Here we show that CLIC4-null mouse embryos exhibit impaired renal tubulogenesis. In both developing and developed kidneys, CLIC4 is specifically enriched in the proximal tubule epithelial cells, in which CLIC4 is important for luminal delivery, microvillus morphogenesis, and endolysosomal biogenesis. Adult CLIC4-null proximal tubules display aberrant dilation. In MDCK 3D cultures, CLIC4 is expressed on early endosome, recycling endosome and apical transport carriers before reaching its steady-state apical membrane localization in mature lumen. CLIC4 suppression causes impaired apical vesicle coalescence and central lumen formation, a phenotype that can be rescued by Rab8 and Cdc42. Furthermore, we show that retromer- and branched actin-mediated trafficking on early endosome regulates apical delivery during early luminogenesis. CLIC4 selectively modulates retromer-mediated apical transport by negatively regulating the formation of branched actin on early endosomes.

PI(3,5)P2 controls endosomal branched actin dynamics by regulating cortactin-actin interactions

The late endosomal lipid PI(3,5)P₂ binds to cortactin through the filamentous actin (F-actin) binding domain of cortactin, leading to removal of cortactin from endosomal actin networks and inhibition of cortactin-mediated branched actin nucleation and stabilization.

Branched actin critically contributes to membrane trafficking by regulating membrane curvature, dynamics, fission, and transport. However, how actin dynamics are controlled at membranes is poorly understood. Here, we identify the branched actin regulator cortactin as a direct binding partner of phosphatidylinositol 3,5-bisphosphate (PI(3,5)P₂) and demonstrate that their interaction promotes turnover of late endosomal actin. In vitro biochemical studies indicated that cortactin binds PI(3,5)P₂ via its actin filament-binding region. Furthermore, PI(3,5)P₂ competed with actin filaments for binding to cortactin, thereby antagonizing cortactin activity. These findings suggest that PI(3,5)P₂ formation on endosomes may remove cortactin from endosome-associated branched actin. Indeed, inhibition of PI(3,5)P₂ production led to cortactin accumulation and actin stabilization on Rab7⁺ endosomes. Conversely, inhibition of Arp2/3 complex activity greatly reduced cortactin localization to late endosomes. Knockdown of cortactin reversed PI(3,5)P₂-inhibitor–induced actin accumulation and stabilization on endosomes. These data suggest a model in which PI(3,5)P₂ binding removes cortactin from late endosomal branched actin networks and thereby promotes net actin turnover.

Ezrin is a Major Regulator of Membrane Tension in Epithelial Cells

Plasma membrane tension is responsible for a variety of cellular functions such as motility, cell division, and endocytosis. Since membrane tension is dominated by the attachment of the actin cortex to the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, we investigated the importance of ezrin, a major cross-linker of the membrane-cytoskeleton interface, for cellular mechanics of confluent MDCK II cells. For this purpose, we carried out ezrin depletion experiments and also enhanced the number of active ezrin molecules at the interface. Mechanical properties were assessed by force indentation experiments followed by membrane tether extraction. PIP₂ micelles were injected into individual living cells to reinforce the linkage between plasma membrane and actin-cortex, while weakening of this connection was reached by ezrin siRNA and administration of the inhibitors neomycin and NSC 668394, respectively. We observed substantial stiffening of cells and an increase in membrane tension after addition of PIP₂ micelles. In contrast, reduction of active ezrin led to a decrease of membrane tension accompanied by loss of excess surface area, increase in cortical tension, remodelling of actin cytoskeleton, and reduction of cell height. The data confirm the importance of the ezrin-mediated connection between plasma membrane and cortex for cellular mechanics and cell morphology.

Glaucarubinone inhibits colorectal cancer growth by suppression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α and β-catenin via a p-21 activated kinase 1-dependent pathway

p-21-Activated kinase 1 (PAK1) enhances colorectal cancer (CRC) progression by stimulating Wnt/β-catenin, ERK and AKT pathways. PAK1 also promotes CRC survival via up-regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α), a key player in cancer survival. Glaucarubinone, a quassinoid natural product, inhibits pancreatic cancer growth by down-regulation of PAK1. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of glaucarubinone on CRC growth and metastasis, and the mechanism involved. Cell proliferation was measured in vitro by [(3)H]-thymidine incorporation and in vivo by volume of tumor xenografts. Protein concentrations were measured by Western blotting of cell extracts. We report here that glaucarubinone inhibited CRC growth both in vitro and in vivo. The potency of glaucarubinone as an inhibitor of cell proliferation was negatively correlated to PAK1 expression in CRC cells. Glaucarubinone suppressed the expression of HIF-1α and β-catenin. Knockdown of PAK1 by shRNA enhanced inhibition by glaucarubinone while constitutively active PAK1 blocked the inhibitory effect. Our findings indicate that glaucarubinone inhibited CRC growth by down-regulation of HIF-1α and β-catenin via a PAK1-dependent pathway.

INPP4B suppresses prostate cancer cell invasion

BACKGROUND

INPP4B and PTEN dual specificity phosphatases are frequently lost during progression of prostate cancer to metastatic disease. We and others have previously shown that loss of INPP4B expression correlates with poor prognosis in multiple malignancies and with metastatic spread in prostate cancer.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that de novo expression of INPP4B in highly invasive human prostate carcinoma PC-3 cells suppresses their invasion both in vitro and in vivo. Using global gene expression analysis, we found that INPP4B regulates a number of genes associated with cell adhesion, the extracellular matrix, and the cytoskeleton. Importantly, de novo expressed INPP4B suppressed the proinflammatory chemokine IL-8 and induced PAK6. These genes were regulated in a reciprocal manner following downregulation of INPP4B in the independently derived INPP4B-positive LNCaP prostate cancer cell line. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt pathway, which is highly active in both PC-3 and LNCaP cells, did not reproduce INPP4B mediated suppression of IL-8 mRNA expression in either cell type. In contrast, inhibition of PKC signaling phenocopied INPP4B-mediated inhibitory effect on IL-8 in either prostate cancer cell line. In PC-3 cells, INPP4B overexpression caused a decline in the level of metastases associated BIRC5 protein, phosphorylation of PKC, and expression of the common PKC and IL-8 downstream target, COX-2. Reciprocally, COX-2 expression was increased in LNCaP cells following depletion of endogenous INPP4B.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, we discovered that INPP4B is a novel suppressor of oncogenic PKC signaling, further emphasizing the role of INPP4B in maintaining normal physiology of the prostate epithelium and suppressing metastatic potential of prostate tumors.

INPP4B suppresses prostate cancer cell invasion

Background

INPP4B and PTEN dual specificity phosphatases are frequently lost during progression of prostate cancer to metastatic disease. We and others have previously shown that loss of INPP4B expression correlates with poor prognosis in multiple malignancies and with metastatic spread in prostate cancer.

Results

We demonstrate that de novo expression of INPP4B in highly invasive human prostate carcinoma PC-3 cells suppresses their invasion both in vitro and in vivo. Using global gene expression analysis, we found that INPP4B regulates a number of genes associated with cell adhesion, the extracellular matrix, and the cytoskeleton. Importantly, de novo expressed INPP4B suppressed the proinflammatory chemokine IL-8 and induced PAK6. These genes were regulated in a reciprocal manner following downregulation of INPP4B in the independently derived INPP4B-positive LNCaP prostate cancer cell line. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt pathway, which is highly active in both PC-3 and LNCaP cells, did not reproduce INPP4B mediated suppression of IL-8 mRNA expression in either cell type. In contrast, inhibition of PKC signaling phenocopied INPP4B-mediated inhibitory effect on IL-8 in either prostate cancer cell line. In PC-3 cells, INPP4B overexpression caused a decline in the level of metastases associated BIRC5 protein, phosphorylation of PKC, and expression of the common PKC and IL-8 downstream target, COX-2. Reciprocally, COX-2 expression was increased in LNCaP cells following depletion of endogenous INPP4B.

Conclusion

Taken together, we discovered that INPP4B is a novel suppressor of oncogenic PKC signaling, further emphasizing the role of INPP4B in maintaining normal physiology of the prostate epithelium and suppressing metastatic potential of prostate tumors.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12964-014-0061-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cortactin, another player in the Lyn signaling pathway, is over-expressed and alternatively spliced in leukemic cells from patients with B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia

Cortactin, an actin binding protein and Lyn substrate, is up-regulated in several cancers and its level is associated with increased cell migration, metastasis and poor prognosis. The identification that the Src kinase Lyn and its substrate HS1 are over-expressed in B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia and involved in resistance to chemotherapy and poor prognosis, prompted us to investigate the role of cortactin, an HS1 homolog, in the pathogenesis and progression of this disorder. In this study, we observed that cortactin is over-expressed in leukemic cells of patients (1.10 ± 0.12) with respect to normal B lymphocytes (0.19 ± 0.06; P=0.0065). Fifty-three percent of our patients expressed the WT mRNA and p80/85 protein isoforms, usually lacking in normal B lymphocytes which express the SV1 variant and the p70/75 protein isoforms. Moreover, we found an association of the cortactin overexpression and negative prognostic factors, including ZAP-70 (P<0.01), CD38 (P<0.01) and somatic hypermutations in the immunoglobulin heavy-chain variable region (P<0.01). Our results show that patients with B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia express high levels of cortactin with a particular overexpression of the WT isoform that is lacking in normal B cells, and a correlation to poor prognosis, suggesting that this protein could be relevant in the pathogenesis and aggressiveness of the disease.

Myosin 1e is a component of the invadosome core that contributes to regulation of invadosome dynamics

Myosin 1e (myo1e) is an actin-based motor protein that has been implicated in cell adhesion and migration. We examined the role of myo1e in invadosomes, actin-rich adhesion structures that are important for degradation and invasion of the extracellular matrix. RSV-transformed BHK-21 cells, which readily form invadosomes and invadosome rosettes, were used as the experimental model. Myo1e localization to the actin-rich core of invadosomes required the proline-rich Tail Homology 2 (TH2) domain. During invadosome rosette expansion, we observed myo1e recruitment to newly forming invadosomes via Tail Homology 1 (TH1)-dependent interactions with the plasma membrane, where it preceded actin and paxillin. Dominant-negative inhibition of myo1e resulted in mislocalized invadosome formation, usually at the center of the rosette. We propose that TH2 domain of myo1e provides the key signal for localization to invadosomes, while TH1 domain interactions facilitate myo1e targeting to the plasma membrane-proximal locations within the rosettes. Myo1e may then act as a scaffold, linking the plasma membrane with the actin cytoskeleton and helping direct new invadosome formation to the periphery of the rosette.

Determinants of the tumor suppressor INPP4B protein and lipid phosphatase activities

The tumor suppressor INPP4B is an important regulator of phosphatidyl-inositol signaling in the cell. Reduced INPP4B expression is associated with poor outcomes for breast, prostate, and ovarian cancer patients. INPP4B contains a CX5R catalytic motif characteristic of dual-specificity phosphatases, such as PTEN. Lipid phosphatase activity of INPP4B has previously been described. In this report we show that INPP4B can dephosphorylate para-nitrophenyl phosphate (pNPP) and 6,8-difluoro-4-methylumbelliferyl (DiFMUP), synthetic phosphotyrosine analogs, suggesting that INPP4B has protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) activity. Using mutagenesis, we examined the functional role of specific amino acids within the INPP4B C842KSAKDR catalytic site. The K843M mutant displayed increased pNPP hydrolysis, the K846M mutant lost lipid phosphatase activity with no effect on PTP activity, and the D847E substitution ablated PTP activity and significantly reduced lipid phosphatase activity. Further, we show that INPP4B but not PTEN is able to reduce tyrosine phosphorylation of Akt1 and both the lipid and PTP activity of INPP4B likely contribute to the reduction of Akt1 phosphorylation. Taken together our data identified key residues in the INPP4B catalytic domain associated with lipid and protein phosphatase activities and found a robust downstream target regulated by INPP4B but not PTEN.

Src binds cortactin through an SH2 domain cystine-mediated linkage

Tyrosine-kinase-based signal transduction mediated by modular protein domains is critical for cellular function. The Src homology (SH)2 domain is an important conductor of intracellular signaling that binds to phosphorylated tyrosines on acceptor proteins, producing molecular complexes responsible for signal relay. Cortactin is a cytoskeletal protein and tyrosine kinase substrate that regulates actin-based motility through interactions with SH2-domain-containing proteins. The Src kinase SH2 domain mediates cortactin binding and tyrosine phosphorylation, but how Src interacts with cortactin is unknown. Here we demonstrate that Src binds cortactin through cystine bonding between Src C185 in the SH2 domain within the phosphotyrosine binding pocket and cortactin C112/246 in the cortactin repeats domain, independent of tyrosine phosphorylation. Interaction studies show that the presence of reducing agents ablates Src-cortactin binding, eliminates cortactin phosphorylation by Src, and prevents Src SH2 domain binding to cortactin. Tandem MS/MS sequencing demonstrates cystine bond formation between Src C185 and cortactin C112/246. Mutational studies indicate that an intact cystine binding interface is required for Src-mediated cortactin phosphorylation, cell migration, and pre-invadopodia formation. Our results identify a novel phosphotyrosine-independent binding mode between the Src SH2 domain and cortactin. Besides Src, one quarter of all SH2 domains contain cysteines at or near the analogous Src C185 position. This provides a potential alternative mechanism to tyrosine phosphorylation for cysteine-containing SH2 domains to bind cognate ligands that may be widespread in propagating signals regulating diverse cellular functions.

HS1, a Lyn kinase substrate, is abnormally expressed in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia and correlates with response to fludarabine-based regimen

In B-Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (B-CLL) kinase Lyn is overexpressed, active, abnormally distributed, and part of a cytosolic complex involving hematopoietic lineage cell-specific protein 1 (HS1). These aberrant properties of Lyn could partially explain leukemic cells' defective apoptosis, directly or through its substrates, for example, HS1 that has been associated to apoptosis in different cell types. To verify the hypothesis of HS1 involvement in Lyn-mediated leukemic cell survival, we investigated HS1 protein in 71 untreated B-CLL patients and 26 healthy controls. We found HS1 overexpressed in leukemic as compared to normal B lymphocytes (1.38±0.54 vs 0.86±0.29, p<0.01), and when HS1 levels were correlated to clinical parameters we found a higher expression of HS1 in poor-prognosis patients. Moreover, HS1 levels significantly decreased in ex vivo leukemic cells of patients responding to a fludarabine-containing regimen. We also observed that HS1 is partially localized in the nucleus of neoplastic B cells. All these data add new information on HS1 study, hypothesizing a pivotal role of HS1 in Lyn-mediated modulation of leukemic cells' survival and focusing, one more time, the attention on the BCR-Lyn axis as a putative target for new therapeutic strategies in this disorder.

Myosin IIB deficiency in embryonic fibroblasts affects regulators and core members of the par polarity complex

Wild-type (WT) and myosin heavy chain IIB null [MHCIIB (-/-)] embryonic fibroblasts were used as an experimental model to assess the role of the isoform B of myosin II (MII) in the regulation of the cell shape and intrinsic polarity. Genetic ablation of MHCIIB causes a persistent albeit, unstable protrusive activity in embryonic fibroblasts (Lo et al. in Nonmuscle myosin IIB is involved in the guidance of fibroblast migration. Mol Biol Cell 15:982-989, 2004). Here, we show that MHCIIB-deficient fibroblasts are characterized by a sustained guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF)-dependent activation of the small GTPase Rac-1 that is responsible for the continual lamellipodium formation. Moreover, we observed a sustained PKC-ζ activation and an increased association of cortactin with the plasma membrane in the MHCIIB (-/-) cells that were also dependent on GEF-mediated Rac-1 activation. Rac-1 activation and its downstream effects were induced in WT fibroblasts by inhibiting MII ATPase and crosslinking activities, suggesting that an altered actin-MII interaction favours Rac-1 activation, regardless of the MII isoform implicated. In addition, we found MIIB isoform-specific effects that were independent of Rac-1 activation. MHCIIA interacts with cortactin whereas MHCIIB does not. By contrast, MHCIIB interacts with Lgl1, a member of the Scribble/Dlg/Lgl polarity complex, whereas MHCIIA does not. MHCIIB (-/-) fibroblasts exhibited deregulated endogenous levels of the Par polarity complex members, Par3 and Par6. Together, the data show that MHCIIB deficiency causes imbalances in signalling pathways that are responsible for cell polarity determination. The results suggest that these pathways are targets of MIIB in the regulation of the cell's shape and polarity.

The dual effect of Rac2 on phospholipase D2 regulation that explains both the onset and termination of chemotaxis

We document a biphasic effect of Rac2 on the activation and inhibition of PLD2. Cells overexpressing Rac2 and PLD2 simultaneously show a robust initial (<10 min) response toward a chemoattractant that is later (>30 min) greatly diminished over PLD2-only controls. The first phase is due to the presence of a Rac2-PLD2 positive-feedback loop. To explain the mechanism for the Rac2-led PLD2 inhibition (the second phase), we used leukocytes from wild-type (WT) and Rac2(-/-) knockout mice. Rac2(-/-) cells displayed an enhanced PLD2 (but not PLD1) enzymatic activity, confirming the inhibitory role of Rac2. Late inhibitory responses on PLD2 due to Rac2 were reversed in the presence of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)) both in vitro (purified GST-PH-PLD2, where GST is glutathione S-transferase and PH is pleckstrin homology) and in vivo. Coimmunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence microscopy indicated that PLD2 and Rac2 remain together. The presence of an "arc" of Rac2 at the leading edge of leukocyte pseudopodia and PLD2 physically posterior to this wave of Rac2 was observed in late chemotaxis. We propose Rac-led inhibition of PLD2 function is due to sterical interference of Rac with PLD2's PH binding site to the membrane and deprivation of the PIP(2). This work supports the importance of functional interactions between PLD and Rac in the biological response of cell migration.

PTP1B: a double agent in metabolism and oncogenesis

PTP1B, a non-transmembrane protein tyrosine phosphatase that has long been studied as a negative regulator of insulin and leptin signaling, has received renewed attention as an unexpected positive factor in tumorigenesis. Here, we highlight how views of this enzyme have evolved from regarding it as a simple metabolic off-switch to a more complex view of PTP1B as an enzyme that can play both negative and positive roles in diverse signaling pathways. These dual characteristics make PTP1B a particularly attractive therapeutic target for diabetes, obesity, and perhaps breast cancer.

Cortactin: Coordinating adhesion and the actin cytoskeleton at cellular protrusions

It has long been recognized that adhesion receptors cooperate with the cytoskeleton during morphogenesis, tissue remodeling and homeostasis. But how this occurs is less well-understood. A host of cytoskeletal regulators have been reported to have functional and biochemical linkage with adhesion receptors. The challenge remains to find functionally-coherent patterns within this increasingly large corpus of molecular information. In this review we discuss one approach, to identify distinctive functional modules that contribute to different adhesive processes. We illustrate this by considering Arp2/3-driven surface protrusion, which is utilized at both integrin-based cell-matrix adhesions and cadherin-based cell-cell adhesions. We further argue that regulatory proteins, such as cortactin, serve to coordinate the molecular components of this protrusive apparatus into a cohesive module.

Key role of a PtdIns-4,5P2 micro domain in ionic regulation of the mammalian heart Na+/Ca2+ exchanger

Phosphatidylinositol biphosphate (PtdIns-4,5P(2)) plays a key role in the regulation of the mammalian heart Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX1) by protecting the intracellular Ca(2+) regulatory site against H(+)(i) and (H(+)(i)+Na(+)(i)) synergic inhibition. MgATP and MgATP-gamma-S up-regulation of NCX1 takes place via the production of this phosphoinositide. In microsomes containing PtdIns-4,5P(2) incubated in the absence of MgATP and at normal [Na(+)](i), alkalinization increases the affinity for Ca(2+)(i) to the values seen in the presence of the nucleotide at normal pH; under this condition, addition of MgATP does not increase the affinity for Ca(2+)(i) any further. On the other hand, prevention of Na(+)(i) inhibition by alkalinization in the absence of MgATP does not take place when the microsomes are depleted of PtdIns-4,5P(2). Experiments on NCX1-PtdIns-4,5P(2) cross-coimmunoprecipitation show that the relevant PtdIns-4,5P(2) is not the overall membrane component but specifically that tightly attached to NCX1. Consequently, the highest affinity of the Ca(2+)(i) regulatory site is seen in the deprotonated and PtdIns-4,5P(2)-bound NCX1. Confirming these results, a PtdIns-5-kinase also cross-coimmunoprecipitates with NCX1 without losing its functional competence. These observations indicate, for the first time, the existence of a PtdIns-5-kinase in the NCX1 microdomain.

Involvement of G proteins of the Rho family in the regulation of Bcl-2-like protein expression and caspase 3 activation by Gastrins

Gastrins, including amidated gastrin (Gamide) and glycine-extended gastrin (Ggly), are known to accelerate the growth of gastric and colorectal cancer cells by stimulation of proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis. Gamide controls apoptosis by regulation of proteins of the Bcl-2 family and by regulation of the activation of caspases. However the interactions between Ggly and proteins of the Bcl-2 family and caspases are not known. Since in other systems G proteins of the Rho family inhibit apoptosis via interaction with proteins of the Bcl-2 family, leading to changes in caspase activities, we have compared the role of Rho family G proteins in regulation of Bcl-2-like (Bad/Bax/Bcl-xl) protein expression and caspase 3 activation by Ggly and Gamide. The effects of the specific inhibitors C3 (for Rho) and Y-27632 (for ROCK), and of dominant negative mutants of Rac, Cdc42 and PAK, were investigated in the gastric epithelial cell line IMGE-5. Apoptosis was induced by serum starvation and confirmed by annexin V staining and caspase 3 activation. Ggly inhibits caspase 3 activation via a Bcl-2-like protein-mediated pathway which requires activation of both Rho/ROCK and Rac/Cdc42/PAK. Gamide inhibits caspase 3 activation via redundant Bcl-2-like protein-mediated pathways which involve alternative activation of Rac/Cdc42/PAK and Rho/ROCK. Gamide and Ggly differentially activate members of Rho family G proteins which in turn regulate different proteins of the Bcl-2 family leading to changes in caspase 3 activity. The findings offer potential targets for blocking the growth-stimulating effects of these gastrins.

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5 bisphosphate produced by PIP5KIgamma regulates gelsolin, actin assembly, and adhesion strength of N-cadherin junctions

Phosphoinositides regulate several actin-binding proteins but their role at intercellular adhesions has not been defined. We found that phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P2) was generated at sites of N-cadherin-mediated intercellular adhesion and was a critical regulator of intercellular adhesion strength. Immunostaining for PI(4,5)P2 or transfection with GFP-PH-PLCdelta showed that PI(4,5)P2 was enriched at sites of N-cadherin adhesions and this enrichment required activated Rac1. Isoform-specific immunostaining for type I phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5 kinase (PIP5KI) showed that PIP5KIgamma was spatially associated with N-cadherin-Fc beads. Association of PIP5KIgamma with N-cadherin adhesions was in part dependent on the activation of RhoA. Transfection with catalytically inactive PIP5KIgamma blocked the enrichment of PI(4,5)P2 around beads. Catalytically inactive PIP5KIgamma or a cell-permeant peptide that mimics and competes for the PI(4,5)P2-binding region of the actin-binding protein gelsolin inhibited incorporation of actin monomers in response to N-cadherin ligation and reduced intercellular adhesion strength by more than twofold. Gelsolin null fibroblasts transfected with a gelsolin severing mutant containing an intact PI(4,5)P2 binding region, demonstrated intercellular adhesion strength similar to wild-type transfected controls. We conclude that PIP5KIgamma-mediated generation of PI(4,5)P2 at sites of N-cadherin contacts regulates intercellular adhesion strength, an effect due in part to PI(4,5)P2-mediated regulation of gelsolin.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis involves tyrosine phosphorylation of cortactin

Efficient internalization of cell surface receptors requires actin polymerization mediated by Arp2/3 complex and cortactin, a prominent substrate of the protein-tyrosine kinase Src. However, the significance of cortactin tyrosine phosphorylation in endocytosis is unknown. We found that overexpression of a cortactin mutant deficient in tyrosine phosphorylation decreased transferrin uptake. Suppression of cortactin expression by RNA interference also reduced transferrin internalization. Such inhibition was effectively rescued by overexpressing wild-type cortactin but not a cortactin mutant deficient in tyrosine phosphorylation or a mutant with deletion of the Src homology 3 domain. Likewise, purified phosphorylation-null cortactin failed to restore the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles in a cortactin-depleted cell extract. In vitro analysis revealed that Src-mediated phosphorylation enhanced the association of cortactin with dynamin-2 in a tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent manner. Quantitative analysis demonstrated that Src enhances the affinity of cortactin for dynamin-2 by more than 3-fold. On the other hand, Src-treated dynamin-2 had no effect on its interaction with cortactin. These data indicate that Src kinase is implicated in clathrin-mediated endocytosis by phosphorylation of cortactin.

PI 4,5-P2 stimulates glucose transport activity of GLUT4 in the plasma membrane of 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake through GLUT4 plays a pivotal role in maintaining normal blood glucose levels. Glucose transport through GLUT4 requires both GLUT4 translocation to the plasma membrane and GLUT4 activation at the plasma membrane. Here we report that a cell-permeable phosphoinositide-binding peptide, which induces GLUT4 translocation without activation, sequestered PI 4,5-P2 in the plasma membrane from its binding partners. Restoring PI 4,5-P2 to the plasma membrane after the peptide treatment increased glucose uptake. No additional glucose transporters were recruited to the plasma membrane, suggesting that the increased glucose uptake was attributable to GLUT4 activation. Cells overexpressing phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase treated with the peptide followed by its removal exhibited a higher level of glucose transport than cells stimulated with a submaximal level of insulin. However, only cells treated with submaximal insulin exhibited translocation of the PH-domains of the general receptor for phosphoinositides (GRP1) to the plasma membrane. Thus, PI 4,5-P2, but not PI 3,4,5-P3 converted from PI 4,5-P2, induced GLUT4 activation. Inhibiting F-actin remodeling after the peptide treatment significantly impaired GLUT4 activation induced either by PI 4,5-P2 or by insulin. These results suggest that PI 4,5-P2 in the plasma membrane acts as a second messenger to activate GLUT4, possibly through F-actin remodeling.

Actin cytoskeleton remodelling in the anterior pituitary folliculostellate cell line TtT/GF: participation of the actin-binding protein cortactin

We have previously shown that the folliculostellate (FS) cells of the anterior pituitary change their shape from stellate (type I) to polygonal (type II) coincidently with variations in the secretory activity of the pituitary. To elucidate the mechanisms involved in this switch in phenotypes, here we studied the impact of serum factors on the morphology of the FS cell line TtT/GF. TtT/GF cells cultured in serum-containing medium displayed elongated shapes and membrane ruffles similarly to type I cells. Serum deprivation caused the loss of plasma membrane activity and the acquisition by the cells of a sedentary phenotype and of a polygonal shape typical of type II FS cells. Addition of serum to the starved cells induced the reappearance of membrane raffles and lamellipodia. The switch in phenotypes and the maintenance of a motile phenotype depended on tyrosine kinase but not on Erk activity. Because the transition between phenotypes involved the tyrosine kinase-dependent reorganization of cortical actin filaments, we studied the participation of the actin-binding protein, cortactin, a tyrosine kinase substrate. Cortactin and its tyrosine-phosphorylated form, pY421-cortactin, localized to membrane ruffles and lamellipodia in serum-cultured TtT/GF cells, while they were evenly distributed over the whole cell cortex in serum-starved cells. Serum treatment of starved cells induced a transient increase in pY421-cortactin levels and the clustering of pY421-cortactin in membrane regions where protrusions were developing. Both serum responses were blocked by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Together, the results indicate that the transition from a polygonal to an elongated shape entails the acquisition of a dynamic cortical actin cytoskeleton that involves the tyrosine kinase-dependent phosphorylation of cortactin and the translocation of cortical pY421-cortactin to sites of ruffle formation at the plasma membrane.

The identification of a new actin-binding region in p57

The actin-binding protein p57 is a member of mammalian coronin-like proteins. The roles of this protein in phagocytic processes conceivably depend on its interactions with F-actin. Two regions, p57(1-34) and p57(111-204), were previously reported to be actin-binding sites. In this study, we found that the C-terminal region of p57, p57(297-461), also possessed F-actin binding activity. Furthermore, the leucine zipper domain at the C-terminus of p57(297-461) was essential for this actin-binding activity. The F-actin cross-linking assay revealed that the region contained in p57(297-461) was sufficient to cross-link actin filaments. Our results strongly suggested that there was a new actin-binding region at the C-terminus of p57.

BetaPix-a enhances the activity of phospholipase Cgamma1 by binding SH3 domain in breast cancer

Phospholipase C-gamma1 (PLCgamma1) plays a critical role in cell growth and proliferation by generating the second messengers, diacylglycerol and 1, 4, 5-inositol triphosphate. To investigate the roles of Src homology domain 2 and domain 3 of PLCgamma1 in PLCgamma1-mediated cell signaling, we characterized some proteins binding to these domains in the MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell lines. Of the several proteins that bind to glutathione-S-transferase-SH2/SH2/SH3, we identified an 85 kDa protein that binds to the SH3 domain of PLCgamma1 as the guanine nucleotide exchange factor, p21-activated protein kinase-interacting exchange factor-a (betaPix-a). BetaPix-a co-immunoprecipitated with PLCgamma1 in breast cancer tissues extracts and in MCF7 and MDA-MB-231 cell extracts. In addition, PDGF-stimulated PLCgamma1 activity was elevated in betaPix-a-overexpressing NIH3T3 cells. Our results suggest that betaPix-a binds to the Src homology domain 3 of PLCgamma1 and promotes tumor growth in breast cancer by enhancing the activity PLCgamma1.

The coiled-coil domain is required for HS1 to bind to F-actin and activate Arp2/3 complex

HS1 (hematopoietic lineage cell-specific protein 1), a substrate of protein tyrosine kinases in lymphocytes, binds to F-actin, and promotes Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization. However, the mechanism for the interaction between HS1 and F-actin has not yet been fully characterized. HS1 contains 3.5 tandem repeats, a coiled-coil region, and an SH3 domain at the C terminus. Unlike cortactin, which is closely related to HS1 and requires absolutely the repeat domain for F-actin binding, an HS1 mutant with deletion of the repeat domain maintains a significant F-actin binding activity. On the other hand, deletion of the coiled-coil region abolished the ability of HS1 to bind to actin filaments and to activate the Arp2/3 complex for actin nucleation and actin branching. Furthermore, a peptide containing the coiled-coil sequence only was sufficient for F-actin binding. Within cells overexpressing green fluorescent protein-tagged HS1 proteins, wild type HS1 co-localizes with cortical F-actin at the cell leading edge, whereas mutants with deletion of either the coiled-coil region or the repeat domain diffuse in the cytoplasm. Immunoprecipitation analysis reveals that the coiled-coil deletion mutant binds poorly to F-actin, whereas the mutant without the repeat domain fails to bind to both Arp2/3 complex and F-actin. These data suggest that the HS1 coiled-coil region acts synergistically with the repeat domain in the modulation of the Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization.

Glycine-extended gastrin stimulates cell proliferation and migration through a Rho- and ROCK-dependent pathway, not a Rac/Cdc42-dependent pathway

Both amidated gastrin (Gamide) and glycine-extended gastrin (Ggly) stimulate gastrointestinal cell proliferation and migration. Binding of Gamide to the cholecystokinin-2 receptor activates small GTP-binding proteins of the Rho family (Rho, Rac, and Cdc42), and dominant-negative mutants of Rho or Cdc42 block Gamide-stimulated cell proliferation and survival. In comparison, little is known about the Ggly signaling transduction pathway leading to cell proliferation and migration. The present study examined the roles of the small G proteins Rho, Rac, and Cdc42 in Ggly-induced proliferation and migration of the mouse gastric epithelial cell line IMGE-5. Ggly stimulated the activation of Rho and its downstream effector protein ROCK. The activation of Rho and ROCK mediated Ggly-induced cell proliferation and migration as inhibition of Rho by C3, or ROCK by Y-27632, completely blocked these effects of Ggly. Ggly also stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase, and stimulation was reversed by addition of C3 and Y-27632. In contrast to the effects of Rho and ROCK, inhibition of the Rac or Cdc42 pathways by expression of dominant-negative mutants of Rac or Cdc42 did not affect Ggly-induced cell proliferation and migration. These results demonstrate that Ggly stimulates IMGE-5 cell proliferation and migration through a Rho/ROCK-dependent pathway but not via Rac- or Cdc42-dependent pathways.

Thrombin-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of HS1 in human platelets is sequentially catalyzed by Syk and Lyn tyrosine kinases and associated with the cellular migration of the protein

Thrombin stimulation of platelets triggers Tyr phosphorylation of several signaling proteins, most of which remain unidentified. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time that hematopoietic lineage cell-specific protein 1 (HS1) undergoes a transient Tyr phosphorylation in human platelets stimulated with thrombin. The protein is synergistically phosphorylated by Syk and Lyn tyrosine kinases according to a sequential phosphorylation mechanism. By means of specific inhibitors (PP2, SU6656, and piceatannol) and phosphopeptide-specific antibodies, as well as by coimmunoprecipitation and binding competition experiments, we show that Syk acts as the primary kinase that phosphorylates HS1 at Tyr397 and that Syk phosphorylation is required for HS1 interaction with the Lyn SH2 domain. Upon docking to Syk-phosphorylated HS1, Lyn catalyzes the secondary phosphorylation of the protein at Tyr222. Once the secondary Tyr phosphorylation of HS1 is accomplished the protein dissociates from Lyn and undergoes a dephosphorylation process. HS1 Tyr phosphorylation does not occur when thrombin-induced actin assembly is inhibited by cytochalasin D even under conditions in which Syk and Lyn are still active. Immunofluorescence microscopic analysis shows that the agonist promotes HS1 migration to the plasma membrane and that the inhibition of Lyn-mediated secondary phosphorylation of HS1 abrogates the subcellular translocation of the protein. All together these results indicate that HS1 Tyr phosphorylation catalyzed by Syk and Lyn plays a crucial role in the translocation of the protein to the membrane and is involved in the cytoskeleton rearrangement triggered by thrombin in human platelets.

Cortactin signalling and dynamic actin networks

Cortactin was first identified over a decade ago, and its initial characterization as both an F-actin binding protein and v-Src substrate suggested that it was likely to be a key regulator of actin rearrangements in response to tyrosine kinase signalling. The recent discovery that cortactin binds and activates the actin related protein (Arp)2/3 complex, and thus regulates the formation of branched actin networks, together with the identification of multiple protein targets of the cortactin SH3 domain, have revealed diverse cellular roles for this protein. This article reviews current knowledge regarding the role of cortactin in signalling to the actin cytoskeleton in the context of these developments.

Comparative genome analysis of cortactin and HS1: the significance of the F-actin binding repeat domain

BACKGROUND

In human carcinomas, overexpression of cortactin correlates with poor prognosis. Cortactin is an F-actin-binding protein involved in cytoskeletal rearrangements and cell migration by promoting actin-related protein (Arp)2/3 mediated actin polymerization. It shares a high amino acid sequence and structural similarity to hematopoietic lineage cell-specific protein 1 (HS1) although their functions differ considerable. In this manuscript we describe the genomic organization of these two genes in a variety of species by a combination of cloning and database searches. Based on our analysis, we predict the genesis of the actin-binding repeat domain during evolution.

RESULTS

Cortactin homologues exist in sponges, worms, shrimps, insects, urochordates, fishes, amphibians, birds and mammalians, whereas HS1 exists in vertebrates only, suggesting that both genes have been derived from an ancestor cortactin gene by duplication. In agreement with this, comparative genome analysis revealed very similar exon-intron structures and sequence homologies, especially over the regions that encode the characteristic highly conserved F-actin-binding repeat domain. Cortactin splice variants affecting this F-actin-binding domain were identified not only in mammalians, but also in amphibians, fishes and birds. In mammalians, cortactin is ubiquitously expressed except in hematopoietic cells, whereas HS1 is mainly expressed in hematopoietic cells. In accordance with their distinct tissue specificity, the putative promoter region of cortactin is different from HS1.

CONCLUSIONS

Comparative analysis of the genomic organization and amino acid sequences of cortactin and HS1 provides inside into their origin and evolution. Our analysis shows that both genes originated from a gene duplication event and subsequently HS1 lost two repeats, whereas cortactin gained one repeat. Our analysis genetically underscores the significance of the F-actin binding domain in cytoskeletal remodeling, which is of importance for the major role of HS1 in apoptosis and for cortactin in cell migration.

Role of synaptojanin 2 in glioma cell migration and invasion

The small GTPase Rac1 is thought to play an important role in cell migration and invasion. We have previously identified synaptojanin 2, a phosphoinositide phosphatase, as an effector of Rac1. Here, we show that small interfering RNA-mediated depletion of either Rac1 or synaptojanin 2 inhibits invasion of SNB19 and U87MG glioblastoma cells through Matrigel and rat brain slices. Depletion of Rac1 or synaptojanin 2 also inhibits migration of SNB19 and U87MG cells on glioma-derived extracellular matrix. In addition, we found that depletion of Rac1 or synaptojanin 2 inhibits the formation of lamellipodia and invadopodia, specialized membrane structures that are thought to be involved in extracellular matrix degradation. These results suggest that synaptojanin 2 contributes to the role of Rac1 in cell invasion and migration by regulating the formation of invadopodia and lamellipodia. This study also identifies synaptojanin 2 as a novel potential target for therapeutic intervention in malignant tumors.

Regulation and cellular roles of phosphoinositide 5-kinases

The membrane phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP(2)), plays a critical role in various, apparently very different cellular processes. As precursor for second messengers generated by phospholipase C isoforms and class I phosphoinositide 3-kinases, PIP(2) is indispensable for cellular signaling by membrane receptors. In addition, PIP(2) directly affects the localization and activity of many cellular proteins via specific interaction with unique phosphoinositide-binding domains and thereby regulates actin cytoskeletal dynamics, vesicle trafficking, ion channel activity, gene expression and cell survival. The activity and subcellular localization of phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K) isoforms, which catalyze the formation of PIP(2), are actively regulated by membrane receptors, by phosphorylation and by small GTPases of the Rho and ARF families. Spatially and temporally organized regulation of PIP(2) synthesis by PIP5K enables dynamic and versatile PIP(2) signaling and represents an important link in the execution of cellular tasks by Rho and ARF GTPases.

Xin repeats define a novel actin-binding motif

Xin is a protein that is expressed during early developmental stages of cardiac and skeletal muscles. Immunolocalization studies indicated a peripheral localization in embryonic mouse heart, where Xin localizes with beta-catenin and N-cadherin. In adult tissues, Xin is found primarily in the intercalated discs of cardiomyocytes and the myotendinous junctions of skeletal muscle cells, both specialized attachment sites of the myofibrillar ends to the sarcolemma. A large part of the Xin protein consists of unique 16 amino acid repeats with unknown function. We have investigated the characteristics of the Xin repeats by transfection experiments and actin-binding assays and ascertained that, upon expression in cultured cells, these repeats bind to and stabilize the actin-based cytoskeleton. In vitro co-sedimentation assays with skeletal muscle actin indicated that they not only directly bind actin filaments, but also have the capability of arranging microfilaments into networks that sediment upon low-speed centrifugation. Very similar repeats were also found in 'Xin-repeat protein 2' (XIRP2), a novel protein that seems to be expressed mainly in striated muscles. Human XIRP2 contains 28 Xin repeats with properties identical to those of Xin. We conclude that the Xin repeats define a novel, repetitive actin-binding motif present in at least two different muscle proteins. These Xin-repeat proteins therefore constitute the first two members of a novel family of actin-binding proteins.

Association of a four-amino acid residue insertion polymorphism of the HS1 gene with systemic lupus erythematosus: Molecular and functional analysis

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether polymorphism(s) or mutation(s) in the hematopoietic cell-specific Lyn substrate 1 (HS1) gene are involved in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).

METHODS

The entire coding region of the HS1 gene was analyzed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction/single-strand conformational polymorphism analysis. HS1-transfected WEHI-231 cells or B lymphocytes from patients with SLE were studied for apoptosis, activation, and proliferation by flow cytometric analysis and MTT assay.

RESULTS

We identified a glutamic acid-proline-glutamic acid-proline insertion between codons 366 and 367 (EPEP366-367ins) and 2 amino acid substitutions (A235T and E361K). The genotype frequency among individuals homozygous for the EPEP+ allele was 0.184 in 201 patients with SLE but only 0.098 in 184 healthy individuals (P = 0.016). The allele frequency of EPEP366-367ins was 0.408 in patients with SLE; this frequency was significantly higher than that in healthy controls (0.312) (P = 0.006). WEHI-231 cells transfected with EPEP+ HS1 were 100-fold more sensitive to B cell receptor (BCR)-mediated apoptosis than were those transfected with HS1 without EPEP. B lymphocytes from SLE patients with the EPEP+ allele were significantly more apoptotic without BCR stimulation and less activated after BCR stimulation than were those from SLE patients without the EPEP allele.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that HS1 with the EPEP insertion polymorphism transmits accelerated signals from BCR and is involved in the pathogenesis of SLE.

Regulation of the Actin Cytoskeleton by PI(4,5)P2 and PI(3,4,5)P3

The actin cytoskeleton is fundamental for various motile and morphogenetic processes in cells. The structure and dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton are regulated by a wide array of actin-binding proteins, whose activities are controlled by various signal transduction pathways. Recent studies have shown that certain membrane phospholipids, especially PI(4,5)P2 and PI(3,4,5)P3, regulate actin filament assembly in cells and in cell extracts. PI(4,5)P2 appears to be a general regulator of actin polymerization at the plasma membrane or at membrane microdomains, whereas PI(3,4,5)P3 promotes the assembly of specialized actin filament structures in response to some growth factors. Biochemical studies have demonstrated that the activities of many proteins promoting actin assembly are upregulated by PI(4,5)P2, whereas proteins that inhibit actin assembly or promote filament disassembly are down-regulated by PI(4,5)P2. PI(3,4,5)P3 promotes its effects on the actin cytoskeleton mainly through activation of the Rho family of small GTPases. In addition to their effects on actin dynamics, both PI(4,5)P2 and PI(3,4,5)P3 promote the formation of specific actin filament structures through activation/inactivation of actin filament cross-linking proteins and proteins that mediate cytoskeleton-plasma membrane interactions.

Phosphoinositide regulation of the actin cytoskeleton

Phosphoinositides [PPIs, which collectively refer to phosphorylated derivatives of phosphatidylinositol (PI)] have a pivotal role as precursors to important second messengers and as bona fide signaling and scaffold targeting molecules. This review focuses on recent advances that elucidate how PPIs, particularly PI(4,5)P2 (PIP2), directly regulate the actin cytoskeleton in vivo by modulating the activity and targeting of actin regulatory proteins. The role of PIP2 in stimulating actin polymerization and in establishing cytoskeleton-plasma membrane linkages is emphasized. In addition, the review presents tantalizing evidence that suggests how binding of selected cytoskeletal proteins to membrane PPIs may promote PPI clustering into raft lipid microdomains, alter their accessibility to other proteins, and even distort the bilayer conformation. These actions have profound implications for many other PPI-regulated membrane functions that are beginning to be uncovered, and they suggest how PPIs can mediate crosstalk between the actin cytoskeleton and an expanding spectrum of essential cellular functions.

Haematopoietic lineage cell-specific protein 1 (HS1) promotes actin-related protein (Arp) 2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization

HS1 (haematopoietic lineage cell-specific gene protein 1), a prominent substrate of intracellular protein tyrosine kinases in haematopoietic cells, is implicated in the immune response to extracellular stimuli and in cell differentiation induced by cytokines. Although HS1 contains a 37-amino acid tandem repeat motif and a C-terminal Src homology 3 domain and is closely related to the cortical-actin-associated protein cortactin, it lacks the fourth repeat that has been shown to be essential for cortactin binding to filamentous actin (F-actin). In this study, we examined the possible role of HS1 in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton. Immunofluorescent staining demonstrated that HS1 co-localizes in the cytoplasm of cells with actin-related protein (Arp) 2/3 complex, the primary component of the cellular machinery responsible for de novo actin assembly. Furthermore, recombinant HS1 binds directly to Arp2/3 complex with an equilibrium dissociation constant (K(d)) of 880 nM. Although HS1 is a modest F-actin-binding protein with a K(d) of 400 nM, it increases the rate of the actin assembly mediated by Arp2/3 complex, and promotes the formation of branched actin filaments induced by Arp2/3 complex and a constitutively activated peptide of N-WASP (neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein). Our data suggest that HS1, like cortactin, plays an important role in the modulation of actin assembly.

Aberrant HS1 molecule in a patient with systemic lupus erythematosus

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease characterized by the activation of autoreactive B lymphocytes, which are supposed to carry aberrant signal transduction after the stimulation of B-cell receptor (BCR). To investigate abnormalities in BCR-mediated signaling pathway in lupus B lymphocytes, we analyzed HS1, a molecule downstream of BCR, in 80 Japanese SLE patients. We identified 37 amino acid deletion of HS1 in a 25-year-old female patient, and the aberrant HS1 lacked a part of a functional motif. Analysis of genomic DNA revealed that the aberrant HS1 was caused by exon skipping. Family study showed that the patient as well as her father and sister are heterozygous for the abnormality. WEHI-231 cell, a mouse B cell line, transfected with the aberrant HS1 displayed a significantly increased cell death upon cross-linking of BCR. Additionally, peripheral B lymphocytes from the patient exerted increased apoptosis after BCR stimulation compared to those from control SLE patients. These data suggest that the aberrant HS1 molecule may transmit an accelerated signal after BCR stimulation and may play a role in the activation of autoreactive B lymphocytes.

Dynamin at the actin-membrane interface

Many important cellular processes such as phagocytosis, cell motility and endocytosis require the participation of a dynamic and interactive actin cytoskeleton that acts to deform cellular membranes. The extensive family of non-traditional myosins has been implicated in linking the cortical actin gel with the plasma membrane. Recently, however, the dynamins have also been included in these cell processes as a second family of mechanochemical enzymes that self-associate and hydrolyze nucleotides to perform 'work' while linking cellular membranes to the actin cytoskeleton. The dynamins are believed to form large helical polymers from which extend many interactive proline-rich tail domains, and these domains bind to a variety of SH3-domain-containing proteins, many of which appear to be actin-binding proteins. Recent data support the concept that the dynamin family might act as a 'polymeric contractile scaffold' at the interface between biological membranes and filamentous actin.

Osmotic stress-induced remodeling of the cortical cytoskeleton

Osmotic stress is known to affect the cytoskeleton; however, this adaptive response has remained poorly characterized, and the underlying signaling pathways are unexplored. Here we show that hypertonicity induces submembranous de novo F-actin assembly concomitant with the peripheral translocation and colocalization of cortactin and the actin-related protein 2/3 (Arp2/3) complex, which are key components of the actin nucleation machinery. Additionally, hyperosmolarity promotes the association of cortactin with Arp2/3 as revealed by coimmunoprecipitation. Using various truncation or phosphorylation-incompetent mutants, we show that cortactin translocation requires the Arp2/3- or the F-actin binding domain, but the process is independent of the shrinkage-induced tyrosine phosphorylation of cortactin. Looking for an alternative signaling mechanism, we found that hypertonicity stimulates Rac and Cdc42. This appears to be a key event in the osmotically triggered cytoskeletal reorganization, because 1) constitutively active small GTPases translocate cortactin, 2) Rac and cortactin colocalize at the periphery of hypertonically challenged cells, and 3) dominant-negative Rac and Cdc42 inhibit the hypertonicity-provoked cortactin and Arp3 translocation. The Rho family-dependent cytoskeleton remodeling may be an important osmoprotective response that reinforces the cell cortex.

PTEN and myotubularin: novel phosphoinositide phosphatases

Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are a diverse group of enzymes that contain a highly conserved active site motif, Cys-x5-Arg (Cx5R). The PTP superfamily enzymes, which include tyrosine-specific, dual specificity, low-molecular-weight, and Cdc25 phosphatases, are key mediators of a wide variety of cellular processes, including growth, metabolism, differentiation, motility, and programmed cell death. The PTEN/MMAC1/TEP1 gene was originally identified as a candidate tumor suppressor gene located on human chromosome 10q23; it encodes a protein with sequence similarity to PTPs and tensin. Recent studies have demonstrated that PTEN plays an essential role in regulating signaling pathways involved in cell growth and apoptosis, and mutations in the PTEN gene are now known to cause tumorigenesis in a number of human tissues. In addition, germ line mutations in the PTEN gene also play a major role in the development of Cowden and Bannayan-Zonana syndromes, in which patients often suffer from increased risk of breast and thyroid cancers. Biochemical studies of the PTEN phosphatase have revealed a molecular mechanism by which tumorigenesis may be caused in individuals with PTEN mutations. Unlike most members of the PTP superfamily, PTEN utilizes the phosphoinositide second messenger, phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PIP3), as its physiologic substrate. This inositol lipid is an important regulator of cell growth and survival signaling through the Ser/Thr protein kinases PDK1 and Akt. By specifically dephosphorylating the D3 position of PIP3, the PTEN tumor suppressor functions as a negative regulator of signaling processes downstream of this lipid second messenger. Mutations that impair PTEN function result in a marked increase in cellular levels of PIP3 and constitutive activation of Akt survival signaling pathways, leading to inhibition of apoptosis, hyperplasia, and tumor formation. Certain structural features of PTEN contribute to its specificity for PIP3, as well as its role(s) in regulating cellular proliferation and apoptosis. Recently, myotubularin, a second PTP superfamily enzyme associated with human disease, has also been shown to utilize a phosphoinositide as its physiologic substrate.

Caspase-mediated cleavage of actin-binding and SH3-domain-containing proteins cortactin, HS1, and HIP-55 during apoptosis

Reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton occurs during apoptosis. We found that actin-binding and Src homology 3 (SH3)-domain-containing proteins cortactin, hematopoietic-specific protein 1 (HS1), and hematopoietic progenitor kinase 1-interacting protein of 55 kDa (HIP-55, also called SH3P7 and Abp1) were degraded in a caspase-dependent manner during apoptosis. Cortactin, HS1, and HIP-55 were direct substrates of caspase 3. Cortactin and HS1 have two clusters of potential caspase cleavage sites; one is in their actin-binding domains, and the other is close to their carboxy-terminal SH3 domains. HIP-55 has one caspase recognition site, EHID(361). The HIP-55 (D361A) mutant was resistant to caspase cleavage. Cleavage of HIP-55 by caspases dissociated its actin-binding domain from its SH3 domain. The cleavage of these actin-binding and SH3 domain-containing proteins may affect cell signaling to and from the actin cytoskeleton and may be involved in the morphological change of cells during apoptosis.

Cortactin: coupling membrane dynamics to cortical actin assembly

Exposure of cells to a variety of external signals causes rapid changes in plasma membrane morphology. Plasma membrane dynamics, including membrane ruffle and microspike formation, fusion or fission of intracellular vesicles, and the spatial organization of transmembrane proteins, is directly controlled by the dynamic reorganization of the underlying actin cytoskeleton. Two members of the Rho family of small GTPases, Cdc42 and Rac, have been well established as mediators of extracellular signaling events that impact cortical actin organization. Actin-based signaling through Cdc42 and Rac ultimately results in activation of the actin-related protein (Arp) 2/3 complex, which promotes the formation of branched actin networks. In addition, the activity of both receptor and non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases along with numerous actin binding proteins works in concert with Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization in regulating the formation of dynamic cortical actin-associated structures. In this review we discuss the structure and role of the cortical actin binding protein cortactin in Rho GTPase and tyrosine kinase signaling events, with the emphasis on the roles cortactin plays in tyrosine phosphorylation-based signal transduction, regulating cortical actin assembly, transmembrane receptor organization and membrane dynamics. We also consider how aberrant regulation of cortactin levels contributes to tumor cell invasion and metastasis.

Blocking oncogenic Ras signaling for cancer therapy

The Ras gene product is a monomeric membrane-localized G protein of 21 kd that functions as a molecular switch linking receptor and nonreceptor tyrosine kinase activation to downstream cytoplasmic or nuclear events. Each mammalian cell contains at least three distinct ras proto-oncogenes encoding closely related, but distinct proteins. Activating mutations in these Ras proteins result in constitutive signaling, thereby stimulating cell proliferation and inhibiting apoptosis. Oncogenic mutations in the ras gene are present in approximately 30% of all human cancers. K-ras mutations occur frequently in non-small-cell lung, colorectal, and pancreatic carcinomas; H-ras mutations are common in bladder, kidney, and thyroid carcinomas; N-ras mutations are found in melanoma, hepatocellular carcinoma, and hematologic malignancies. The ras-signaling pathway has attracted considerable attention as a target for anticancer therapy because of its important role in carcinogenesis. In this review, the physiologic and biochemical properties of the Ras proteins, their mechanism of cell signaling, and their relation to human cancer will be discussed. Novel cancer therapeutic approaches based on the inhibition of Ras-mediated signaling, including inhibition of Ras processing, inhibition of Ras protein synthesis, and blockage of downstream Ras effectors, will be discussed.

Cortactin localization to sites of actin assembly in lamellipodia requires interactions with F-actin and the Arp2/3 complex

Cortactin is an actin-binding protein that is enriched within the lamellipodia of motile cells and in neuronal growth cones. Here, we report that cortactin is localized with the actin-related protein (Arp) 2/3 complex at sites of actin polymerization within the lamellipodia. Two distinct sequence motifs of cortactin contribute to its interaction with the cortical actin network: the fourth of six tandem repeats and the amino-terminal acidic region (NTA). Cortactin variants lacking either the fourth tandem repeat or the NTA failed to localize at the cell periphery. Tandem repeat four was necessary for cortactin to stably bind F-actin in vitro. The NTA region interacts directly with the Arp2/3 complex based on affinity chromatography, immunoprecipitation assays, and binding assays using purified components. Cortactin variants containing the NTA region were inefficient at promoting Arp2/3 actin nucleation activity. These data provide strong evidence that cortactin is specifically localized to sites of dynamic cortical actin assembly via simultaneous interaction with F-actin and the Arp2/3 complex. Cortactin interacts via its Src homology 3 (SH3) domain with ZO-1 and the SHANK family of postsynaptic density 95/dlg/ZO-1 homology (PDZ) domain-containing proteins, suggesting that cortactin contributes to the spatial organization of sites of actin polymerization coupled to selected cell surface transmembrane receptor complexes.

Conditional expression of a truncated fragment of nonmuscle myosin II-A alters cell shape but not cytokinesis in HeLa cells

A truncated fragment of the nonmuscle myosin II-A heavy chain (NMHC II-A) lacking amino acids 1-591, delta N592, was used to examine the cellular functions of this protein. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) was fused to the amino terminus of full-length human NMHC II-A, NMHC II-B, and delta N592 and the fusion proteins were stably expressed in HeLa cells by using a conditional expression system requiring absence of doxycycline. The HeLa cell line studied normally expressed only NMHC II-A and not NMHC II-B protein. Confocal microscopy indicated that the GFP fusion proteins of full-length NMHC II-A, II-B, and delta N592 were localized to stress fibers. However, in vitro assays showed that baculovirus-expressed delta N592 did not bind to actin, suggesting that delta N592 was localized to actin stress fibers through incorporation into endogenous myosin filaments. There was no evidence for the formation of heterodimers between the full-length endogenous nonmuscle myosin and truncated nonmuscle MHCs. Expression of delta N592, but not full-length NMHC II-A or NMHC II-B, induced cell rounding with rearrangement of actin filaments and disappearance of focal adhesions. These cells returned to their normal morphology when expression of delta N592 was repressed by addition of doxycycline. We also show that GFP-tagged full-length NMHC II-A or II-B, but not delta N592, were localized to the cytokinetic ring during mitosis, indicating that, in vertebrates, the amino-terminus part of mammalian nonmuscle myosin II may be necessary for localization to the cytokinetic ring.

Sphingoid base synthesis requirement for endocytosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The internalization step of endocytosis in yeast requires actin and sterols for maximum efficiency. In addition, many receptors and plasma membrane proteins must be phosphorylated and ubiquitylated prior to internalization. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae end8-1 mutant is allelic to lcb1, a mutant defective in the first step of sphingoid base synthesis. Upon arrest of sphingoid base synthesis a rapid block in endocytosis is seen. This block can be overcome by exogenous sphingoid base. Under conditions where endogenous sphingosine base synthesis was blocked and exogenous sphingoid bases could not be converted to phosphorylated sphingoid bases or to ceramide, sphingoid bases could still suppress the endocytic defect. Therefore, the required lipid is most likely a sphingoid base. Interestingly, sphingoid base synthesis is required for proper actin organization, but is not required for receptor phosphorylation. This is the first case of a physiological role for sphingoid base synthesis, other than as a precursor for ceramide or phosphorylated sphingoid base synthesis.

Ser/Thr phosphorylation of hematopoietic specific protein 1 (HS1): implication of protein kinase CK2

Hematopoietic lineage cell-specific protein 1 (HS1), a tyrosine multiphosphorylated protein implicated in receptor-mediated apoptosis and proliferative responses, is shown here to become Ser/Thr phosphorylated upon incubation of platelets with radiolabeled inorganic phosphate. The in vivo Ser/Thr phosphorylation of HS1 is enhanced by okadaic acid and reduced by specific inhibitors of casein kinase (CK)2. In vitro, HS1 is an excellent substrate for either CK2 alpha subunit alone (Km = 47 nM) or CK2 holoenzyme, tested in the presence of polylysine (Km = 400 nM). Phosphorylation reaches a stoichiometry of about 2 mol phosphate per mol HS1 and occurs mainly at threonyl residue(s), mostly located in the N-terminal region, but also at seryl residue(s) residing in the central core of the molecule (208-402), as judged from experiments with deleted forms of HS1. Ser/Thr phosphorylation of HS1, either induced in vivo by okadaic acid or catalysed in vitro by CK2, potentiates subsequent phosphorylation at tyrosyl residues. These data indicate the possibility that regulation of HS1 may also be under the control of Ser/Thr phosphorylation, and suggest that in quiescent cells CK2 could play a role in inducing constitutive Tyr phosphorylation of HS1 in the absence of stimuli that activate the protein tyrosine kinase pathway.

Cytoskeletal tumor suppressors that block oncogenic RAS signaling

Several distinct peptides or drugs that block the Rho family GTPases-mediated pathways were found to suppress RAS-induced malignant phenotype. They include (1) C3 enzyme that selectively inactivates Rho, (2) ACK42, a peptide that blocks the interaction of CDC42 with its effectors such as ACKs, (3) PAK18, a peptide that blocks the activation of PAK and membrane ruffling, and (4) actin-binding drugs, chaetoglobosin K (CK) and MKT-077, that block membrane ruffling by capping and bundling actin filaments, respectively.