Molecular mechanism of suppression of testicular steroidogenesis by proinflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha

Obesity and male fertility disorders

Often associated with obesity, male infertility represents a widespread condition that challenges the wellbeing of the couple. In this article, we provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of studies exploring the association between obesity and male reproductive function, to evaluate the frequency of this association, and establish the effects of increased body weight on conventional and biofunctional sperm parameters and infertility. In an attempt to find possible molecular markers of infertility in obese male patients, the numerous mechanisms responsible for infertility in overweight/obese patients are reviewed in depth. These include obesity-related functional hypogonadism, insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia, chronic inflammation, adipokines, irisin, gut hormones, gut microbiome, and sperm transcriptome. According to meta-analytic evidence, excessive body weight negatively influences male reproductive health. This can occurr through a broad array of molecular mechanisms. Some of these are not yet fully understood and need to be further elucidated in the future. A better understanding of the effects of metabolic disorders on spermatogenesis and sperm fertilizing capacity is very useful for identifying new diagnostic markers and designing therapeutic strategies for better clinical management of male infertility.

Role of Nrf2/HO-1, PPAR-γ, and cytoglobin signals in the pathogenesis of methotrexate-induced testicular intoxication in rats and the protective effect of diacerein

Methotrexate (MTX) is an inhibitor of folic acid reductase used in managing a variety of malignancies. Testicular injury by MTX is one of its serious adverse effects. The current investigation aims to assess the protective effects of diacerein (DIA) on testicular injury by MTX and clarify the possible underlying mechanisms. Testicular injury in rats was induced by a single injection of 20 mg/kg body weight of MTX. DIA was given in 25 mg/kg body weight/day and 50 mg/kg body weight/day doses for 10 days. Compared to the MTX group, DIA attenuated testicular intoxication as evidenced by improvement of testicular histopathological abnormalities and increased serum testosterone and luteinizing hormone. DIA attenuated testicular oxidative stress changes by lowering testicular MDA and boosting GSH content and SOD activity. Moreover, administration of DIA attenuated MTX-induced testicular inflammation, as proved by decreased TNF-α and IL-6. At the molecular level, DIA induced significant upregulation in Nrf2, HO-1, PPAR-γ, and cytoglobin protein expression. The present results proved that DIA, in a dose-dependent manner, exhibited notable amelioration of testicular toxicity induced by MTX through augmentation of anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects combined by upregulating Nrf2/HO-1, PPAR-γ, and cytoglobin signaling.

Involvement of Nrf2-PPAR-γ signaling in Coenzyme Q10 protecting effect against methotrexate-induced testicular oxidative damage

Studies have identified Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) as a promising agent in improving idiopathic male infertility; however, its role in chemically or environmentally induced testicular dysfunction is not well-established. We investigated the potential of CoQ10 to attenuate methotrexate (MTX)-induced testicular damage and to identify molecular targets of CoQ10 effects. Wistar rats received a single intraperitoneal dose of 20 mg/kg MTX on the fifth day of the 10-day experimental protocol. 100 mg/kg CoQ10 was given orally daily for ten days, alone or combined with MTX. The testes of MTX-treated animals showed thickened tunica albuginea, distortion of seminiferous tubules with a marked reduction of germinal lining, a few primary spermatocytes with no spermatozoa, apoptotic cells, congested sub-capsular and interstitial blood vessels, and interstitial edema. Reduction of reproductive hormones and increased oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic biomarkers levels were also seen in the MTX-treated rats. CoQ10 + MTX-treated rats were protected against MTX-induced testicular histological changes and showed improvement in testosterone, luteinizing-, and follicle-stimulating hormone serum levels compared to the MTX group. The testes of the CoQ10 + MTX-treated rats showed reduced malondialdehyde, myloperoxidase, tumor necrosis factor -α, interleukin-6 and -1β and Bax: Bcl2 ratio and enhanced glutathione, and catalase compared to MTX alone. CoQ10 enhanced MTX-induced downregulation of Nrf2 and PPAR-γ signaling and modulated its downstream targets, the inducible nitric oxide synthase, NF-κB, Bax, and Bcl2. In conclusion, CoQ10 targeted the Nrf2-PPAR-γ signaling loop and its downstream pathways, mitigating MTX-induced oxidative stress-related damages and alleviating the testicular dysfunction MTX caused. Our data suggest Nrf2-PPAR-γ signaling as a potential therapeutic target in testicular toxicity, where oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis trigger damage.

Effect of running exercise training on inflammatory mediators and cytokines expression in testicular tissue; effect of exercise intensity

The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of running exercise training protocols (ETPs) with varying intensities on inflammatory responses, with a specific focus on the interactions between inflammatory mediators, cytokines, and Leydig cell steroidogenic activity, as well as testosterone secretion. To this end, 24 Wistar rats were subdivided into sedentary control, low (LICT), moderate (MICT), and high (HICT) intensity continuous running ETP groups. After 8 weeks, the expression levels of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR-4), nuclear factor-kappa-B (NF-KB), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and the testicular nitric oxide (NO) content were assessed and compared between groups. Moreover, the mean distributions of Leydig cells/mm2 of interstitial connective tissue, their steroidogenic activity, and serum level of testosterone were assessed. The LICT did not show any significant (p > 0.05) change in the expression levels of all aforementioned biomarkers. In contrast, both the MICT and HICT groups demonstrated a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the expression levels of TLR-4, NFK-B, IL-6, TNF-α, iNOS, and COX-2 at both the mRNA and protein levels. The testicular NO has increased in HICT and MICT groups. Despite a decrease in the distribution of Leydig cells in both the MICT and HICT groups, the HICT group exhibited a significant (p < 0.05) reduction in Leydig cell steroidogenic activity and serum testosterone levels. In conclusion, our findings revealed that ETPs can influence Leydig cell steroidogenic activity and testosterone secretion, contingent on their intensity. These effects are attributed to alterations in the expression levels of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines.

Upregulation of NOR-1 in calcified human vascular tissues: impact on osteogenic differentiation and calcification

Cardiovascular calcification is a significant public health issue whose pathophysiology is not fully understood. NOR-1 regulates critical processes in cardiovascular remodeling, but its contribution to ectopic calcification is unknown. NOR-1 was overexpressed in human calcific aortic valves and calcified atherosclerotic lesions colocalizing with RUNX2, a factor essential for osteochondrogenic differentiation and calcification. NOR-1 and osteogenic markers were upregulated in calcifying human valvular interstitial cells (VICs) and human vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Gain- and loss-of-function approaches demonstrated that NOR-1 negatively modulates the expression of osteogenic genes relevant for the osteogenic transdifferentiation (RUNX2, IL-6, BMP2, and ALPL) and calcification of VICs. VSMCs from transgenic mice overexpressing NOR-1 in these cells (TgNOR-1VSMC) expressed lower basal levels of osteogenic genes (IL-6, BMP2, ALPL, OPN) than cells from WT littermates, and their upregulation by a high-phosphate osteogenic medium (OM) was completely prevented by NOR-1 transgenesis. Consistently, this was associated with a dramatic reduction in the calcification of both transgenic VSMCs and aortic rings from TgNOR-1VSMC mice exposed to OM. Atherosclerosis and calcification were induce in mice by the administration of AAV-PCSK9D374Y and a high-fat/high-cholesterol diet. Challenged-TgNOR-1VSMC mice exhibited decreased vascular expression of osteogenic markers, and both less atherosclerotic burden (assessed in whole aorta and lesion size in aortic arch and brachiocephalic artery) and less vascular calcification (assessed either by near-infrared fluorescence imaging or histological analysis) than WT mice. Our data indicate that NOR-1 negatively modulates the expression of genes critically involved in the osteogenic differentiation of VICs and VSMCs, thereby restraining ectopic cardiovascular calcification.

Ginkgo biloba extract protects against tartrazine-induced testicular toxicity in rats: involvement of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms

The use of additives, especially colorants, in food and pharmaceutical industry is increasing dramatically. Currently, additives are classified as contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Concerns have been raised about the potential hazards of food additives to reproductive organs and fertility. The present study investigates the reproductive toxicity of tartrazine (TRZ), a synthetic colorant, in male rats and aims to explore the curative effect of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb) against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity. Twenty-four rats were divided into four groups: the control (0.5 ml distilled water), the EGb group (100 mg/kg EGb alone), the TRZ group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ alone), and the TRZ-EGb group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ plus 100 mg/kg EGb). The doses were administered orally in distilled water once daily for 28 days. Toxicity studies of TRZ investigated testicular redox state, serum gonadotropins, and testosterone levels, testicular 17 ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity, sperm count and quality, levels of inflammatory cytokines, and caspase-3 expression as an apoptotic marker. Also, histopathological alterations of the testes were examined. TRZ significantly affected the testicular redox status as indicated by the increase in malondialdehyde and the decrease in reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. It also disrupted serum gonadotropins (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and testosterone levels and the activity of testicular 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Additionally, TRZ adversely affected sperm count, motility, viability, and abnormality. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and expression of caspase-3 were increased in the testes. Histopathological examination of the testes supported the alterations mentioned above. Administration of EGb significantly ameliorated TRZ-induced testicular toxicity in rats. In conclusion, EGb protected against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms.

Impact of Dietary Probiotics on the Immune and Reproductive Physiology of Pubertal Male Japanese Quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) Administered at the Onset of Pre-Puberty

Fertility in males is dependent on the proper production of sperms involving the synchronization of numerous factors like oxidative stress, inflammatory processes, and hormonal regulation. Inflammation associated with oxidative stress is also known to impair sperm function. Nutritional factors like probiotics and prebiotics have the potential benefits to modulate these factors which may enhance male fertility. In the present study, immature male Japanese quail at the beginning of 3rd week were administered with Lactobacillus rhamnosus (L), Bifidobacterium longum (B), and mannan-oligosaccharides (M) through dietary supplementation in individual groups as well as in combinations like LB and MLB. Markers of oxidative stress including SOD and catalase were examined by native PAGE; inflammatory biomarkers (IL-1β, IL-10, and NFκB), apoptotic markers (caspase 3 and caspase 7), steroidal hormones, and their receptors estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and beta (ERβ) were assessed in testis. The study reveals that dietary supplementation of 1% L, B, and M in combination significantly and positively increases the overall growth of immature male quail specifically testicular weight and gonadosomatic index (GSI). Furthermore, significant improvement in testicular cell size; increased steroidal hormones like testosterone, FSH, and LH levels; increase in SOD, catalase enzymes; decrease in apoptotic factors Caspase 3, Caspase 7 and immune system strength observed indicated by a decrease in expression of IL-1β, NFκB; and increase of IL-10 in testis when LBM was used in combination. These variations are attributed to the increase in testicular estrogen receptors alpha and beta, facilitated by the neuroendocrine gonadal axis, ultimately leading to improved male fertility. It can be concluded that the dietary supplementation in combination with L, B, and M enhances male fertility in immature quail by increased expression of estrogen receptors via gut microbiota modulation. It also sheds light on the potential use of these nutritional factors in avian species as therapeutic interventions to overcome low fertility problems in quail thereby benefitting the poultry industry.

International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology CXIII: Nuclear Receptor Superfamily-Update 2023

The NR superfamily comprises 48 transcription factors in humans that control a plethora of gene network programs involved in a wide range of physiologic processes. This review will summarize and discuss recent progress in NR biology and drug development derived from integrating various approaches, including biophysical techniques, structural studies, and translational investigation. We also highlight how defective NR signaling results in various diseases and disorders and how NRs can be targeted for therapeutic intervention via modulation via binding to synthetic lipophilic ligands. Furthermore, we also review recent studies that improved our understanding of NR structure and signaling. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Nuclear receptors (NRs) are ligand-regulated transcription factors that are critical regulators of myriad physiological processes. NRs serve as receptors for an array of drugs, and in this review, we provide an update on recent research into the roles of these drug targets.

Appraisal of the Pre-Emptive Effect of Lactoferrin Against Chromium-Induced Testicular Toxicity in Male Rats

Lactoferrin (LCF), a potent naturally occurring antioxidant, is a crucial component in preventing potassium dichromate (PDC) toxicity. The goal of the current work was to study the potential efficacy of LCF in preventing PDC(CrVI)-induced testicular toxicity and oxidative injury in rats. Six groups of male rats of Wistar stain were randomly categorized into: group 1, which served as the control; group 2 and 3 received LCF (200 and 300 mg/kg orally, respectively); group 4 received PDC (2 mg/kg i.p.); group 5 and 6 pretreated with LCF, followed by PDC as in group 4 with 90 min apart for 28 days. PDC-intoxicated rats showed a significantly altered spermogram with abnormal sperm morphology. PDC significantly upregulated serum FSH and downregulated testosterone levels. Additionally, PDC decreased the levels of testicular key antioxidant biomarkers (catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and glutathione (GSH)) with elevated lipid peroxidation marker (TBARS) and testicular chromium content. Moreover, it upregulated testicular proinflammatory cytokines, IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α, induced histopathological changes in testes with significant immunohistochemical expression of FasL and moderate expression of Nrf2. Pretreatment with LCF significantly mitigated PDC-induced testicular toxicity by enhancing spermogram, improving hormonal levels, restoring testicular oxidant/antioxidant balance, and decreasing testicular IL-1, IL6, IL-10, and TNFα levels, and amending both FasL and Nrf2 immunohistochemical-expression. Additionally, LCF improved testicular histopathological picture and spermatogenesis. Our results highlight the importance of LCF as a superior protective modulator of PDC-induced testicular injury.

Testicular decompression and tunica vaginalis flap in human acute testicular torsion: modified step-by-step technique description and preliminary outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To report the effects of a tunica vagina flap on testicular compartment syndrome.

METHODS

This single-arm clinical trial was conducted from September 2020 to October 2021. Consecutive patients with suspected testicular torsion within 24 hours of pain onset were included. Patients with past testicular torsion, bilateral torsion, or previous atrophy were excluded. The tunica vaginalis was opened, and the intratesticular pressure was measured before testicular retrieval from the scrotum and detorsion (P1), after detorsion (P2), and after transverse incision (P3). A tunica vaginalis flap was performed and a new intratesticular pressure was recorded (P4). The contralateral testicular pressure was recorded before fixation (Pc). The minimum follow-up period was 6 months.

RESULTS

Fifteen patients were recruited from September 2020 to October 2021. Nine patients completed the follow-up. The median age (range) was 15 years (9-19). The mean P1, P2, P3, P4, and Pc (range) were 43, 60, 23, 20, and 14mmHg, respectively. The atrophy rate was 66.3% and the viability was 88.9%. No major complications were observed.

CONCLUSION

The modified tunica vaginalis flap in acute testicular torsion decreased intratesticular pressure. Furthermore, normal testicular pressure can improve testicular preservation. It can also decrease testicular pressure to normal levels and preserve the testicular parenchyma. Testicular torsion causes orchiectomy in more than 80% of the cases after 24 hours of pain onset. Testicular detorsion only (P1-P2) showed a small difference in intratesticular pressure (median 4mmHg). Testicular incision (P2-P3) only demonstrated a major pressure decrease (median, 45mmHg). The final pressure after TVR was similar to the non-twisted testicle pressure (median, 1mmHg). Testicular salvage (88.9%) and atrophy (66.3%) rates were slightly higher than the previous literature reports, perhaps the initial learning curve of this novel technique.

Edaravone alleviates methotrexate-induced testicular injury in rats: Implications on inflammation, steroidogenesis, and Akt/p53 signaling

Edaravone (ED) is a neuroprotective drug with beneficial effects against several disorders due to its prominent antioxidant activity. However, its effect against methotrexate (MTX)-induced testicular damage was not previously investigated. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the ability of ED to prevent the oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis induced by MTX on the rat testis and to examine whether ED administration modulated the Akt/p53 signaling and steroidogenesis process. Rats were allocated into; Normal, ED (20 mg/kg, PO, for 10 days), MTX (20 mg/kg, i.p., on the 5^th day), and ED + MTX groups. The results showed that MTX group exhibited higher serum activities of ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH in addition to histopathological alterations in the rat testis, compared to normal group. Furthermore, MTX induced down-regulation of the steroidogenic genes; StAR, CYP11a1, and HSD17B3 and reduced FSH, LH, and testosterone levels. The MTX group also showed higher levels of MDA, NO, MPO, NF-kB, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, Bax, and caspase 3, as well as, lower levels of GSH, GPx, SOD, IL-10, Bcl2 compared to normal rats, p < 0.05. In addition, MTX treatment resulted in increased p53 expression and decreased p-Akt expression. Remarkably, ED administration significantly prevented all the biochemical, genetic, and histological damage induced by MTX. Hence, ED treatment protected the rat testis from apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammation, and impaired steroidogenesis induced by MTX. This novel protective effect was mediated by decreasing p53 while increasing p-Akt protein expression.

The nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A1 in human disease

Nuclear receptor 4A1 (NR4A1), a member of the NR4A subfamily, acts as a gene regulator in a wide range of signaling pathways and responses to human diseases. Here, we provide a brief overview of the current functions of NR4A1 in human diseases and the factors involved in its function. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms can potentially improve drug development and disease therapy.

Dietary trends and the decline in male reproductive health

Over the twentieth century, male reproductive health has suffered a substantial decline, as evidenced by decreases in sperm counts and testosterone levels and increases in reproductive pathologies. At the same time, the prevalence of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and metabolic syndrome has risen dramatically. Metabolic and reproductive health are highly interconnected, suggesting that their respective trends are intertwined and, given the timeframe of such trends, environmental and not genetic factors are most likely to be the primary causes. Industrialization, which began in Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, has resulted in profound changes to our diet, lifestyle, and environment, many of which are causal factors in the rise in chronic diseases. Industrialization results in a nutrition transition from an agricultural unprocessed to a modern processed diet, incorporating increases in sugar, vegetable oils, ultra-processed foods, linoleic acid, trans-fats, and total energy. This dietary shift has incurred numerous adverse effects on metabolic and reproductive health, characterized by chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and insulin resistance. Moreover, these effects appear to multiply across subsequent generations via epigenetic inheritance. Men's fertility is markedly affected by obesity and diabetes, with an increase in total energy via processed food intake arguably being the key factor driving the diabesity pandemic. In contrast, wholefoods rich in micronutrients and phytonutrients support male fertility and a healthy body weight. Therefore, men wanting to maximize their fertility should consider making positive dietary changes, such as replacing processed foods with unprocessed foods that support metabolic and reproductive health.

The Triglycerides and Glucose Index is not superior to HOMA-IR in predicting testosterone deficiency among adult males

BACKGROUND

Testosterone decline and deficiency in males have aroused increased attention in male health management, which might have a close relationship with insulin resistance (IR).

OBJECTIVES

We utilized a novel and practical IR indicator, the triglyceride-glucose (TyG) index, to investigate the association between the TyG index and serum testosterone in US adult males.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study based on data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2013-2014 and 2015-2016. The TyG index was calculated from fasting plasma glucose and serum triglyceride, and serum testosterone was measured by isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry in NHANES.

RESULTS

A total of 2186 male participants aged more than 20 years old were included, and the mean TyG index was 8.72 ± 0.71. Participants with a higher TyG index showed a lower level of total testosterone (β = -45.83, 95% CI: -58.50, -33.15, p < 0.0001) and a higher risk of testosterone deficiency (OR = 1.80, 95% CI: 1.46, 2.21, p < 0.0001) after we adjusted for all potential cofounders. Males in TyG index tertile 3 had a 113% (95% CI: 1.50, 3.02, p < 0.0001) higher risk of testosterone deficiency than those in tertile 1. Subgroup analysis stratified by diabetes condition indicated that the TyG index might be a good predictor of testosterone decline or deficiency in either people with or without diabetes. However, ROC cure analysis indicated that a larger area under the curve was found in the homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) (0.71, 95% CI: 0.68,0.74) than in the TyG index (0.67, 95% CI: 0.64, 0.70).

CONCLUSIONS

Males with a higher TyG index tended to have a higher risk of testosterone decline or even testosterone deficiency. However, the predictability of the TyG index for testosterone deficiency was not better than that of HOMA-IR. More well-designed studies are still needed to validate this relationship.

Impact of COVID 19 on erectile function

Purpose: COVID-19, a novel infection, presented with several complications, including socioeconomical and reproductive health challenges such as erectile dysfunction (ED). The present review summarizes the available shreds of evidence on the impact of COVID-19 on ED.Materials and methods: All published peer-reviewed articles from the onset of the COVID-19 outbreak to date, relating to ED, were reviewed. Results: Available pieces of evidence that ED is a consequence of COVID-19 are convincing. COVID-19 and ED share common risk factors such as disruption of vascular integrity, cardiovascular disease (CVD), cytokine storm, diabetes, obesity, and chronic kidney disease (CKD). COVID-19 also induces impaired pulmonary haemodynamics, increased ang II, testicular damage and low serum testosterone, and reduced arginine-dependent NO bioavailability that promotes reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and endothelial dysfunction, resulting in ED. In addition, COVID-19 triggers psychological/mental stress and suppresses testosterone-dependent dopamine concentration, which contributes to incident ED.Conclusions: In conclusion, COVID-19 exerts a detrimental effect on male reproductive function, including erectile function. This involves a cascade of events from multiple pathways. As the pandemic dwindles, identifying the long-term effects of COVID-19-induced ED, and proffering adequate and effective measures in militating against COVID-19-induced ED remains pertinent.

JAG1 Intracellular Domain Enhances AR Expression and Signaling and Promotes Stem-like Properties in Prostate Cancer Cells

JAG1 expression is upregulated in high-grade metastatic prostate carcinomas and associated with poor disease-free survival of patients with prostate cancer. Intriguingly, all JAG1-positive prostate carcinomas express JICD although JICD function in prostate cancer (PC) cells is poorly understood. In this study, we found that JICD overexpression increased the expression levels of AR, especially AR-Vs, in PC cell lines and significantly enhanced androgen-independent and androgen-dependent function of ARs. Interestingly, JICD overexpression upregulated the expression of the PCSC marker CD133 in PC cells as the expression of self-renewal markers; namely, NANOG and OCT3/4 increased. In addition, JICD overexpression highly increased the expression of anti-apoptotic BCL-XL protein, while it little affected the expression of apoptotic BIM protein. In 3D cell culture assays, the spheres formed by JICD-overexpressing PC subline cells (C4-2 and CWR22Rv1) were larger than those formed by control (EV) subline cells with undifferentiated morphology. Although JICD overexpression caused quiescence in cell proliferation, it activated the expression of components in PCSC-related signaling pathways, increased PC cell mobility, and promoted in vivo xenograft mouse tumorigenesis. Therefore, JICD may play a crucial role in enhancing androgen independence and promoting stem-like properties in PC cells and should be considered a novel target for CRPC and PCSC diagnostic therapy.

The Effects of Chronic Lead Exposure on Testicular Development of Japanese Quail (Coturnix japonica): Histopathological Damages, Oxidative Stress, Steroidogenesis Disturbance, and Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Testis Axis Disruption

Lead (Pb) becomes a global public health concern for its high toxicology. Birds are sensitive to environmental pollution and Pb contamination exerts multiple negative influences on bird life. Pb also impacts on avian reproductive system. Thus, in this study, we attempted to determine toxicological effects and possible mechanistic pathways of Pb on avian testicular development by using the model species-Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica). Male quail chicks of 1-week-old were exposed to 0, 50, 500, and 1000 ppm Pb concentrations in drinking water for 5 weeks when reaching sexual maturation. The results showed that high Pb doses (500 and 1000 ppm) induced testis atrophy and cloacal gland shrinkage. Microstructural damages of both hypothalamus and testis indicated the disruption of the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis by Pb exposure. The decrease of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and testosterone (T) may also imply HPG axis disruption. Moreover, excess testicular oxidative damages featured by increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) and decreasing catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), and total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) indicated increasing risks of reproductive dysfunction by Pb. Furthermore, increasing apoptosis and upregulation of gene expression associated with cell death suggested testicular abnormal development. In addition, molecular signaling involved with steroidogenesis in the testis was disturbed by Pb treatment. The study showed that Pb could impair testicular development and reproductive function by morphological and histological injury, hormone suppression, oxidative stress, cell death, and HPG axis disruption.

Sex-Specific Pathways Lead to Statural Growth Impairment in Children with Crohn's Disease

OBJECTIVES

To examine the underlying mechanisms that lead growth impairment to occur more commonly in males than females with Crohn's disease (CD).

STUDY DESIGN

Children and adolescents with CD were enrolled in a prospective multicenter longitudinal cohort study. Height Z-score difference was computed as height Z-score based on chronological age (height chronological age-Z-score) minus height Z-score based on bone age (height bone age-Z-score) using longitudinal data. Specific serum cytokines were measured, hormone Z-scores were calculated based on bone age (bone age-Z), and their longitudinal associations were examined.

RESULTS

There were 122 children with CD (63% male) who completed 594 visits. The mean ± SD chronological age was 11.70 ± 1.79 years. The mean ± SD height chronological age-Z-score was -0.03 ± 0.99 in males and -0.49 ± 0.87 in females. The mean ± SD height bone age-Z-score was 0.23 ± 0.93 in males and 0.37 ± 0.96 in females. The magnitude of the mean height Z-score difference was greater in females (-0.87 ± 0.94) than males (-0.27 ± 0.90; P = .005), indicating growth was better in females than males. The following negative associations were identified: in females, interleukin (IL)-8 (P < .001) and IL-12p70 (P = .035) with gonadotropin-bone age-Z-scores; IL-8 (P = .010), IL-12p70 (P = .020), and interferon-γ (P = .004) with sex hormone-bone age-Z-scores, and IL-8 (P = .044) and interferon-γ (P < .001) with insulin-like growth factor 1-bone age-Z-scores; in males, IL-1 beta (P = .019) and IL-6 (P = .025) with insulin-like growth factor 1-bone age-Z-scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that sex-specific molecular pathways lead to growth impairment in children with CD (primarily growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 axis in males and primarily hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in females). Mapping these sex-specific molecular pathways may help in the development of sex-specific treatment approaches targeting the underlying inflammation characteristic of CD.

Cisplatin-Induced Reproductive Toxicity and Oxidative Stress: Ameliorative Effect of Kinetin

Cisplatin is a commonly used chemotherapeutic agent; however, its potential side effects, including gonadotoxicity and infertility, are a critical problem. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of cisplatin-induced testicular dysfunction. We investigated whether kinetin use at different concentrations could alleviate gonadal injury associated with cisplatin treatment, with an exploration of the involvement of its antioxidant capacity. Kinetin was administered in different doses of 0.25, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, alone or along with cisplatin for 10 days. Cisplatin toxicity was induced via a single IP dose of 7 mg/kg on day four. In a dose-dependent manner, concomitant administration of kinetin with cisplatin significantly restored testicular oxidative stress parameters, corrected the distorted sperm quality parameters and histopathological changes, enhanced levels of serum testosterone and testicular StAR protein expression, as well as reduced the up-regulation of testicular TNF-α, IL-1β, Il-6, and caspase-3, caused by cisplatin. It is worth noting that the testicular protective effect of the highest kinetin dose was comparable/more potent and significantly higher than the effects of vitamin C and the lowest kinetin dose, respectively. Overall, these data indicate that kinetin may offer a promising approach for alleviating cisplatin-induced reproductive toxicity and organ damage, via ameliorating oxidative stress and reducing inflammation and apoptosis.

Curcumin improves the protective effects of quercetin against atrazine-induced testicular injury in adult Wistar rats

This study evaluated the beneficial protective effect of cotreatment of curcumin (CUR) and quercetin (QUE) on atrazine (ATZ)-induced testicular toxicity in rats. ATZ challenge diminished luteinizing hormone, follicular stimulating hormone, testosterone and myeloperoxidase enzyme activity, but these effects were attenuated on co-treatment with CUR and QUE. Also, co-treatment of CUR + QUE was better than separate administration of QUE at diminishing malondialdehyde and glutathione and improving tumour necrosis factor-α concentration, germ cell numbers (spermatogonia, spermatocytes and round spermatids) and epididymal sperm quality. Histologically, smaller sized tubules with degenerated epithelia and few germ cells were seen in the seminiferous tubules of the ATZ group whereas CUR + QUE pretreatment improved the histo-morphologic features of the tubules compared to the ATZ group and was also better than separate administration of QUE. We conclude that CUR can improve the protective effects of QUE against ATZ-induced testicular injury by enhancing the levels of reproductive hormones, recovering testicular biochemical parameters and improving the histological features of the testes.

Etanercept Mitigates Cadmium Chloride-induced Testicular Damage in Rats "An Insight into Autophagy, Apoptosis, Oxidative Stress and Inflammation"

RATIONALE

Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental and occupational toxin that represents a serious health hazard to humans and other animals. One of the negative consequences of cadmium exposure is testicular injury.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate the therapeutic effect of etanercept against cadmium chloride-induced testicular damage and the probable underlying mechanisms of its action.

METHODS

A total of sixty rats were divided into six groups: control, cadmium chloride (CdCl₂) (7 mg/ kg i.p.), and CdCl₂ treated with etanercept (5,10 and 15 mg/kg s.c.) and etanercept only (15 mg/kg s.c.). CdCl₂ was administrated as a single dose, while etanercept was administered every 3 days for 3 weeks.

RESULTS

CdCl₂ reduced serum testosterone, testicular glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD). However, it elevated the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3B (LC3B) in the testes. Cadmium caused pathogenic alterations as well as increased levels of inflammatory biomarkers such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). Besides, the gene expressions of caspase-3 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (i-NOS) and Beclin-1 protein increased with CdCl₂ exposure. Interestingly, etanercept relieved the previous toxic effects induced by CdCl₂ in a dose-dependent manner as evidenced by inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammatory markers, Beclin-1, LC3B, and caspase-3 accompanied by improvement in histopathological changes.

CONCLUSION

Etanercept provides a potential therapeutic approach to treat testicular tissue against the damaging effects of Cd by reducing oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and autophagy.

Transcription Factors in the Regulation of Leydig Cell Gene Expression and Function

Cell differentiation and acquisition of specialized functions are inherent steps in events that lead to normal tissue development and function. These processes require accurate temporal, tissue, and cell-specific activation or repression of gene transcription. This is achieved by complex interactions between transcription factors that form a unique combinatorial code in each specialized cell type and in response to different physiological signals. Transcription factors typically act by binding to short, nucleotide-specific DNA sequences located in the promoter region of target genes. In males, Leydig cells play a crucial role in sex differentiation, health, and reproductive function from embryonic life to adulthood. To better understand the molecular mechanisms regulating Leydig cell differentiation and function, several transcription factors important to Leydig cells have been identified, including some previously unknown to this specialized cell type. This mini review summarizes the current knowledge on transcription factors in fetal and adult Leydig cells, describing their roles and mechanisms of action.

Mechanism of Inflammatory Associated Impairment of Sperm Function, Spermatogenesis and Steroidogenesis

Infection and inflammation are relevant entities of male reproductive disorders that can lead to sub-/infertility. Associated damage of the testis of affected men and in rodent models include leukocytic infiltration, edema formation, fibrosis, germ cell loss and reduced androgen levels. Negative effects on spermatogenesis are thought to be elicited by oxidative stress sustained mostly by increased levels of ROS and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Under normal conditions these cytokines have physiological functions. However, increased levels as seen in inflammation and infection, but also in obesity and cancer are harmful for germ cells and impair steroidogenesis. As a summary, there is mounting evidence that the activation of inflammatory pathways is a rather common feature in various forms of male testicular disorders that extends beyond established infectious/inflammatory cues. This mini review will focus on relevant entities and the mechanisms of how a dysbalance of local testicular factors contributes to disturbances of spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis.

Immune Cells as Critical Regulators of Steroidogenesis in the Testis and Beyond

Steroidogenesis is an essential biological process for embryonic development, reproduction, and adult health. While specific glandular cells, such as Leydig cells in the testis, are traditionally known to be the principal players in steroid hormone production, there are other cell types that contribute to the process of steroidogenesis. In particular, immune cells are often an important component of the cellular niche that is required for the production of steroid hormones. For several decades, studies have reported that testicular macrophages and Leydig cells are intimately associated and exhibit a dependency on the other cell type for their proper development; however, the mechanisms that underlie the functional relationship between macrophages and Leydig cells are unclear. Beyond the testis, in certain instances immune cells themselves, such as certain types of lymphocytes, are capable of steroid hormone production, thus highlighting the complexity and diversity that underlie steroidogenesis. In this review we will describe how immune cells are critical regulators of steroidogenesis in the testis and in extra-glandular locations, as well as discuss how this area of research offers opportunities to uncover new insights into steroid hormone production.

A Novel Role of Dapagliflozin in Mitigation of Acetic Acid-Induced Ulcerative Colitis by Modulation of Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein 1 (MCP-1)/Nuclear Factor-Kappa B (NF-κB)/Interleukin-18 (IL-18)

Colon illnesses, particularly ulcerative colitis, are considered a major cause of death in both men and women around the world. The present study investigated the underlying molecular mechanisms for the potential anti-inflammatory effect of Dapagliflozin (DAPA) against ulcerative colitis (UC) induced by intracolonic instillation of 3% v/v acetic acid (AA). DAPA was administered to rats (1 mg/kg, orally) for two weeks during the treatment regimen. Interestingly, compared to the normal group, a marked increase in the index of colon/body weight, colon weight/colon length ratio, serum lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and C-reactive protein (CRP), besides decrease in the serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC), were reported in the AA control group (p ˂ 0.05). Elevation in colon monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP1), Interleukin 18 (IL-18), and inflammasome contents were also reported in the AA control group in comparison with the normal group. In addition, colon-specimen immunohistochemical staining revealed increased expression of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) and Caspase-3 with histopathological changes. Moreover, DAPA significantly (p ˂ 0.05) reduced the colon/body weight index, colon weight/colon length ratio, clinical evaluation, and macroscopic scoring of UC, and preserved the histopathological architecture of tissues. The inflammatory biomarkers, including colon MCP1, IL-18, inflammasome, Caspase-3, and NF-κB, were suppressed following DAPA treatment and oxidants/antioxidants hemostasis was also restored. Collectively, the present data demonstrate that DAPA represents an attractive approach to ameliorating ulcerative colitis through inhibiting MCP1/NF-κB/IL-18 pathways, thus preserving colon function. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties of DAPA are implicated in its observed therapeutic benefits.

The Effect of Testosterone on Cardiovascular Disease and Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Men: A Review of Clinical and Preclinical Data

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. The effects of testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, on cardiovascular risk have been of special interest due to the increased risk of CVD in men. Although it is well established that testosterone levels decline and cardiovascular mortality increases with age, the association between testosterone and CVD remains unclear. Observational and randomized studies on the effects of endogenous and exogenous testosterone have produced conflicting data, and meta-analyses have been inconclusive, suggesting significant study heterogeneity. Despite a lack of adequately powered randomized controlled trials, large observational studies in the early 2010s led to advisories on the use of testosterone replacement therapy. Similar advisories have been mandated for certain types of androgen deprivation therapy. Additional research suggests that testosterone shortens the heart-rate-corrected QT interval, improves glycemic control, induces vasodilation, is prothrombotic, and has anti-obesity effects, whereas associations with atherosclerosis and inflammation are less clear. Despite inconclusive evidence on cardiovascular risk and inconsistencies among clinical practice guidelines, millions of men continue to use testosterone replacement and androgen deprivation therapy. In addition to summarizing clinical and preclinical data, this review provides insight on potential mechanisms of action of testosterone on CVD, applications of this knowledge to clinical settings, and avenues for future research.

Attractin Participates in Schizophrenia by Affecting Testosterone Levels

Attractin (ATRN) is a widely expressed glycoprotein that is involved in energy homeostasis, neurodevelopment, and immune response. It is encoded by a gene spanning 180 kb on chromosome 20p13, a region previously implicated in schizophrenia by linkage studies. To address a possible role of ATRN in disorders of the central nervous system, we created an atrn knockout zebrafish line and performed behavioral tests. Adult atrn^–/– zebrafish exhibited more pronounced attack behavior relative to wild-type control zebrafish in a tracking analysis. Biochemical analysis revealed elevated testosterone levels in atrn^–/– zebrafish. At the gene expression level, we noted an upregulation of cyp51 and hsd17b7, key proteins in testosterone synthesis in the brains of both adult and larvae of atrn^–/– zebrafish. In order to further elucidate the relationship between testosterone and behavioral syndromes, we then compared testosterone levels of 9,008 psychiatric patients and 247 healthy controls from the same catchment area. Of all subjects examined, male subjects with schizophrenia exhibited lower testosterone levels compared with controls. In contrast, female subjects with a diagnosis of schizophrenia or bipolar disorder featured higher testosterone levels than did same sex controls. Purposeful sampling of extreme groups showed reduced ATRN expression in a subset of these subjects. Finally, we identified 14 subjects with ATRN mutations. All of whom displayed abnormal testosterone levels. In summary, the interplay of ATRN and testosterone may help to explain sexual dimorphisms in selected behavioral phenotypes.

Understanding the cross-talk between mediators of infertility and COVID-19

COVID-19 is the ongoing health emergency affecting individuals of all ages around the globe. Initially, the infection was reported to affect pulmonary structures. However, recent studies have delineated the impacts of COVID-19 on the reproductive system of both men and women. Hence, the present review aims to shed light on the distribution of SARS-CoV-2 entry factors in various reproductive organs. In addition, impacts of COVID-19 mediators like disrupted renin angiotensin system, oxidative stress, cytokine storm, fever, and the mental stress on reproductive physiology have also been discussed. For the present study, various keywords were used to search literature on PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar databases. Articles were screened for relevancy and were studied in detail for qualitative synthesis of the review. Through our literature review, we found a multitude of effects of COVID-19 mediators on reproductive systems. Studies reported expression of receptors like ACE-2, TMPRSS2, and CD147 in the testes, epididymis, prostrate, seminal vesicles, and ovarian follicles. These proteins are known to serve as major SARS-CoV-2 entry factors. The expression of lysosomal cathepsins (CTSB/CTSL) and/ neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) are also evident in the testes, epididymis, seminal vesicles, fallopian tube, cervix, and endometrium. The binding of viral spike protein with ACE-2 was found to alter the renin-angiotensin cascade, which could invite additional infertility problems. Furthermore, COVID-19 mediated cytokine storm, oxidative stress, and elevated body temperature could be detrimental to gametogenesis, steroidogenesis, and reproductive cycles in patients. Finally, social isolation, confinement, and job insecurities have fueled mental stress and frustration that might promote glucocorticoid-mediated subnormal sperm quality in men and higher risk of miscarriage in women. Hence, the influence of COVID-19 on the alteration of reproductive health and fertility is quite apparent.

Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb 761) mitigates methotrexate-induced testicular insult in rats: Targeting oxidative stress, energy deficit and spermatogenesis

Methotrexate (MTX) is commonly used as a therapeutic agent in the treatment of malignancies and autoimmune disorders. Risk of subsequent infertility following MTX administration has been reported as a significant side effect due to testicular toxicity. The aim of the study was to evaluate the modulatory effects of Ginkgo biloba (standardized extract, EGb 761) on MTX-induced testicular oxidative stress, energy deficits and spermatogenic status in rats. All groups received intraperitoneal injection of MTX (0.5 mg/kg) twice weekly for four weeks except the control group that received the corresponding vehicles. Other groups received oral EGb761, at doses 25, 50 or 100 mg/kg/day, for four weeks, concurrently with MTX. Blood and semen sampling followed by testis dissection were performed 24 h after last EGb 761 treatment. Semen was examined for sperm progressive motility, percent of normal spermatozoa and sperm cell concentration as well as seminal plasma essential and non-essential amino acids. Serum LH, FSH and testosterone were detected as well as testicular MDA, GSH, GSSG, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, NF-κB and the nuclear, cytoplasmic and mRNA expression levels of Nrf-2 besides the testicular cell energy; AMP, ADP and ATP. Histopathological studies of interstitial fibrosis and the severity of germ cell degeneration were also conducted. MTX induced significant decline in sperm quality along with decreased essential and non-essential amino acids in seminal plasma. MTX reduced serum FSH, LH and testosterone as well as testicular ATP, GSH and Nrf2, while increased levels of testicular ADP, AMP, MDA, GSSG and TNF-α. Results were confirmed by prominent interstitial fibrosis and severe germ cell degeneration in MTX group. Concurrent treatment with EGb 761 alleviated MTX-induced testicular insult evidenced by amelioration of oxidative stress biomarkers, energy functions, seminal sperms abnormalities and spermatogenesis status. The present study suggests a beneficial role of EGb 761 in MTX-induced testicular injury and subsequent distortion of spermatogenesis.

Manipulation of Dietary Intake on Changes in Circulating Testosterone Concentrations

Elevations in the circulating concentration of androgens are thought to have a positive effect on the anabolic processes leading to improved athletic performance. Anabolic-androgenic steroids have often been used by competitive athletes to augment this effect. Although there has been concerted effort on examining how manipulating training variables (e.g., intensity and volume of training) can influence the androgen response to exercise, there has been much less effort directed at understanding how changes in both macronutrient and micronutrient intake can impact the androgen response. Thus, the focus of this review is to examine the effect that manipulating energy and nutrient intake has on circulating concentrations of testosterone and what the potential mechanism is governing these changes.

Voluntary Exercise Attenuates Hyperhomocysteinemia, But Does not Protect Against Hyperhomocysteinemia-Induced Testicular and Epididymal Disturbances

The hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy) is toxic to the cells and associated with several diseases. Clinical studies have shown changes in plasma concentrations of Hcy after physical exercise. This study aimed to assess the effect of HHcy on testis, epididymis and sperm quality and to investigate whether voluntary exercise training protects this system against damage caused by HHcy in Swiss mice. In this study, 48 mice were randomly distributed in the control, HHcy, physical exercise, and HHcy combined with physical exercise groups. HHcy was induced by daily administration of dl-homocysteine thiolactone via gavage throughout the experimental period. Physical exercise was performed through voluntary running on the exercise wheels. The plasma concentrations of homocysteine (Hcy) and testosterone were determined. The testes and epididymis were used to assess the sperm count, histopathology, lipoperoxidation, cytokine levels, testicular cholesterol, myeloperoxidase, and catalase activity. Spermatozoa were analyzed for morphology, acrosome integrity, mitochondrial activity, and motility. In the testes, HHcy increased the number of abnormal seminiferous tubules, reduced the tubular diameter and the height of the germinal epithelium. In the epididymis, there was tissue remodeling in the head region. Ultimately, voluntary physical exercise training reduced plasma Hcy concentration but did not attenuate HHcy-induced testicular and epididymal disturbances.

Development of a putative adverse outcome pathway network for male rat reproductive tract abnormalities with specific considerations for the androgen sensitive window of development

Structured approaches like the adverse outcome pathway (AOP) framework offer great potential for depicting complex toxicological processes in a manner that can facilitate informed integration of mechanistic information in regulatory decisions. While this concept provides a structure for organizing evidence and facilitates consistency in evidence integration; the process, inputs, and manner in which AOPs and AOP networks are developed is still evolving. Following the OECD guiding principles of AOP development, we propose three AOPs for male reproductive tract abnormalities and derive a putative AOP network. The AOPs were developed using a fundamental understanding of the developmental biology of the organs of interest, paying close attention to the gestational timing of key events (KEs) to very specifically inform the domain of life stage applicability for the key event relationships (KERs). Chemical stressor data primarily from studies on low molecular weight phthalates (LMWPs) served to 'bound' the pathways of focus in this dynamic period of development and were integrated with the developmental biology data through an iterative process to define KEs and conclude on the extent of evidence in support of the KERs. The AOPs developed describe the linkage between 1) a decrease in Insl3 gene expression and cryptorchidism, 2) the sustained expression of Coup-tfII and hypospadias and 3) the sustained expression of Coup-tfII and altered Wolffian duct development/ epididymal agenesis. A putative AOP network linking AOP2 and AOP3 through decreased steroidogenic biosynthetic protein expression and converging of all AOPS at the population level impaired fertility adverse outcome is proposed. The network depiction specifies and displays the KEs aligned with their occurrence in gestational time. The pathways and network described herein are intended to catalyze collaborative initiatives for expansion into a larger network to enable effective data collection and inform alternative approaches for identifying stressors impacting this sensitive period of male reproductive tract development.

Mangiferin mitigates di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate-induced testicular injury in rats by modulating oxidative stress-mediated signals, inflammatory cascades, apoptotic pathways, and steroidogenesis

Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an endocrine disruptor that causes reproductive defects in male animal models. This study was conducted to explore the plausible modulatory effects of mangiferin (MF) against DEHP-induced testicular injury in rats. Thirty-two adult male albino rats were allocated into four groups. Two groups were given DEHP (2 g/kg/day, p.o) for 14 days. One of these groups was treated with MF (20 mg/kg/day, i.p) for 7 days before and 14 days after DEHP administration. A vehicle-treated control was included, and another group of rats was given MF only. Results revealed that MF treatment suppressed oxidative testicular injury by amplifying the mRNA expression of nuclear factor-erythroid 2 related factor-2 (Nrf2) and increasing hemoxygenase-1 (HO-1), glutathione, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels. This treatment also enhanced superoxide dismutase activity, but it decreased malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels. MF had an anti-inflammatory characteristic, as demonstrated by the downregulation of the mRNA of the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). The content of tumor necrosis factor-alpha also decreased. MF modulated the apoptotic pathway by suppressing the mRNA of cytochrome c (Cyt c), Fas ligand content, Bax IHC expression, caspase-3 activity and cleaved caspase-3 IHC expression. It also upregulated the expression levels of heat-shock protein 70 (HSP70) and B-cell lymphoma 2. Moreover, MF upregulated the mRNA expression levels of HSP70 and c-kit and enriched the content of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein, which were reflected in serum testosterone levels. This result indicated that MF played crucial roles in steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. Besides, the activities of testicular marker enzymes, namely, acid and alkaline phosphatases, and lactate dehydrogenase, significantly increased. Histopathological observations provided evidence supporting the biochemical and molecular measurements. In conclusion, MF provided protective mechanisms against the DEHP-mediated deterioration of testicular functions partially through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties. It also involved the restoration of steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis through the modulation of Nrf2/HO-1, NF-κB/Cyt c/HSP70, and c-Kit signaling cascades.

Chlorella vulgaris or Spirulina platensis mitigate lead acetate-induced testicular oxidative stress and apoptosis with regard to androgen receptor expression in rats

The current research was constructed to throw the light on the protective possibility of Chlorella vulgaris (C. vulgaris) and Spirulina platensis (S. platensis) against lead acetate-promoted testicular dysfunction in male rats. Forty rats were classified into four groups: (i) control, (ii) rats received lead acetate (30 mg/kg bw), (iii) rats concomitantly received lead acetate and C. vulgaris (300 mg/kg bw), (vi) rats were simultaneously treated with lead acetate and S. platensis (300 mg/kg bw) via oral gavage for 8 weeks. Lead acetate promoted testicular injury as expressed with fall in reproductive organ weights and gonadosomatic index (GSI). Lead acetate disrupted spermatogenesis as indicated by sperm cell count reduction and increased sperm malformation percentage. Lead acetate-deteriorated steroidogenesis is evoked by minimized serum testosterone along with maximized follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) levels. Testicular oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic cascades are revealed by elevated acid phosphatase (ACP) and sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH) serum leakage, declined testicular total antioxidative capacity (TAC) with elevated total oxidative capacity (TOC), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), caspase-3 levels, lessened androgen receptor (AR) expression, and histopathological lesions against control. Our research highlights that C. vulgaris or S. platensis therapy can modulate lead acetate-promoted testicular dysfunction via their antioxidant activity as expressed by elevated TAC and reduced TOC, immunomodulatory effect as indicated by lessened TNF-α level, and anti-apoptotic potential that was revealed by minimized caspase-3 levels. As well as restoration of testicular histoarchitecture, androgen receptor, steroidogenesis, and spermatogenesis were detected with better impacts to S. platensis comparing with C. vulgaris. Therefore, further clinical trials are needed to test S. platensis and C. vulgaris as a promising candidate in treating male infertility.

Nuclear receptor Nur77: its role in chronic inflammatory diseases

Nur77 is a nuclear receptor that has been implicated as a regulator of inflammatory disease. The expression of Nur77 increases upon stimulation of immune cells and is differentially expressed in chronically inflamed organs in human and experimental models. Furthermore, in a variety of animal models dedicated to study inflammatory diseases, changes in Nur77 expression alter disease outcome. The available studies comprise a wealth of information on the function of Nur77 in diverse cell types and tissues. Negative cross-talk of Nur77 with the NFκB signaling complex is an example of Nur77 effector function. An alternative mechanism of action has been established, involving Nur77-mediated modulation of metabolism in macrophages as well as in T cells. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge on the role of Nur77 in atherosclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and sepsis. Detailed insight in the control of inflammatory responses will be essential in order to advance Nur77-targeted therapeutic interventions in inflammatory disease.

Lactational polychlorinated biphenyls exposure induces epigenetic alterations in the Leydig cells of progeny rats

The present study was designed to establish the epigenetic mechanisms by which lactational exposure to PCBs affects the Leydig cell function in progeny rats. The lactating dams were oral gavaged with different doses of PCBs [1, 2 and 5 mg/kg or corn oil ] and Leydig cells were isolated from the testes of progeny rats at postnatal day (PND) 60. We assessed the expression of transcription factors regulating steroidogenic machinery and the promoter methylation of LHR and AR in the Leydig cells. Our results confirmed hypermethylation of SF-1, Sp1/3, LHR and AR genes. There was a significant reduction in the gene expression of SF-1 and Sp1. The mRNA expression of Sp3 was decreased. Interestingly, there was an increased gene expression levels of DNA methyltransferases (Dnmts) (Dnmt1, Dnmt3a/b and Dnmt3l) and unaltered histone deacetylase-1 (Hdac-1). Furthermore, increased percentage of 5-methylcytosine was observed in PCBs exposed Leydig cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that promoter hypermethylation of SF-1, Sp1/3, LHR and AR could have led to transcriptional repression of these genes in Leydig cells. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that lactational exposure to PCBs caused epigenetic changes in the Leydig cells which could have impaired the Leydig cell function in progeny (PND60) rats.

Melatonin Alleviated Potassium Dichromate-Induced Oxidative Stress and Reprotoxicity in Male Rats

Melatonin (ML) is a potent antioxidant that reduces oxidative stress. This study was designed to examine the protective effect of melatonin on potassium dichromate- (PDC-) induced male reproductive toxicity. Forty rats were divided into five groups: the control group, rats administered PDC orally (10 mg/kg body weight) for eight weeks, rats administered ML intraperitoneally at doses of either 2.5 or 5 mg/kg followed by the administration of PDC, and rats administered 5 mg/kg ML only. The treatment of rats with PDC led to a decrease in the levels of plasma sex hormones, glutathione, superoxide dismutase, catalase, carnitine, sperm count, and motility. Testicular malondialdehyde levels, nitric oxide concentrations, and abnormalities increased significantly in the PDC group. Melatonin administration to the PDC-treated rats reduced the increase of malondialdehyde and restored the activity of antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and catalase), glutathione, and sex hormone levels. Moreover, ML attenuated PDC-induced increase in levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha or interleukin-6. ML alleviated histopathological changes and an increase of p53-positive immune reaction due to PDC. Furthermore, ML inhibited PDC-induced decrease in the DNA content of spermatogenic cells. This study proposed that melatonin may be useful in mitigating oxidative stress-induced testicular damage due to potassium dichromate toxicity.

Effects of increasing intake of soybean oil on synthesis of testosterone in Leydig cells

Background

Soybean oil is a very common edible oil in daily life. With the changes in the dietary composition, the intake of soybean oil increased. However, the effects of dietary intake of soybean oil on testosterone production are still unclear.

Methods

In order to study the effects of increasing intake of soybean oil on the synthesis of testosterone in Leydig cells, we fed male C57BL/6 mice on the diet which added 20% soybean salad oil (SOY group). We detected the hormone levels by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits and serum fatty acid composition by gas chromatography, and analyzed the expression of steroidogenic enzymes by Real-Time PCR or immunoblotting analysis.

Results

After the 16-week feeding period, serum linoleic acid (LA) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) significantly increased and serum palmitic acid (PA) significantly decreased in SOY group mice. Compared to the normal diet (ND group), increasing intake of soybean oil raised the luteinizing hormone (LH) levels and up-regulated luteinizing hormone/chorionic gonadotropin receptor (LHCGR), steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and cytochrome P450 family 11 subfamily A member I (CYP11A1). Testosterone levels in SOY group were higher than that in the ND group, and significantly difference showed.

Conclusions

Increasing intake of soybean oil could raise the serum LA and ALA levels and decrease serum PA levels. This could activate the LH/LHCGR pathway and improve the function of steroid synthesis in Leydig cells, and finally lead to the elevated testosterone levels.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12986-021-00580-1.

Melatonin Ameliorates LPS-Induced Testicular Nitro-oxidative Stress (iNOS/TNFα) and Inflammation (NF-kB/COX-2) via Modulation of SIRT-1

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) - an endotoxin that is being extensively used in laboratory to mimic microbial infection that adversely affects male fertility. This study investigated the protective effects of melatonin on LPS-induced testicular nitro-oxidative stress, inflammation, and associated damages in the testes of male golden hamsters, Mesocricetus auratus. Hamsters were administered with melatonin and LPS for 7 days. Testes of LPS treated hamsters showed degenerative changes (appearance of vacuoles, exfoliation, and depletion of germ cells in the seminiferous tubules), adverse effects on spermatogenesis (sperm count and viability), and steroidogenesis (declined serum and testicular testosterone). Furthermore, LPS treatment decreased melatonin content, melatonin receptor (MT1), and antioxidant potential (catalase and SOD), and simultaneously increased nitro-oxidative stress (CRP, nitrate, TNFα). LPS upregulated NF-kB, COX-2, and iNOS expressions to increase testicular inflammatory load that resulted in the decrease of germ cell proliferation and survival, thus culminating into germ cell apoptosis as indicated by AO-EB staining and caspase-3 expression. Administration of melatonin with LPS showed improved testicular histoarchitecture, sperm parameters, and testosterone level. Melatonin increased testicular antioxidant status (SOD, catalase) to counteract the LPS-induced testicular ROS and thus reduced testicular nitro-oxidative stress. Furthermore, melatonin treatment upregulated testicular SIRT-1 expression to inhibit LPS-induced inflammatory proteins, i.e., NF-kB/COX-2/iNOS expression. The rescue effect of melatonin was further supported by increased germ cell survival (Bcl-2), proliferation (PCNA), and declined apoptosis (caspase-3). In conclusion, our result demonstrated that melatonin rescued testes from LPS-induced testicular nitro-oxidative stress, inflammation, and associated damages by upregulation of SIRT-1.

Relationship of Vitamin D status with testosterone levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Despite a biological plausibility of a direct link between low vitamin D and androgen deficiency, the association remains inconclusive in epidemiological studies. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis of case-control studies aim to assess whether and in what populations such an association can be demonstrated.

METHODS

A systematic search was performed in PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Web of science, Science Direct, and CINAHL. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) in total testosterone (TT) levels between men with 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) <20 and ≥20 ng/mL were combined using random-effects models. Funnel plot and trim-and-fill analysis were used to assess publication bias. Heterogeneity source was explored by a sub-group analysis according to health-related characteristics of the study populations.

RESULTS

Eighteen included studies collectively gave information on 9892 men with vitamin D deficiency and 10,675 controls. The pooled SMD revealed a slight, albeit just significant, positive association between 25(OH)D and TT (pooled SMD: -0.23, 95% CI: -0.45 to -0.01; P = 0.04) with a large between-study heterogeneity (I² = 98%, P_{for heterogeneity} < 0.00001). At the sub-group analysis, a significant positive association, along with noticeable decrease in heterogeneity, could only be demonstrated in studies of patients with frailty states (pooled SMD: -0.19; 95% CI: -0.27, -0.10,  P < 0.0001; I² = 51%, P_{for heterogeneity} = 0.06). A sensitivity analysis revealed a high stability of the result and the trim-and-fill adjustment for publication bias did not affect pooled estimate.

CONCLUSIONS

Both hypovitaminosis D and androgen deficiency should be regarded as markers of a poor health status, sharing common underlying aetiologies and risk factors.

Adiponectin/AdipoRs signaling as a key player in testicular aging and associated metabolic disorders

Aging undergoes serious worsening of peripheral organs and vital physiological processes including reproductive performances. Altered white adipose tissue and adipocyte functioning during aging results in ectopic lipid storage/obesity or metabolic derangements, leading to insulin resistance state. Eventually, accelerating cellular senescence thereby enhancing the high risk of age-associated metabolic alterations. Such alterations may cause derangement of numerous physiologically active obesity hormones, known as "adipokines." Specifically, adiponectin exhibits insulin sensitizing action causing anti-aging and anti-obesity effects via activation of adiponectin receptors (AdipoRs). The male reproductive physiology from reproductive mature stage to advanced senescent stage undergoes insidious detrimental changes. The mechanisms by which testicular functions decline with aging remain largely speculative. Adiponectin has also recently been shown to regulate metabolism and longevity signaling thus prolonging lifespan. Therefore, the strategy for activating adiponectin/AdipoRs signaling pathways are expected to provide a solid basis for the prevention and treatment of aging and obesity-associated reproductive dysfunctions, as well as for ensuring healthy reproductive longevity in humans.

Evaluation of maternal high-fat diet and Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside treatment on the reproductive profile of diet naïve male offspring

BACKGROUND

Male infertility and reproductive dysfunctions have become major global health problems. Although several causative factors have been attributed to this challenge, of importance are alterations in maternal-foetal environment, diet-induced transcriptional changes and dysregulation in chemical signaling via hypothalamic-gonadal axis.

AIM

The present study investigated the impact of maternal high-fat diet (HFD) consumption and the putative role of Quercetin-3-O-rutinoside on reproductive functions of male offspring rats at critical developmental stages with a quest to unravel the underpinned molecular changes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fifty-six pregnant rats (previously fed normal diet ND) or 45% HFD) were maintained on supplemented chow (150 mg/kg QR) - ND/QR, HFD/QR throughout gestation. Subsequently, dams (n = 7) and offspring (n = 6) were sacrificed at post-natal day (PND) 21, 28 and 35, respectively, and the blood, placenta, hypothalamus (HT), and testicular samples were processed for molecular analysis of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), Luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone, chemerin, chemokine-like receptor 1 (CMKLR1), tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB).

KEY FINDINGS

We observed a significant decrease in GnRH level in the HFD group at PND21 and PND28 in male offspring and treatment with QR significantly reduced GnRH. There was a significant reduction in LH levels in the HFD group at PND 21 in the male offspring accompanied by a significant decrease in testosterone level at PND 28 and PND35 which appears to be age dependent. In the HT, Chemerin and CMKLR1 was significantly upregulated in the HFD group at PND 21 and PND 35 respectively while CMKLR1 was significantly downregulated in the HFD group of the placenta and testis at PND 21. TNF-α, IL-1β and NF-κB were also expressed in the placenta, HT and testis at PND 21.

SIGNIFICANCE

Male fertility is affected by maternal HFD consumption while chemerin, CMKLR1 and TNF-α, may play a significant role in male steroidogenesis. Treatment with QR had little or no ameliorative effect on HFD induced alterations in male reproductive functions.

Chronic inflammation and the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-1 axis

Interactions between growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and the immune system are complex, bidirectional, but not fully explained. Current reviews based on numerous studies have indicated that chronic inflammation could suppress the GH/IGF-1 axis via several mechanisms such as relative GH and/or IGF-1 insufficiency, peripheral resistance to GH and/or IGF-1 resulting from down-regulation of GH and IGF-1 receptors, disruption in the GH/IGF-1 signalling pathways, dysregulation of IGF binding proteins (IGFBPs), reduced IGF bioavailability, and modified gene regulation due to changes in the microRNA system. It is well-known that relationships between the immune system and the GH/IGF-1 axis are mutual and GH as well as IGF-1 could modulate inflammatory response and the activity of systemic inflammation. Available data indicate that the GH/IGF-1 axis exerts both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects. Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumour necrosis factor-a (TNF-α), and interleukin-1b (IL-b) are some of the most significant factors, besides malnutrition, chronic stress, and prolonged use of glucocorticoids, which impair the activity of the GH/IGF-1 axis, and consequently lead to growth retardation in children suffering from childhood-onset chronic inflammatory diseases. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the impact of chronic inflammation on the GH/IGF-1 axis and growth processes during childhood and adolescence, based on a number of experimental and human studies.

Adverse effects of metabolic disorders in childhood on adult reproductive function and fertility in the male

Over the last 50 years, there has been a steady decline in fertility rates in humans, which has occurred in parallel with an increasing incidence of obesity and metabolic disorders. The potential impact of these disorders and plausible mechanisms by which they negatively influence male reproduction are only partly understood and published data are often controversial. Obesity is one of the most important health challenges worldwide and is becoming more prevalent in children and adolescents. Obesity, the metabolic syndrome and related co-morbidities can lead to impaired male reproductive function, including adverse effects on spermatogenesis and steroidogenesis as illustrated by reduced sperm number and quality, decreased testosterone levels and elevated inflammatory markers. The incidence of diabetes mellitus type I is also dramatically increasing and may negatively impact spermatogenesis and testicular function, resulting in decreased serum testosterone and epididymal weight. In this review, we summarize and discuss the effects of metabolic diseases that typically develop during childhood and adolescence on later reproductive function and fertility. While impact on reproductive health is likely observed in both sexes, we have chosen to focus on the male in the current review. Specifically, we illustrate adverse effects of obesity, type 1 diabetes, the metabolic syndrome and insulin resistance on sperm function and testosterone metabolism. Identification of pathophysiological mechanisms during childhood may open up new avenues for early prevention and treatment resulting in better reproductive outcomes and improved fertility rates during adulthood.

Growth, puberty, and bone health in children and adolescents with inflammatory bowel disease

BACKGROUND

Endocrine complications such as impaired growth, delayed puberty, and low bone mineral density (BMD) can be associated with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in children and adolescents. This study was performed to investigate the frequency, characteristics, and outcomes of endocrine complications of IBD in children and adolescents.

METHODS

This study included 127 patients with IBD diagnosed before 18 years of age [117 with Crohn disease (CD) and 10 with ulcerative colitis (UC)]. Growth profiles, pubertal status, 25-hydroxyvitamin D₃ [25(OH)D₃] levels, and BMD were reviewed retrospectively.

RESULTS

Short stature was observed in 14 of 127 (11.0 %) with a mean height-SDS of -2.31 ± 0.72. During a 2-year follow-up period, height-SDS did not significantly improve, while weight-SDS significantly improved. Among 109 patients who were older than 13 (girls) or 14 (boys) years of age during the study period, 11 patients (10.1 %) showed delayed puberty, which was associated with low weight-SDS. Vitamin D deficiency was documented in 81.7 % (94/115) with the average 25(OH)D₃ level of 14.5 ± 7.0 ng/mL. Lumbar BMD Z-score was below - 2 SDS in 25 of 119 patients (21.0 %). Height-SDS, weight-SDS, and body mass index (BMI)-SDS were lower in patients with osteoporosis than those without osteoporosis. When pediatric CD activity index scores were high (≥ 30), weight-SDS, BMI-SDS, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-SDS, and testosterone levels were significantly decreased.

CONCLUSIONS

Vitamin D deficiency and osteoporosis are common in pediatric IBD patients. As disease severity deteriorates, weight-SDS, IGF-1-SDS, and testosterone levels were decreased. Optimal pubertal development is necessary for bone health.

TNF-α inhibits GDNF levels in Sertoli cells, through a NF-κB-dependent, HES1-dependent mechanism

BACKGROUND

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a soluble molecule crucial for the regulation of the spermatogonial stem cells (SSC) of the testis. The effects of GDNF on target cells have been extensively described, but mechanisms underlying GDNF regulation are currently under investigation. In the nervous system, GDNF expression is regulated by pro-inflammatory cytokines including lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) but the effect of these cytokines on GDNF expression in the testis is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to investigate the impact of TNF-α on GDNF expression levels using primary murine Sertoli cells as experimental model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The expression of TNF-α-regulated genes including Gdnf in different culture conditions was determined by real-time PCR. GDNF protein levels were determined by ELISA. The activation of the NF-κb pathway and HES1 levels were assessed by Western Blot analysis and immunofluorescence. HES1 expression was downregulated by RNAi.

RESULTS

In primary Sertoli cells, TNF-α downregulates GDNF levels through a nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)-dependent mechanism. Mechanistically, TNF-α induces the transcriptional repressor HES1 by a NF-Κb-dependent mechanism, which in turn downregulates GDNF.

DISCUSSION

Under physiological conditions, TNF-α is secreted by germ cells suggesting that this cytokine plays a role in the paracrine control of SSC niche by modulating GDNF levels. HES1, a well-known target of the Notch pathway, is implicated in the regulation of GDNF expression. In Sertoli cells, TNF-α and Notch signaling may converge at molecular level, to regulate the expression of HES1 and HES1- target genes, including GDNF.

CONCLUSIONS

Because of the importance of GDNF for spermatogonial stem cell self-renewal and proliferation, this data may give important insights on how cytokine signals in the testis modulate the expression of niche-derived factors.

Regulation of Human Spermatogenesis

Human spermatogenesis (HS) is an intricate network of sequential processes responsible for the production of the male gamete, the spermatozoon. These processes take place in the seminiferous tubules (ST) of the testis, which are small tubular structures considered the functional units of the testes. Each human testicle contains approximately 600-1200 STs [1], and are capable of producing up to 275 million spermatozoa per day [2].

FOXA3, a Negative Regulator of Nur77 Expression and Activity in Testicular Steroidogenesis

Biosynthesis of testosterone occurs mainly in the testicular Leydig cells. Nur77, an orphan nuclear receptor that is expressed in response to the luteinizing hormone/cyclic adenosine monophosphate (LH/cAMP) signaling pathway, is one of the key factors that regulate steroidogenesis in Leydig cells. The function of Nur77 is modulated through interaction with other proteins. FOXA3, a transcription factor that is crucial for male fertility, is also expressed in Leydig cells. Here, we sought to elucidate the role of FOXA3 in testicular steroidogenesis by focusing on its interaction with Nur77. LH/cAMP signaling induces the onset of steroidogenesis in Leydig cells but has a repressive effect on the expression of FOXA3. Overexpression of FOXA3 in MA-10 Leydig cells repressed cAMP-induced expression of Nur77 and its target steroidogenic genes (StAR, P450c17, and Hsd3β). Furthermore, FOXA3 suppressed Nur77 transactivation of the promoter of steroidogenic genes. In mouse primary Leydig cells, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of FOXA3 had similar effects and resulted in decreased production of testosterone. Taken together, these results suggest the role of FOXA3 in the regulation of steroidogenic genes in Leydig cells and fine-tuning steroidogenesis in the testis.

Jagged1 intracellular domain modulates steroidogenesis in testicular Leydig cells

Leydig cells represent the steroidogenic lineage of mammalian testis, which produces testosterone. Genetic evidence indicates the requirement of Notch signaling in maintaining a balance between differentiated Leydig cells and their progenitors during fetal development. In primary Leydig cells, Notch1 expression decreases with testicular development, while the expression of its ligand, Jagged1, remains relatively unchanged, suggesting that the roles of Jagged1 extend beyond Notch signaling. In addition, Jagged1 is known to be processed into its intracellular domain, which then translocate to the nucleus. In this study, we investigated the effect of Jagged1 intracellular domain (JICD) on steroidogenesis in Leydig cells. The independent overexpression of JICD in MA-10 Leydig cells was found to inhibit the activity of cAMP-induced Nur77 promoter. In addition, JICD suppressed Nur77 transactivation of the promoter of steroidogenic genes such as P450scc, P450c17, StAR, and 3β-HSD. Further, adenovirus-mediated overexpression of JICD in primary Leydig cells repressed the expression of steroidogenic genes, consequently lowering testosterone production. These results collectively suggest that steroidogenesis in testicular Leydig cells, which is regulated by LH/cAMP signaling, is fine-tuned by Jagged1 during testis development.

A new compound targets the AF-1 of androgen receptor and decreases its activity and protein levels in prostate cancer cells

Increased expression levels of constitutively active androgen receptor splice variants (AR-Vs) cause alterations in AR signaling, resulting in drug resistance and failed hormone therapy among patients with advanced prostate cancers. Several available compounds targeting the androgen axis and AR signaling have not demonstrated efficacy in preventing prostate cancer recurrence. Here, we investigated whether a new agent, 6-[6-ethoxy-5-ispropoxy-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2[1H)-yl]-N-[6-methylpyridin-2-yl]nicotinamide (EIQPN), has the potential for treating advanced prostate cancer. EIQPN interacted with the AR-activation fragment-1 (AF-1) domain and blocked its androgen-independent activity, robustly decreased the protein levels of AR and variants in prostate cancer cells by inducing AR protein degradation, and inhibited the androgen-independent proliferation of various AR-positive prostate cancer cells. In xenograft mouse models, EIQPN blocked the tumor growth of androgen-independent prostate cancer cells. Overall, these findings indicate that EIQPN could serve as a novel therapeutic agent for advanced recurrent prostate cancers.