Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC) consensus definitions for immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated immune-related adverse events (irAEs) terminology

Autoimmune-related adverse events induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors

Targeted immunotherapies, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), have transformed cancer treatment by significantly improving patient response and survival rates. However, ICIs could disrupt self-tolerance, inducing the development of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Most irAEs are classified as autoimmune conditions mediated by ICI-activated CD8+ cytotoxic T cells or activated B cells producing pathogenic autoantibodies. These irAEs phenotypically resemble spontaneous autoimmune disease and lead to considerable morbidity, health care costs, and compromised treatment efficacy. With the widespread use and new emergence of ICIs, the spectrum of ICI-induced irAEs has become increasingly extensive and complex. Concurrently, research in this field is advancing rapidly, a review summarizing the latest progress on irAEs is timely and essential. In this review, we highlight numerous recent research advances, covering the epidemiology, immune mechanisms, and diverse manifestations of irAEs, with a particular focus on organ-specific autoimmunity. We also discuss current strategies, challenges, and future directions for the prevention and therapeutic management of these adverse events.

What Is the Impact of Novel Systemic Anticancer Therapy on Acute Oncology Education and Service Delivery?

OBJECTIVES

To discuss the importance of educating healthcare professionals about oncological emergencies linked to novel systemic anticancer therapy (SACT) and the impact on acute oncology (AO) services.

METHODS

This discussion is based on clinical expertise and informed by current literature.

RESULTS

Novel SACT, such as immune-checkpoint inhibitors, have more complex toxicity profiles and can be challenging to recognize and treat. An increasing prevalence of toxicity is expected as new drugs are developed and the numbers of patients living with and beyond cancer expand; more data are required to capture the full extent of this. There are knowledge gaps within the healthcare workforce, particularly outside oncology-specialist settings. Focused research in this area will provide direction for targeted educational interventions.

CONCLUSIONS

Insufficient SACT education is a safety issue; severe toxicities can be fatal but initial symptoms can be subtle and may be missed. We argue that emergency care pathways can help to streamline the appropriate management of patients with SACT toxicity, but awareness of AO issues remains "everyone's business." Continuing clinical education is key to maintaining awareness of newly developed SACT. AO service models may vary, but AO competence assessment passports can provide a standardized method of evidencing AO knowledge and skills.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

Oncology nurses, as a highly specialized and knowledgeable part of the healthcare workforce, are key in supporting interprofessional education. By using existing cancer nursing frameworks, this can support the implementation of the AO Passports. The learning and development of AO services in the UK can be transferred internationally.

Higher levels of VEGF-A and TNFα in patients with immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced inflammatory arthritis

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI), a type of cancer immunotherapy, can cause side effects including inflammatory arthritis (ICI-IA). Previous studies of ICI-IA do not include a thorough characterization of associated immune responses to provide potential targets for treatment. We aimed to identify cytokines uniquely increased in ICI-IA and determine correlations with IA severity and persistence.

METHODS

We evaluated patients diagnosed with ICI-IA by a rheumatologist (n = 80); control serum was obtained from ICI-treated cancer patients without any diagnosed irAEs (n = 17) or diagnosed with an unrelated irAE (n = 19). Serum was assayed to quantify 9 cytokine levels (IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-1α, TNF-α, IL-17a, VEGF-A) using MSD U-PLEX assay. Mann-Whitney U tests were performed to evaluate differences in cytokine levels between control and ICI-IA groups. The Kruskal-Wallis test and multivariable ordinal logistic regression were used to determine difference in cytokine levels between patients of differing disease activity.

RESULTS

VEGF-A and TNFα were significantly elevated in patients with ICI-IA compared to ICI-controls; results persisted when restricting analyses to patients not treated with immunosuppressants at the time of sampling. ICI-IA patients were stratified by IA severity using CDAI score; there was significantly higher VEGF-A in those with higher disease activity. Ordinal logistic regression showed higher levels of IL-6 and VEGF-A were associated with higher disease activity.

CONCLUSION

Elevated levels of VEGF-A and TNFα are associated with ICI-IA. There was also higher IL-6 and VEGF-A among those with higher disease activity when controlling for confounding. These cytokines could be used as biomarkers of ICI-IA severity and present therapeutic targets.

Dual mRNA nanoparticles strategy for enhanced pancreatic cancer treatment and β-elemene combination therapy

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is notoriously immune-resistant, limiting the clinical efficacy of single-agent immune modulators and thereby necessitating the exploration of multimodal immunotherapy combinations. Traditional approaches combining conventional immune checkpoint inhibitors with neoantigen vaccines have shown some promise in treating PDAC but are often compromised by intratumoral T lymphocyte exhaustion and systemic toxicity. Hence, novel approaches are needed to address these challenges. Herein, we demonstrate that mRNA polymeric nanoparticles encoding anti-PD-1 antibodies in situ at the tumor site enhance the therapeutic efficacy of neoantigen-based mRNA vaccine for PDAC. This mRNA-based, in situ anti-PD-1 antibody production strategy also protects tumor-infiltrating T cells from PD-1 inhibition, potentially reducing the toxicities induced by systemic checkpoint inhibition. Our study may provide an innovative dual mRNA nanoparticle strategy for effective tumor neoantigen immunotherapy, as well as an mRNA cancer combination therapy strategy with other clinically approved drugs (e.g., β-elemene).

Hepatoblastoma: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Strategies

Hepatoblastoma (HB) is the most common malignant liver tumor in children under five years of age. Although globally rare, it accounts for a large proportion of liver cancer in children and has poor survival rates in high-risk and metastatic cases. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms, diagnostic methods, and therapeutic strategies of HB. Mutations in the CTNNB1 gene and the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway are essential genetic factors. Furthermore, genetic syndromes like Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) and Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) considerably heighten the risk of associated conditions. Additionally, epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and the influence of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), are pivotal drivers of tumor development. Diagnostics include serum biomarkers, immunohistochemistry (IHC), and imaging techniques. Standard treatments are chemotherapy, surgical resection, and liver transplantation (LT). Emerging therapies like immunotherapy and targeted treatments offer hope against chemotherapy resistance. Future research will prioritize personalized medicine, novel biomarkers, and molecular-targeted therapies to improve survival outcomes.

Late-Onset Immune-Related Adverse Events After Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy

Importance

The use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is increasing. Little is known about the frequency of late-onset immune-related adverse events (irAEs) and the patient-specific risk factors associated with their development.

Objectives

To assess the incidence of persistent or de novo late-onset irAEs requiring hospitalization and identify patient factors associated with risk of late-onset irAEs.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This retrospective observational cohort study conducted from January 2011 to October 2022 included patients who received ICIs and were hospitalized with irAEs at an academic medical center. Exclusion criteria included ICI therapy outside of the hospital system and no irAE diagnosis during admission. Data were analyzed from November 15, 2022, to January 8, 2025.

Exposure

Late-onset irAEs.

Main Outcomes and Measures

The main study outcomes were (1) incidence of irAE hospitalization at 0 to 6 months (early), more than 6 to 12 months (intermediate), and more than 12 months (late) after ICI initiation and (2) patient factors associated with risk of late-onset irAEs.

Results

Among the 795 patients hospitalized with irAEs, the median age was 67.3 years (IQR, 58.3-74.8 years); 476 (59.9%) were male. Most patients (n = 517 [65.0%]) received anti-programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) and anti-programmed cell death 1 monotherapy, with the most common indications being melanoma (n = 335 [42.1%]) and lung cancer (n = 167 [21.0%]). The median time from start of ICI therapy to hospital admission was 2.7 months (IQR, 1.2-6.1 months), with 14.7% of patients (n = 117 of 795) presenting 6 to 12 months after initial ICI exposure and 10.8% of patients (86 of 795) presenting more than 12 months after initial exposure. The irAEs most likely to present late included those involving the kidney (10 of 32 [31.3%]) and hematologic (5 of 23 [21.7%]) organ systems. In univariate analysis, ICI type was significantly associated with the timing of hospital admission for irAEs; of the 517 patients receiving anti-PD-L1-based therapy, 13.5% (n = 70) presented late compared with 5.4% (9 of 167) receiving dual therapy with anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (P < .001). Patients receiving perioperative ICI therapy were significantly more likely to be admitted at the intermediate interval (16 of 68 [23.5%]) compared with those with metastatic disease (87 of 678 [12.8%]) (P = .03). Timing of irAE was also significantly associated with active ICI exposure; among the patients presenting late, 7.4% (48 of 651) had received ICI therapy within the last 60 days compared with 26.4% (38 of 144) who had not had recent ICI exposure (P < .001).

Conclusions and Relevance

The findings of this retrospective observational cohort study suggest that late irAEs are possible, with a subset of patients presenting years after the start of ICI therapy. Clinicians must remain vigilant for irAEs regardless of elapsed time from ICI therapy, especially as patients live longer and ICIs become more widely used. Future investigations are needed to better understand the risk factors for late-onset irAEs and the distinct immunologic pathways that underlie such events.

Long-term immune related adverse events

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Long-term immune related adverse events (irAEs) are an increasing reality in cancer patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) but remain under-reported. With the number of ICI treated patients increasing, we here aimed to expose the current evidence on their clinical presentations and diagnosis criteria.

RECENT FINDINGS

First described in ICI validation trials, long term irAEs were further characterized through retrospective studies, providing clues on their frequency, clinical spectrum, risk factors and impact on patient's quality of life. Recent recommendations proposed consensual definitions to delineate their different subtypes, from delayed/late-onset irAE to chronic active and inactive irAE, paving the way to future prospective studies.

SUMMARY

Knowledge of the different long-term irAE subtypes risk and clinical presentation is required to increase their detection and diagnosis, to better weight therapeutic decisions and to improve cancer patient's care.

Clinical management of checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis: Focus, challenges, and future directions

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized the treatment landscape for various malignancies by demonstrating exceptional antitumor effects and significant improvement in patient survival. Despite their overt therapeutic advantages, ICIs also induce immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Of these, checkpoint inhibitor pneumonitis (CIP) represents a prominent manifestation of pulmonary toxicity following ICI therapy, with incidence rates ranging from 2.7 % to 20.0 %. Notably, a substantial proportion of CIP cases show severe manifestations, often leading to life-threatening complications, which emphasizes its clinical significance. Understanding the risk factors and potential pathogenetic mechanisms of CIP, combined with vigilant monitoring during immunotherapy, is pivotal for early detection and management of this condition. Proactive strategies for the timely identification, accurate diagnosis, and effective management of CIP are essential to optimize patient outcomes. However, several challenges persist in CIP management, including management of severe and refractory cases, determining the timing of ICI rechallenge after CIP, management of long-term chronic CIP, and mitigating secondary infections. In order to manage this potentially life-threatening irAE effectively, it is urgent to establish multi-disciplinary treatment (MDT) management, precision CIP management, and practical surveillance systems for CIP monitoring, diagnosis, and management and to call for prospective multi-center clinical trials.

Long-Term Toxicity of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors-Time to Widen the Lens

This Viewpoint discusses the need to quantify the long-term adverse effects of immune checkpoint inhibitors, particularly immune-related adverse effects, which are not universally dose dependent, limiting the value of conventional adverse event grading systems.

Efficacy of high-dose steroids versus low-dose steroids in the treatment of immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis: a case series and systematic review

Background

Immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis (ICI-M) is a rare yet potentially fatal complication of immunotherapy, with no standardized treatment protocol due to limited data. The use of varying steroid doses has resulted in inconsistent outcomes.

Methods

We retrospectively identified patients diagnosed with ICI-M at our institution between January 2020 and February 2024. Additionally, we conducted a comprehensive literature review using PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library to facilitate a comparative analysis of clinical responses. The primary aim was to compare clinical outcomes and therapeutic responses between patients treated with high-dose versus low-dose methylprednisolone.

Results

Patients receiving an initial high-dose intravenous methylprednisolone (1 g/day) exhibited a more rapid reduction in myocardial injury markers, including troponin I/T (cTnI/T), creatine kinase (CK), and N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP), compared to those receiving lower doses. This group also demonstrated lower incidences of biomarker rebound and maintained lower levels over time. Additionally, the clinical treatment process was more straightforward in the high-dose group, with treatment efficacy surpassing that observed in patients who received an initial methylprednisolone (mPSL) dose of less than 1 g/day. Regarding prognosis, the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) and cardiovascular mortality was significantly lower in the high-dose group compared to the low-dose group.

Conclusions

In patients with immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated myocarditis, the prompt administration of high-dose corticosteroid pulse therapy (1 g/day) is strongly associated with improved clinical outcomes. This intervention rapidly lowers myocardial injury biomarkers (cTnI/T, CK, NT-proBNP) while minimizing the risk of biomarker rebound, thus optimizing clinical management. Notably, it significantly reduces the incidence of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), thereby enhancing patient prognosis. The duration of therapy should be tailored based on clinical response. In cases of steroid resistance, combination therapies may provide additional benefit.

Case report: Multi-organ injuries induced by tislelizumab

The use of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) often develops immune-related adverse events (irAEs). However, irAEs-induced multi-organ injuries remain a rare event. We herein report a case of multi-organ injuries induced by tislelizumab in a lung squamous cell carcinoma (LUSC) patient. A 68-year-old man had undergone neoadjuvant chemotherapy with paclitaxel, carboplatin, and tislelizumab. He presented with a 1-month history of nausea and poor appetite after the second dose of therapy. During investigations, rhabdomyolysis, liver, kidney, and thyroid damage were detected. After multi-disciplinary consultation, multi-organ injuries related to ICIs (striated muscle, liver, kidney, and thyroid) were considered to result from cumulated irAEs induced by tislelizumab. The patient was treated with levothyroxine, methylprednisolone, intravenous immunoglobulins, and continuous renal replacement therapy. After treatment, the patient recovered and was discharged from the hospital. The patient presented with multiple organ damage, not single immunity treatment adverse reactions, relatively rare. In clinical work, irAEs are likely not a single-system organ disorder and many kinds of attention need to be combined with the risk of multi-system damage.

Effectiveness of ibrutinib in the management of chronic GVHD

OBJECTIVES

Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) represents a significant adverse event that may ensue following allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (Allo-HSCT). In patients resistant to corticosteroids, which is the first-line treatment for cGVHD, ibrutinib is being evaluated as a potential treatment option. In this study, we aimed to share the findings of our multicenter study regarding the outcomes of ibrutinib treatment in patients with corticosteroid-resistant cGVHD who had previously received multiple systemic therapies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted to examine the clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients who received ibrutinib treatment for corticosteroid-resistant cGVHD after Allo-HSCT.

RESULTS

A total of 24 patients diagnosed with cGVHD who received ibrutinib treatment were included in the study. The median age of the patients was 34.5 (20-67). The included patients were followed for a median of 6 (1-30) months. All patients had stem cells collected from the peripheral blood. Fifty percent of the patients had multiple organ involvement, while the other 50 % had single organ involvement. The most frequently affected organs were skin and liver. On average, patients received four (3-5) lines of systemic therapy before ibrutinib treatment. At week 24 of ibrutinib treatment, 10 patients (41.7 %) had a complete response, and 10 patients (41.7 %) had a partial response; at week 48, 8 patients (33.3 %) had a complete response, and 10 patients (41.7 %) had a partial response. The most common hematological side effect after ibrutinib treatment was thrombocytopenia in 5 out of 24 patients, while the most common non-hematological side effect was CMV infection in 6 out of 24 patients.

CONCLUSION

In patients with corticosteroid-resistant cGVHD, ibrutinib treatment has been demonstrated to be an efficacious option exhibiting an elevated overall response rate and a tolerable side effect profile.

Chronicity of Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor-Associated Inflammatory Arthritis After Immunotherapy Discontinuation: Results From the Canadian Research Group of Rheumatology in Immuno-Oncology Database

OBJECTIVE

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) improve overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) in many types of malignancies but can result in off-target immune-related adverse events including inflammatory arthritis (ICI-associated inflammatory arthritis [ICI-IA]), which can persist even after ICI cessation. We aimed to examine the proportion of patients with ICI-IA who develop chronic ICI-IA and describe characteristics and outcomes associated with chronic ICI-IA.

METHODS

We identified patients from the Canadian Research Group of Rheumatology in Immuno-Oncology retrospective cohort who developed de novo ICI-IA with at least three months of follow-up after ICI cessation. Chronic ICI-IA was defined as symptoms or ongoing immunosuppression lasting beyond three months after ICI discontinuation. Acute ICI-IA was defined as resolution of ICI-IA symptoms and discontinuation of immunosuppression within three months of ICI discontinuation. OS and PFS were assessed with Kaplan-Meier curves. Landmark multivariable Cox proportional hazard models for OS and PFS were conducted.

RESULTS

The study cohort included 119 patients. A total of 15 patients (13%) had acute ICI-IA, whereas 104 (87%) had chronic ICI-IA. Patients with chronic ICI-IA were more likely to be White and to have polyarthritis at presentation. After adjusting for age, sex, tumor type, stage of cancer, ICI-IA treatment, and time from ICI initiation to ICI-IA onset, patients with chronic ICI-IA had greater PFS from ICI initiation (adjusted hazard ratio 0.27, 95% confidence interval 0.08-0.98; P = 0.046). Adjusted hazard ratio for OS was similar between those with acute versus chronic ICI-IA.

CONCLUSION

ICI-IA frequently persists after ICI discontinuation. Chronic ICI-IA is associated with improved PFS, but not OS, as compared to acute ICI-IA.

[Long-term organ toxicity of oncological therapies]

Cancer treatments, although life prolonging, are associated with side effects. The occurrence, duration, and severity of side effects vary, depending on treatment received. Long-term effects refer to effects that manifest during treatment and persist long after treatment has ended. Late effects are complications that occur after treatment has ended. These effects can have a negative impact on the functioning and quality of life of persons living with and beyond cancer. This overview aims to provide a non-exhaustive overview of the long-term and late effects associated with the traditional mainstay of cancer treatments (surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy) and newer treatments such as immunotherapy. In conclusion, long-term and late effects of cancer treatment can be associated with a high burden for those affected, including a reduction in their ability to function and health-related quality of life. Given the large and further growing number of cancer survivors and the abundance of long-term and late effects, it is essential to develop and implement risk-adapted, multidisciplinary survivorship care programmes.

Cancer and treatment specific incidence rates of immune-related adverse events induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

Immune-related adverse events (irAE) induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) are a treatment-limiting barrier. There are few large-scale studies that estimate irAE prevalence. This paper presents a systematic review that reports the prevalence of irAE by cancer type and ICI.

METHODS

A systematic review was undertaken in MEDLINE OVID, EMBASE and Web of Science databases from 2017-2021. A total of 293 studies were identified for analysis and, of these, event rate was calculated for 272 studies, which involved 58,291 patients with irAE among 305,879 total patients on ICI. Event rate was calculated by irAE and ICI type.

RESULTS

Mean event rate for general irAE occurrence across any grade was 40.0% (37.3-42.7%) and high grade was 19.7% (15.8-23.7%). Mean event rates for six specific types of irAE are reported. Mean event rate for ICI monotherapy was 30.5% (28.1-32.9%), 45.7% (29.6-61.7%) for ICI combination therapy, and 30.0% (25.3-34.6%) for both ICI monotherapy and combination therapy.

CONCLUSION

This systematic review characterises irAE prevalence across current research that examines irAE risk factors across cancers and ICI. The findings confirms that irAE occurrence is very common in the real-world setting, both high grade and irAE across any grade.

Krebs von den Lungen-6 surveillance in immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced pneumonitis

BACKGROUND

The immune-related adverse event (irAE), pneumonitis, is a potentially fatal complication of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Preventing its progression is crucial, emphasizing the need for effective screening tests. We evaluated the feasibility of using Krebs von den Lungen-6 (KL-6), a marker for interstitial pneumonitis, as a screening tool for pneumonitis.

METHODS

We examined 500 patients with cancer divided into two groups: those with cancer other than non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) (Group 1, n=382) and those with NSCLC (Group 2, n=118). KL-6 levels were monitored before and during ICI treatment and analyzed for their correlation with pneumonitis.

RESULTS

In Group 1, 37 patients (9.7%) developed pneumonitis. KL-6 levels were significantly elevated at irAE onset (pre: 222.0 U/mL, post: 743.0 U/mL, p<0.0001). Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.903 (sensitivity 81.1%, specificity 91.6%) with a cut-off value 1.52 times pre-KL-6 levels, indicating that KL-6 is a reliable biomarker for pneumonitis. In these patients, the KL-6 level increased regardless of pneumonitis severity and was significantly elevated in patients with both symptomatic (pre: 205.0 U/mL, post: 674.5 U/mL, p<0.0001) and asymptomatic pneumonitis (pre: 314.0 U/mL, post: 743.0 U/mL, p<0.0001) at irAE onset. After irAE treatment, KL-6 levels in steroid-responsive patients remained unchanged; however, steroid-unresponsive patients had a significant increase in KL-6 levels at 1 month (1078 U/mL, p=0.031) compared with at irAE onset (678.0 U/mL). In Group 2, 24 patients (20.3%) developed irAE pneumonitis, with KL-6 levels elevated (pre: 360.5 U/mL, post: 506.5 U/mL, p=0.029) and an AUC of 0.683, indicating that KL-6 was less reliable in patients with NSCLC.

CONCLUSIONS

KL-6 is a viable screening biomarker in ICI-induced pneumonitis, particularly in patients without NSCLC. In patients with NSCLC, the significance of KL-6 monitoring is limited as it is not effective for detecting ICI-induced pneumonitis; their treatment is typically managed by pulmonary specialists. Early detection through KL-6 monitoring facilitates timely intervention for ICI-induced pneumonitis, potentially preventing treatment interruptions and reducing the need for immunosuppressants.

Immune-related adverse events correlate with the clinical efficacy in advanced Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer patients treated with PD-1 inhibitors combination therapy

OBJECTIVE

The potential of immune-related adverse events (irAEs) in predicting the efficacy of PD-1 inhibitors in advanced non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has rarely been assessed. This study investigated the associations between irAEs and the clinical efficacy of PD-1 inhibitors combination therapy in patients with advanced NSCLC.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted of 73 patients with advanced NSCLC receiving PD-1 inhibitors combination therapy from January 2022 and July 2023. Patients were divided into two cohorts: patients with irAEs and patients without irAEs. We conducted an analysis to investigate the impact of irAEs on these different clinical outcomes.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences observed in clinical characteristics between the two cohorts, except for smoking status (P = 0.011).The cohort with irAEs exhibited a higher objective response rate (ORR) and disease control rate (DCR) compared to the cohort without irAEs (ORR: 32.5% vs 12.1%, P = 0.040; DCR: 80.0% vs 48.5%, P = 0.010).Moreover, the median progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) were significantly better in the cohort with irAEs compared to the cohort without irAEs (PFS: 12.4 months vs 6.8 months, P = 0.009; OS: not reached vs 18.3 months, P = 0.024). Additionally, the multivariate COX regression analysis revealed that mild irAEs (PFS: HR = 0.386, 95% CI: 0.199-0.748, P = 0.005; OS: HR = 0.300, 95% CI: 0.105-0.855, P = 0.024) and single-system irAEs (PFS: HR = 0.401, 95% CI: 0.208-0.772, P = 0.006; OS: HR = 0.264, 95% CI: 0.090-0.776, P = 0.015) were identified as independent prognostic factors for both PFS and OS.

CONCLUSIONS

IrAEs, especially thyroid irAEs, as well as mild or single-system irAEs, may serve as predictors of improved efficacy in advanced NSCLC patients receiving PD-1 inhibitors combination therapy.

Delayed immune-related adverse events profile associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: a real-world analysis

Background

Immune-related adverse events (irAEs) typically occur within 3 months of initiating immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which has been extensively documented. But the clinical profiles of late-onset irAEs remain inadequately characterized. Therefore, this study aims to quantify the correlation between delayed irAEs and ICIs, and to delineate the profiles of delayed toxicities associated with ICIs using data from the Food and Drug Administration Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS).

Methods

Data from the January 2011 to December 2023 in FAERS database were extracted. Four signal detection indices, reporting odds ratio (ROR), proportional reporting ratio (PRR), Bayesian confidence propagation neural network (BCPNN) and multi-item gamma Poisson shrinker (MGPS), were employed to evaluate the associations between ICIs and delayed irAEs.

Results

A total of 147,854 cases were included in this study, of which 3,738 cases related to delayed irAEs were identified. Generally, 8 signals at System Organ Class (SOC) level were found to be associated with ICIs. Males had a slightly higher reporting frequencies for respiratory disorders (ROR975 = 0.95) and blood and lymphatic system disorders (ROR025 = 1.22), but lower reporting frequencies for immune system disorders (ROR025 = 1.16). Three monotherapy (anti-PD-1, anti-PD-L1 and anti-CTLA-4) were all associated with significant increasing gastrointestinal disorders (ROR025 = 1.66, 1.16, 1.99) and metabolism disorders (ROR025 = 2.26, 1.74, 3.13). Anti-PD-1 therapy exhibited higher rates of respiratory toxicities (ROR025 = 1.46 versus 0.82) and skin toxicities (ROR025 = 1.27 versus 0.94) compared with anti-CTLA-4 therapy. At PT levels, pneumonitis (ROR025: from 11.85 to 29.27) and colitis (ROR025: from 2.11 to 24.84) were the most notable PT signals associated with all three ICI regimens. For outcomes of delayed irAEs, gastrointestinal disorders showed the highest proportion (51.06%) of death.

Conclusion

Our pharmacovigilance analysis indicates that a small percentage of patients receiving ICIs therapy experience delayed irAEs, which are challenging to manage and may result in severe consequences. Prompt identification and intervention of these delayed irAEs are crucial in clinical practice.

Reporting of late-onset immune-related adverse events with immune checkpoint inhibitors in VigiBase

BACKGROUND

To date, evidence on late-onset immune-related adverse events (irAEs) with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is limited to a small number of clinical cases. This study aimed to identify drug- and patient-related characteristics potentially associated with the reporting of late-onset irAEs with ICIs in VigiBase, the WHO global database of individual case safety reports (ICSRs).

METHODS

Observational study comparing deduplicated ICSRs with ICIs reporting late-onset irAEs (occurred >90 days after ICI discontinuation) versus ICSRs with ICIs not reporting late-onset irAEs, collected in VigiBase from 2011 to December 31, 2022. Logistic regression was used to model the relationship between drug-related and patient-related characteristics of ICSRs and the reporting of late-onset irAEs. Significance was determined for variables with the lower bound of the 95% CI of the reporting OR (ROR) higher than 1 and a p value <0.05.

RESULTS

The study population consisted of 6006 ICSRs with ICI-related irAEs (4574, 76.2%, originated from Europe; 3900, 64.9%, involved males; median patient age was 67 years, IQR 59-74 years). Of these, 344 (5.7%) ICSRs reported a total of 388 late-onset irAEs, among which the most frequent were thyroiditis (n=45), pneumonitis (n=37), interstitial lung disease (n=25), hepatitis (n=23) and vitiligo (n=19). Median time to onset since ICI discontinuation was 167 days (IQR 115-294 days), with negligible proportion (3.2%) of co-reported antineoplastic agents during the discontinuation period. Logistic regression models showed disproportionate reporting of late-onset irAEs with ICI combination therapy (ROR 2.33, 95% CI 1.19 to 4.57), reporting of multiple irAEs (ROR 3.96, 95% CI 2.85 to 5.52), reporting of cutaneous irAEs (ROR 1.83, 95% CI 1.24 to 2.71), and melanoma (ROR 1.47, 95% CI 1.04 to 2.06).

CONCLUSIONS

This global pharmacovigilance study provides the largest case series of late-onset irAEs with ICIs to date and identifies characteristics of ICSRs associated with disproportionate reporting. Dedicated prospective observational studies focused on long-term sequelae, quality of life and survival of patients developing late-onset irAEs with ICIs should be planned to confirm whether these reporting characteristics are predictors of actual occurrence. Furthermore, translational research should be encouraged to clarify the molecular mechanisms underlying late-onset irAE development.

Phenotypic insights into genetic risk factors for immune-related adverse events in cancer immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

Immune-related adverse events (irAEs) pose substantial challenges in the realm of cancer immunotherapy, frequently affecting treatment efficacy and patient safety. To address the urgent need for identifying risk factors associated with irAEs, we conducted a comprehensive phenotype-wide Mendelian randomization analysis (MR-PheWAS).

METHODS

Utilizing publicly accessible genome-wide association study (GWAS) data, this investigation evaluated the impact of over 5000 exposure variables on susceptibility to irAEs using univariate Mendelian randomization (MR). We categorized these correlations and further explored potential mechanisms by which associated traits might influence irAEs through multivariate MR.

RESULTS

MR-PheWAS identified numerous risk factors for irAEs, encompassing both previously documented and novel associations. Specifically, we identified 105 traits with probable causal relationships to all-grade irAEs and 119 traits with suggestive associations. For high-grade irAEs, we categorized 122 traits as probably associated and 141 as suggestively associated. Notably, multivariate MR analyses uncovered intricate interactions, particularly highlighting how diabetes impacts all-grade irAEs through mediators such as body mass index and sex hormone-binding globulin.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has not only identified new risk factors for irAEs but also confirmed several well-established ones. Further investigation is crucial to validate and assess these identified risk factors within clinical trials. A mechanistic understanding of these causal factors is essential for improving the management and prevention of irAEs.

Clinical Course of Neurologic Adverse Events Associated With Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: Focus on Chronic Toxicities

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The clinical course and the risk of chronicity of neurologic immune-related adverse events (n-irAEs) associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are not well documented. This study aimed to characterize the clinical course of n-irAEs and assess the prevalence of chronic events.

METHODS

This nationwide, multicenter, retrospective study included patients with n-irAEs identified at 7 Italian hospitals. The clinical course of n-irAEs was categorized into fulminant (if resulted in death within 12 weeks), monophasic (if resolved within 12 weeks), and chronic (if persisted beyond 12 weeks). Chronic n-irAEs were further subdivided into active (if there was indirect evidence of ongoing inflammation [i.e., required ongoing immunosuppression, relapsed on steroid tapering, or exhibited neurologic progression]) and inactive (if patients had neurologic sequelae without ongoing inflammation). Comparisons between groups and time-to-death analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Sixty-six patients were included (median age: 69 years [IQR 62-75]; 53 [80%] men). n-irAEs involved the peripheral nervous system in 48 patients (73%), the central nervous system in 14 (21%), and both in 4 (6%). Twelve patients (18%) had a fulminant course, with the risk being significantly higher in those with concurrent myocarditis (OR 5.4; 95% CI [1.02-28.31]). Among 54 patients with a nonfulminant course, 23 (43%) had a monophasic n-irAE and 31 (57%) had a chronic n-irAE, of which 16 of 31 (52%) were chronic active (due to ongoing immunosuppression [69%], relapses at corticosteroid tapering [19%], or neurologic disease progression [12%]) and 15 of 31 (48%) were chronic inactive. In patients with chronic inactive n-irAEs, neurologic sequelae included cerebellar ataxia (33%), neuromuscular weakness (27%), visual loss (13%), sensory disturbances (13%), focal neurologic signs (7%), and cognitive impairment (7%). Compared with patients with monophasic events, those with chronic n-irAEs had a higher rate of severe neurologic disability at the last evaluation (p < 0.01), shorter survival (p < 0.01), and higher overall mortality (p < 0.01), primarily due to cancer progression.

DISCUSSION

More than half of the patients with n-irAEs who survived the acute phase developed a chronic condition. Patients with chronic n-irAEs were at higher risk of death, mainly due to cancer progression. Future studies are needed to further characterize chronic n-irAEs and identify optimal long-term management strategies.

Multiple Gastrointestinal Immune-Related Adverse Events From Immune Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy

INTRODUCTION

We aimed to describe immune-related adverse events (irAEs) affecting multiple organs of the gastrointestinal system in patients who received immune checkpoint inhibitors.

METHODS

Within a 2,843 patient retrospective cohort consisting of patients with cancer treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors, we used the Electronic Medical Record Search Engine, an information retrieval system, to search free text in the medical record to identify patients with multiple gastrointestinal irAEs.

RESULTS

Thirteen patients developed multiple gastrointestinal irAEs (0.46%). The most common patterns of multisystem gastrointestinal irAE were colitis + pancreatitis and colitis + enteritis.

DISCUSSION

Multisystem gastrointestinal irAEs are rare but warrant further characterization and attention.

Extracorporeal photopheresis vs. systemic immunosuppression for immune-related adverse events: Interim analysis of a prospective two-arm study

BACKGROUND

Checkpoint inhibitor-induced steroid-refractory (sr) and steroid-dependent (sd) immune-related adverse events (irAE) account for about 11 % of irAE. Although these patients face worse outcomes due to irAE mortality and/or sustained immunosuppression, which impairs anti-tumor response, there is no established second-line treatment based on prospective trial data.

METHODS

This prospective comparative study investigates outcomes of extracorporeal photopheresis (ECP), an immunomodulating therapy, versus second-line immunosuppressants (SLI) in sr/sd-irAE. The primary endpoint was longitudinal change in immunophenotype; secondary endpoints were outcome of irAE and tumor response. Patient demographics, quality of life (EORTC QLQ-C30; global health status (GHS/QoL)) and longitudinal blood samples were analyzed at baseline; in weeks 1, 4, 8, and 12.

RESULTS

At interim analysis, 21 patients (11 ECP, 10 SLI) with 7 different sr/sd-irAE were included. Compared with the SLI group, the ECP group demonstrated a higher clinical response rate of irAE (93 % vs. 80 %; 95 % CI 0.83-1.92; P = 0.54) and a better GHS/QoL score throughout all follow-up visits. ECP patients showed a numerically higher overall survival (23 vs. 12 months; 95 % CI 0.02-3.02; P = 0.27) and lower cancer progression rates (33 % vs. 67 %; 95 % CI 0.09-1.60; P = 0.52). Immunophenotyping revealed changes in immune cell populations and the regulation of immune checkpoints. There were no significant safety issues in either treatment group.

CONCLUSION

This prospective comparative study supports the clinical efficacy of ECP in the treatment of sr/sd-irAE in comparison to the SLI cohort. Thus, ECP represents a potential treatment option for this indication, given its good safety profile while maintaining anti-tumor response.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT05700565, https://classic.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov/ct2/show/NCT05700565.

Long-Term Clinical, Radiological, and Mortality Outcomes Following Pneumonitis in Nonsmall Cell Lung Cancer Patients Receiving Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors: A Retrospective Analysis

AIMS

Despite known short-term mortality risk of immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) pneumonitis, its impact on 1-year mortality, long-term pulmonary function, symptom persistence, and radiological resolution remains unclear.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed 71 nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with anti-PD(L)1 monoclonal antibodies between 2018-2021, who developed pneumonitis. Clinical and demographic covariates were collected from electronic medical record. Cox regression assessed associations with mortality, while logistic regression evaluated associations with persistent symptoms, hypoxemia, and radiological resolution.

RESULTS

Steroid-refractory pneumonitis (hazard ratio [HR] = 15.1, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]:3.9-57.8, P < .0001) was associated with higher 1-year mortality compared to steroid-responsive cases. However, steroid-resistant (odds ratio [OR] = 1.4, 95% CI: 0.4-5.1, P = .58) and steroid-dependent (OR = 0.4, 95% CI: 0.1-1.2, P = .08) pneumonitis were not. Nonadenocarcinoma histology (OR = 6.7, 95% CI: 1.6-46.6, P = .01), grade 3+ pneumonitis (OR = 4.6, 95% CI: 1.3-22.7, P = .03), and partial radiological resolution (OR = 6.3, 95% CI: 1.8-23.8, P = .004) were linked to increased pulmonary symptoms after pneumonitis resolution. Grade 3+ pneumonitis (OR = 8.1, 95% CI: 2.3-31.5, P = .001) and partial radiological resolution (OR = 5.45, 95% CI: 1.29-37.7, P = .03) associated with residual hypoxemia. Nonadenocarcinoma histology (OR = 3.6, 95% CI: 1.01-17.6, P = .06) and pretreatment ILAs (OR = 4.8, 95% CI: 1.14-33.09, P = .05) were associated with partial radiological resolution.

CONCLUSIONS

Steroid refractory pneumonitis increases 1-year mortality in NSCLC patients. Pretreatment ILAs may signal predisposition to fibrosis-related outcomes, seen as partial resolution, which in turn is associated with postresolution symptoms and residual hypoxemia. These findings offer insights for identifying patients at risk of adverse outcomes post-pneumonitis resolution.

Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors in the Pre-Transplant Hepatocellular Carcinoma Setting: A Glimpse Beyond the Liver

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer and the third leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Liver transplantation (LT) is the best therapy for most patients with non-metastatic HCC. In recent years, the management of patients with HCC has considerably changed, thanks to the improvement of molecular biology knowledge and the introduction of immunotherapy. To date, systemic therapy is authorized in the Western world only in patients with advanced HCC. However, this therapy could not only stabilize the tumour disease or improve survival but could display excellent response and lead to downstaging of the tumour that finally permits LT. There are increasing reports of patients that have performed LT after pretreatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). However, due to the intrinsic mechanism of ICIs, graft rejection might be favoured. In addition, chronic adverse effects affecting other organs may also appear after the end of therapy. This review aims to evaluate the readiness and outcomes of LT in patients with advanced HCC who have previously undergone treatment with ICIs. It seeks to identify the challenges, risks, and benefits associated with this conversion therapy. The integration of ICIs into the treatment paradigm for advanced HCC necessitates a nuanced approach to LT. While early evidence supports the feasibility of LT following ICIs therapy, there is an urgent need for standardized guidelines and more extensive longitudinal studies to optimize patient selection, timing, and post-transplant management.

Development of a prognostic nomogram for advanced non-small cell lung cancer using clinical characteristics

This retrospective study demonstrated that patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer who experienced any-grade or grade 1-2 immune-related adverse events (irAEs) with immune checkpoint inhibitor plus chemotherapy (ICI+Chemo) as first-line treatment regimen had significantly longer progression-free survival (PFS; p < 0.001) and overall survival (OS; p < 0.05) compared with patients without any irAE. Three variables were identified as predictors of favorable PFS and OS: absence of baseline brain metastasis (p < 0.05), receiving first-line ICI+Chemo (p < 0.01), and occurrence of any grade adverse events (p < 0.001). Using these three variables, two nomograms were generated to predict PFS and OS, which were validated using two independent cohorts treated with Chemo or ICI+Chemo (n = 161) or ICI monotherapy (n = 109). Patients with low scores in discovery and validation cohorts consistently had significantly longer PFS (p < 0.001) and OS (p < 0.05) than those with high scores. Our findings provide preliminary evidence of the clinical utility of a nomogram in prognosticating ICI-treated patients.

Toxicity profile of camrelizumab-based immunotherapy in older adults with advanced cancer

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have become an important cornerstone of many tumour treatments. However, the toxicity profile of immune-chemotherapy combination treatment approaches among older adult cancer patients is still unclear. Patients with any cancer who received camrelizumab-based immunotherapy were eligible for inclusion. The primary endpoints were adverse events (AEs) and immune-related adverse events (irAEs), which were defined based on Naranjo's algorithm. Patients were stratified by age (≥ 70 years and < 70 years), and comparisons were made based on the type of camrelizumab-based therapy (monotherapy, combined chemotherapy, or combined anti-VEGF therapy). A total of 185 patients were administered camrelizumab-based immunotherapy, 55 (30%) of whom were ≥ 70 years old. A total of 146 (78.9%) patients received camrelizumab-based combination treatment. The incidence of all-grade AEs was 56.8% (105 patients), while that of irAEs was 36.8% (68 patients). There was no difference in the percentage of patients experiencing any grade or grade ≥ 3 AEs between age groups. However, the frequency of irAEs (both any grade and grade ≥ 3) significantly differed by age group (P = 0.001 and 0.009, respectively). The results of multivariable analysis revealed that age ≥ 70 years was the only independent risk factor for irAEs. The results of subgroup analysis revealed that the incidence of irAEs was higher in older patients treated with camrelizumab-chemotherapy, while the incidence rates were similar between age groups in the monotherapy and combination anti-VEGF treatment subgroups. Immune-related diabetes mellitus occurred more frequently among older adults. The spectrum of irAEs showed that combination immunotherapy had more widely effects on the organ system than monotherapy. In this study, older (≥ 70 years) patients had a higher risk of all-grade and high-grade irAEs when receiving camrelizumab chemotherapy combination treatment. Notably, long-term random glucose monitoring should be performed during ICI-based immunotherapy in older cancer patients.

Risk and survival of patients with non-small cell lung cancer and pre-existing autoimmune disorders receiving immune checkpoint blockade therapy: Survival analysis with inverse probability weighting from a nationwide, multi-institutional, retrospective study (NEJ047)

BACKGROUND

The risk and survival of patients with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) with pre-existing autoimmune disorders (AIDs) receiving immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapy have not been clearly established.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This multi-institutional, retrospective cohort study was conducted in collaboration with 20 centers in Japan.

RESULTS

In total, 229 patients with advanced or recurrent NSCLC and pre-existing AID, with or without ICB treatment from January 2010-February 2020, were included and analyzed. Among 69 patients who received ICB, 2 received two lines of ICBs with a total of 71 ICB treatments; 57 (80.3 %) and 14 (19.7 %) patients received ICB monotherapy and combination therapy, respectively. AID flares were observed in 18 patients (25.4 %, 95 % confidence interval [CI], 15.8-37.1 %) receiving ICB. AID exacerbations were more likely when NSCLC was diagnosed less than 1 year after the AID diagnosis (odds ratio 5.26 [95 % CI, 1.40-21.61]; P = 0.016). Immune-related adverse events were observed in 32 patients (45.1 %, 95 % CI, 33.2-57.3 %); 17 had grade 3 or higher. The safety profile of combination immunotherapy was not significantly different from that of the monotherapy. After inverse probability weighting, the use of ICB prolonged survival (hazard ratio 0.43 [95 % CI, 0.26-0.70]; P = 0.0006).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings revealed a novel risk factor for AID flares following ICB treatment, that is the diagnosis of NSCLC within 1 year of AID diagnosis, and showed that ICBs may improve survival in this population. These results support the utilization of ICB in patients with NSCLC and pre-existing AID.

Rheumatic adverse events of immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer immunotherapy

INTRODUCTION

The advent of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) in cancer treatment has marked a transformative era, albeit tempered by immune-related adverse events (irAEs), including those impacting the musculoskeletal system. The lack of precise epidemiologic data on rheumatic irAEs is attributed to factors such as potential underrecognition, underreporting in clinical trials, and the tendency to overlook manifestations without immediate life-threatening implications, further complicating the determination of accurate incidence rates, while the complete understanding of the mechanisms driving rheumatic irAEs remains elusive.

AREAS COVERED

This literature review comprehensively examines rheumatic irAEs in cancer patients undergoing ICI therapy, encompassing epidemiology, risk factors, mechanisms, clinical manifestations, and current management guidance for prevalent conditions such as inflammatory arthritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, and myositis. Less frequent rheumatic and musculoskeletal irAEs are also explored, alongside insights into ongoing clinical trials testing therapeutic and preventive strategies for irAEs. A thorough literature search on Medline and the National Cancer Institute Clinical Trials Database was conducted up to October 2023 to compile relevant information.

EXPERT OPINION

In light of the evolving landscape of cancer immunotherapy, there is a compelling need for prospective longitudinal studies to enhance understanding and inform clinical management strategies for rheumatic irAEs.

Cytokine release syndrome after treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors: an observational cohort study of 2672 patients from Karolinska University Hospital in Sweden

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are linked to diverse immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Rare irAEs surface first in clinical practice. Here, we systematically studied the rare irAE, cytokine-release syndrome (CRS), in a cohort of 2672 patients treated with ICIs at Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm, Sweden. We find that the risk of ICI-induced CRS - defined as fever, negative microbiological findings and absence of other probable causes within 30 days after ICI treatment - is approximately 1%, higher than previously reported. ICI-induced CRS was often mild and rechallenge with ICIs after mild CRS was generally safe. However, two out of 28 patients experienced high-grade CRS, and one was fatal. While C-reactive protein (CRP) and procalcitonin were not discriminative of fatal CRS, our data suggest that the quick Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (qSOFA) score might identify high-risk patients. These data provide a framework for CRS risk assessment and motivate multicenter studies to improve early CRS diagnosis.

The Construction of a Nomogram Using the Pan-Immune-Inflammation Value Combined with a PILE Score for Immunotherapy Prediction Prognosis in Advanced NSCLC

Purpose

The purpose of this study was to investigate the predictive value of Pan-Immune-Inflammation Value (PIV) combined with the PILE score for immunotherapy in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and to construct a nomogram prediction model to provide reference for clinical work.

Patients and Methods

Patients with advanced NSCLC who received ICIs treatment in Qingdao Municipal Hospital from January 2019 to December 2021 were selected as the study subjects. The chi-square test, Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, and Cox proportional risk regression analysis were used to evaluate the prognosis. The results were visualized by a nomogram, and the performance of the model was judged by indicators such as the area under the subject operating characteristic curve (AUC) and C-index. The patients were divided into high- and low-risk groups by PILE score, and the prognosis of patients in different risk groups was evaluated.

Results

Multivariate Cox regression analysis showed that immune-related adverse events (irAEs) were prognostic factors for overall survival (OS) improvement, and ECOG PS score ≥2, bone metastases before treatment, and high PIV expression were independent risk factors for OS. The C index of OS predicted by the nomogram model is 0.750 (95% CI: 0.677-0.823), and the Calibration and ROC curves show that the model has good prediction performance. Compared with the low-risk group, patients in the high-risk group of PILE were associated with a higher inflammatory state and poorer physical condition, which often resulted in a poorer prognosis.

Conclusion

PIV can be used as a prognostic indicator for patients with advanced NSCLC treated with ICIs, and a nomogram prediction model can be constructed to evaluate the survival prediction of patients, thus contributing to better clinical decision-making and prognosis assessment.

For the Long Haul: Management of Long-Term Survivors after Melanoma Systemic Therapy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the latest advancements in survivorship care for patients with advanced melanoma who received systemic therapy and emphasizes the areas where more research is needed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Over the last decade there have been remarkable advances in the treatment of advanced and metastatic melanoma. Due to these novel treatments, including several immune checkpoint inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors, there are and will continue to be increasing numbers of long-term melanoma survivors who have been treated with systemic therapy. These patients will navigate new challenges are they are essentially among the first long term survivors after these novel therapies. Survivorship care focuses on improving the health-related quality of life of patients including the physical, emotional, social and functional effects of cancer that begin at diagnosis and continue through the end of life. Survivorship also includes screening for cancer recurrence and second cancers. As the number of melanoma survivors who received systemic therapy continues to grow, the survivorship care plan will become increasingly important for optimal care of patients even after their cancer treatments. Understanding the many domains of survivorship care for this group of patients is imperative for their care now and to identify unmet needs for future research.

Assessment of endpoint definitions in recurrent and metastatic mucosal head and neck squamous cell carcinoma trials: Head and Neck Cancer International Group consensus recommendations

Transparent and precise endpoint definitions are a crucial aspect of clinical trial conduct and reporting, and are used to communicate the benefit of an intervention. Previous studies have identified inconsistencies in endpoint definitions across oncological clinical trials. Here, the Head and Neck Cancer International Group assessed endpoint definitions from phase 3 trials or trials considered practice-changing for patients with recurrent or metastatic mucosal head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, published between 2008 and 2021. We identify considerable and global heterogeneity in endpoint definitions, which undermines the interpretation of results and development of future studies. We show how fundamental components of even incontrovertible endpoints such as overall survival vary widely, highlighting an urgent need for increased rigour in reporting and harmonisation of endpoints.

A case of rapidly progressive insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus without islet autoantibodies developed over two years after the first dose of nivolumab

The case was an 80-year-old Japanese man. He was diagnosed with right renal cell carcinoma when he was 74. After laparoscopic radical nephrectomy, the patient received interferon, sorafenib, axitinib, and nivolumab therapy. The patient developed rapid progressive insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (DM) after 46 courses of nivolumab monotherapy (772 days from the first nivolumab treatment). Glutamic acid decarboxylase antibody, islet cell cytoplasmic antibody, islet cell antigen-2 antibody, insulin antibody, and zinc transporter 8 antibody were all negative. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) typing showed DRB1*09:01, DRB1 *13:02, DQB1*03:03, and DQB1 *06:04. Multiple daily insulin injections were started. However, controlling his blood glucose by standard multiple daily insulin injection treatments was difficult. The patient survived more than two years after the onset of immune checkpoint inhibitor-associated DM (ICI-DM). This is a valuable report of late-onset ICI-DM with a detailed patient background and clinical course over two years after the first dose of nivolumab.

A scoping review of vasculitis as an immune-related adverse event from checkpoint inhibitor therapy of cancer: Unraveling the complexities at the intersection of immunology and vascular pathology

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Vasculitis as an immune-related adverse event (irAE) from checkpoint inhibitor therapy (ICI) to treat cancer is a rare clinical event, and little is known regarding its nosology, clinical manifestations, or response to treatment and outcomes.

METHODS

To address these gaps, we used the Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) framework to further define this complication. Two independent PUBMED searches in September and November of 2022 revealed 127 publications with 37 excluded from title by relevance, 43 excluded by article type, and 23 excluded due to lack of biopsy results, or biopsy negative for vasculitis. Twenty-nine documented cases from 24 publications were included for final analysis. Basic demographics, ICI details, timing of onset of vasculitis symptoms, irAE treatment and outcomes were collected. The vasculitides were classified using 2022 ACR/EULAR Vasculitis Classification Criteria as well as 2012 Revised Chapel-Hill Nomenclature. Adaptations from Naidoo et al. 2023 [1] consensus definitions for irAEs were used and efforts were made to classify steroid-responsive versus unresponsive irAEs.

RESULTS

Of the 29 cases reviewed, the average age of patients was 62.1 ± 11.0, composed of 58.6 % (n = 17) male and 41.3 % (n = 12) female. Prominent cancer types were lung cancer (41.4 %; n = 12), melanoma (41.4 %; n = 12), and renal cancer (10.3 %; n = 3), with majority being stage 4 (75.9 %, n = 22) and stage 3 (10.3 %, n = 3). Only 8 cases met the ACR/EULAR criteria, and by Chapel-Hill Nomenclature, approximately a third were small-vessel vasculitis (31.0 %; n = 9) with n = 4 positive for ANCA. Most biopsies were taken from the skin (37.9 %, n = 11) and kidney (24.1 %, n = 7). Patients were either treated with single (65.5 %, n = 19), dual (17.2 %; n = 5), or sequential (17.2 %; n = 5) ICI regimen which included anti-PD-1 therapy in all but one case, with mean of 8.7 ± 10.5 cycles received. Mean time to onset of symptoms from start of ICI was 7.2 ± 7.8 months, with 55.2 % occurring >3 months since the initial immunotherapy. Vasculitis treatment included glucocorticoids in 96 % of cases and immunotherapy was often discontinued (44.8 %; n = 13). Clinical improvement of irAE was documented in 86.2 % (n = 25). Data were missing in terms of fate of ICI (34.5 %; n = 10) and tumor outcomes (41.4 %; n = 12). Cancer progressed in 20.7 % (n = 6), stable in 34.5 % (n = 10) cases, and 6 patients died of all-causes.

CONCLUSION

Vasculitis as an irAE appears clinically heterogeneous and rare. Among reported cases with adequate documentation, vasculitis is of delayed onset following the initiation of immunotherapy. Outcomes of ICI-vasculitis were generally favorable, responding to glucocorticoids and immunotherapy withdrawal. There is an urgent need for more standardized reporting of rare irAEs such as vasculitis to clarify clinical risks, classification, relationship to immunotherapy and outcomes.

Impact of immunosuppressive agents on the management of immune-related adverse events of immune checkpoint blockers

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint blockers (ICBs) can induce immune-related adverse events (irAEs) whose management is based on expert opinion and may require the prescription of steroids and/or immunosuppressants (ISs). Recent data suggest that these treatments can reduce the effectiveness of ICBs.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the relationship between the use of steroids and/or ISs and overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS) among ICB-treated patients with an irAE.

METHODS

We prospectively collected data from the medical records of patients with solid tumors or lymphoma in the French REISAMIC cohort and who had been treated with ICBs between June 2014 and June 2020.

RESULTS

184 ICB-treated patients experienced at least one Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events grade ≥ 2 irAE. 107 (58.2%) were treated with steroids alone, 20 (10.9%) with steroids plus IS, 57 (31.0%) not received steroids or IS. The median OS was significantly shorter for patients treated with steroids alone (25.2 months [95% confidence interval (CI): 22.3-32.4] than for patients treated without steroids or IS (63 months [95%CI: 40.4-NA]) and those receiving an IS with steroids (53.4 months [95%CI: 47.3-NA]) (p < 0.001). The median PFS was significantly shorter for patients treated with steroids alone (17.0 months [95%CI: 11.7-22.9]) than for patients treated without steroids or IS (33.9 months [95%CI: 18.0-NA]) and those receiving an IS with steroids (41.1 months [95%CI: 26.2-NA]) (p = 0.006). There were no significant intergroup differences in the hospital admission and infection rates.

CONCLUSION

In a prospective cohort of ICB-treated patients, the use of IS was not associated with worse OS or PFS, contrasting with the use of steroids for the management of irAEs.

Emerging Novel Functional Imaging and Immunotherapy in Renal Cell Carcinoma and Current Treatment Sequencing Strategies After Immunotherapy

The management of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) has advanced significantly in the past two decades. Many promising functional imaging modalities such as radiolabeled tracer targeting carbonic anhydrase IX and prostate-specific membrane antigen are under development to detect primary kidney tumors, stage systemic disease, and assess treatment response in RCC. Immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting PD-1 and cytotoxic T-cell lymphocyte-4 have changed the treatment paradigm in advanced RCC. Trials investigating novel mechanisms such as LAG-3 immune checkpoint inhibition, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapies, and T-cell engagers targeting RCC-associated antigens are currently ongoing. With the rapidly changing treatment landscape of RCC, the treatment sequence strategies will continue to evolve. Familiarity with the toxicities associated with the therapeutic agents and how to manage them are essential to achieve optimal patient outcomes. This review summarizes the recent developments of functional imaging and immunotherapy strategies in RCC, and the evidence supports treatment sequencing.

Kinetics of IFNγ-Induced Cytokines and Development of Immune-Related Adverse Events in Patients Receiving PD-(L)1 Inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have the potential to trigger unpredictable immune-related adverse events (irAEs), which can be severe. The underlying mechanisms of these events are not fully understood. As PD-L1 is upregulated by IFN, the heightened immune activation resulting from PD-1/PD-L1 inhibition may enhance the IFN response, triggering the expression of IFN-inducible genes and contributing to irAE development and its severity. In this study, we investigated the interplay between irAEs and the expression of IFN-inducible chemokines and cytokines in 134 consecutive patients with solid tumours treated with PD-(L)1 inhibitors as monotherapy or in combination with chemotherapy or other immunotherapy agents. We compared the plasma levels of IFN-associated cytokines (CXCL9/10/11, IL-18, IL-10, IL-6 and TGFβ) at various time points (at baseline, at the onset of irAE and previous to irAE onset) in three patient groups categorized by irAE development and severity: patients with serious irAEs, mild irAEs and without irAEs after PD-(L)1 inhibitors. No differences were observed between groups at baseline. However, patients with serious irAEs exhibited significant increases in CXCL9/10/11, IL-18 and IL-10 levels at the onset of the irAE compared to baseline. A network analysis and correlation patterns highlighted a robust relationship among these chemokines and cytokines at serious-irAE onset. Combining all of the analysed proteins in a cluster analysis, we identified a subgroup of patients with a higher incidence of serious irAEs affecting different organs or systems. Finally, an ROC analysis and a decision tree model proposed IL-18 levels ≥ 807 pg/mL and TGFβ levels ≤ 114 pg/mL as predictors for serious irAEs in 90% of cases. In conclusion, our study elucidates the dynamic changes in cytokine profiles associated with serious irAE development during treatment with PD-(L)1 inhibitors. The study's findings offer valuable insights into the intricate IFN-induced immune responses associated with irAEs and propose potential predictive markers for their severity.

Toxicity profiles of immune checkpoint inhibitors for recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are widely used in recurrent or metastatic head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (R/M HNSCC); however, the toxicity profiles are inconclusive.

METHODS

Clinical trials evaluating ICIs for R/M HNSCC were searched from online databases. The characteristics of the studies and the results of incidences of any grade treatment-related adverse events (trAEs), grade three or more trAEs, treatment-related deaths, trAEs leading to discontinuation of treatment, and specific trAEs were extracted.

RESULTS

Twenty studies with 3756 patients were included. The pooled incidences of any grade trAEs, grade three or more trAEs, treatment-related deaths, trAEs leading to discontinuation of treatment for overall population were 62.07% (95% CI, 59.07%-65.02%), 13.82% (95% CI, 11.23%-16.62%), 0.39% (95% CI, 0.15%-0.71%), 3.99% (95% CI, 2.36%-5.95%), respectively. Programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) inhibitors monotherapy and ICIs combination therapy had significantly higher incidences of any grade trAEs (odds ratio [OR], 1.25, 95% CI, 1.05-1.49 and 1.36, 95% CI, 1.15-1.60, respectively), grade three or more trAEs (OR, 1.41, 95% CI, 1.08-1.84 and 1.79, 95% CI, 1.39-2.30, respectively), trAEs leading to discontinuation of treatment (OR, 3.98, 95% CI, 2.06-7.70 and 10.14, 95% CI, 5.49-18.70, respectively) compared with programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors monotherapy. ICIs combination therapy had a significantly higher incidence of grade three or more trAEs compared with PD-1 inhibitors monotherapy (OR, 1.27, 95% CI, 1.03-1.55); however, the incidences of any grade trAEs and trAEs leading to discontinuation of treatment were not significant different.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that the incidences of grade three or more trAEs, treatment-related deaths, and trAEs leading to discontinuation of treatment are low in R/M HNSCC patients treated with ICIs. PD-L1 inhibitors monotherapy may be safer compared with PD-1 inhibitors monotherapy and ICIs combination therapy.

Clinical and translational attributes of immune-related adverse events

With immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) becoming the mainstay of treatment for many cancers, managing their immune-related adverse events (irAEs) has become an important part of oncological care. This Review covers the clinical presentation of irAEs and crucial aspects of reversibility, fatality and long-term sequelae, with special attention to irAEs in specific patient populations, such as those with autoimmune diseases. In addition, the genetic basis of irAEs, along with cellular and humoral responses to ICI therapy, are discussed. Detrimental effects of empirically used high-dose steroids and second-line immunosuppression, including impaired ICI effectiveness, call for more tailored irAE-treatment strategies. We discuss open therapeutic challenges and propose potential avenues to accelerate personalized management strategies and optimize outcomes.

Circulating biomarkers in the diagnosis and prognosis of immune checkpoint inhibitor-related myocarditis: time for a risk-based approach

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are monoclonal antibodies that block immune checkpoints and therefore activate immune cells, allowing them to recognize and attack cancer cells. ICIs have revolutionized oncology practice, but their use has been complicated by immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Of cardiovascular (CV) irAEs, ICI-related myocarditis has received significant attention due to high mortality rates, ranging from 25% to 50%, despite its overall low incidence. Establishing the early diagnosis of ICI-myocarditis is important for early initiation of steroids and consideration of hospitalization in patients who are at risk for hemodynamic compromise and need high acuity care in a tertiary setting. In this review, we summarize the diagnostic and prognostic tools for ICI-myocarditis, including electrocardiography, echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, with emphasis on circulating biomarkers. Cardiac troponins (cTns) are an essential component of the diagnosis of ICI-myocarditis, and we provide a summary of the recent studies that utilized different assays (cTnI vs. cTnT) and outcomes (diagnosis vs. prognosis including major adverse cardiac outcomes). With the exponential increase in ICI use across different oncology indications, there is a major need to include biomarkers in risk stratification to guide diagnosis and treatment. Our review proposes a framework for future multisite registries, including cTn evaluation at baseline and at the time of irAE suspicion, with development of central biobanking to allow head-to-head evaluation and clinical validation of different biomarker assays in ICI-myocarditis. This approach, with the inclusion of CV biomarkers into clinical and pragmatic oncology trials, holds promise to improve the early recognition and management of ICI-myocarditis and CV irAEs, thus leading to better outcomes.

Unraveling the complex interplay between anti-tumor immune response and autoimmunity mediated by B cells and autoantibodies in the era of anti-checkpoint monoclonal antibody therapies

The intricate relationship between anti-tumor immunity and autoimmunity is a complex yet crucial aspect of cancer biology. Tumor microenvironment often exhibits autoimmune features, a phenomenon that involves natural autoimmunity and the induction of humoral responses against self-antigens during tumorigenesis. This induction is facilitated by the orchestration of anti-tumor immunity, particularly within organized structures like tertiary lymphoid structures (TLS). Paradoxically, a significant number of cancer patients do not manifest autoimmune features during the course of their illness, with rare instances of paraneoplastic syndromes. This discrepancy can be attributed to various immune-mediated locks, including regulatory or suppressive immune cells, anergic autoreactive lymphocytes, or induction of effector cells exhaustion due to chronic stimulation. Overcoming these locks holds the risk to induce autoimmune mechanisms during cancer progression, a phenomenon notably observed with anti-immune checkpoint therapies, in contrast to more conventional treatments like chemotherapy or radiotherapy. Therefore, the challenge arises in managing immune-related adverse events (irAEs) induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors treatment, as decoupling them from the anti-tumor activity poses a significant clinical dilemma. This review summarizes recent advances in understanding the link between B-cell driven anti-tumor responses and autoimmune reactions in cancer patients, and discusses the clinical implications of this relationship.

Corticosteroid-resistant immune-related adverse events: a systematic review

Immune checkpoint inhibitor (ICI) treatment has become an important therapeutic option for various cancer types. Although the treatment is effective, ICI can overstimulate the patient's immune system, leading to potentially severe immune-related adverse events (irAEs), including hepatitis, colitis, pneumonitis and myocarditis. The initial mainstay of treatments includes the administration of corticosteroids. There is little evidence how to treat steroid-resistant (sr) irAEs. It is mainly based on small case series or single case reports. This systematic review summarizes available evidence about sr-irAEs. We conducted a systematic literature search in PubMed. Additionally, we included European Society for Medical Oncology, Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer, National Comprehensive Cancer Network and American Society of Clinical Oncology Guidelines for irAEs in our assessment. The study population of all selected publications had to include patients with cancer who developed hepatitis, colitis, pneumonitis or myocarditis during or after an immunotherapy treatment and for whom corticosteroid therapy was not sufficient. Our literature search was not restricted to any specific cancer diagnosis. Case reports were also included. There is limited data regarding life-threatening sr-irAEs of colon/liver/lung/heart and the majority of publications are single case reports. Most publications investigated sr colitis (n=26), followed by hepatitis (n=21), pneumonitis (n=17) and myocarditis (n=15). There is most data for mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) to treat sr hepatitis and for infliximab, followed by vedolizumab, to treat sr colitis. Regarding sr pneumonitis there is most data for MMF and intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) while data regarding infliximab are conflicting. In sr myocarditis, most evidence is available for the use of abatacept or anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) (both with or without MMF) or ruxolitinib with abatacept. This review highlights the need for prompt recognition and treatment of sr hepatitis, colitis, pneumonitis and myocarditis. Guideline recommendations for sr situations are not defined precisely. Based on our search, we recommend-as first line treatment-(1) MMF for sr hepatitis, (2) infliximab for sr colitis, followed by vedolizumab, (3) MMF and IVIG for sr pneumonitis and (4) abatacept or ATG (both with or without MMF) or ruxolitinib with abatacept for sr myocarditis. These additional immunosuppressive agents should be initiated promptly if there is no sufficient response to corticosteroids within 3 days.

Survivorship outcomes in patients treated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have become a central part of cancer care. However, the survivorship outcomes in patients treated with ICIs are understudied. Therefore, we conducted a scoping review to evaluate the current status of the field and to establish research gaps regarding survivorship outcomes with ICIs in real-life cohorts.

METHODS

We used the Web of Science, PubMed, and Embase databases to systematically filter published studies with real-life cohorts from January 1, 2010, until October 19, 2022. Studies evaluating at least one survivorship outcome in ICI-treated patients were included.

RESULTS

A total of 39 papers were included. Quality of life (QoL) (n = 23), toxicity burden (n = 16), and psychosocial issues (n = 9) were the most frequently evaluated survivorship outcomes. Anti-PD-1/PD-L1 monotherapy and a response to treatment were associated with better QoL. In addition, the ICIs were associated with grade 3 or higher immune-related adverse events (irAEs) in 10-15% and late/long-term irAEs in 20-30% of the survivors. Regarding psychosocial problems, over 30% of survivors showed evidence of anxiety and depression, and 30-40% of survivors reported neurocognitive impairments.

CONCLUSION

The survivors treated with ICIs have impairments in most survivorship domains. Further research is needed to gather data on the understudied survivorship outcomes like late and long-term effects, fertility, financial toxicity, and return to work in survivors treated with ICIs.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS

Available evidence demonstrates that a significant portion of survivors treated with ICIs have a significant toxicity burden, lower QoL than the general population, and a high rate of psychosocial problems.

Type 1 diabetes mellitus affected by potential toxicity from long-term use of nivolumab

We present a case of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) that developed in a 53-year-old man after long-term treatment with nivolumab. The patient underwent total gastrectomy for gastric cancer at 40 years of age, and he was started on nivolumab at age 48 years for treatment of a recurrent lesion that proved resistant to standard chemotherapy. Nivolumab treatment resulted in complete response, but, after the 136th infusion of the drug at age 53 years, the patient was hospitalized for sudden onset of diabetic ketoacidosis. He was diagnosed with immune checkpoint inhibitor-induced T1DM (ICI-DM), which developed 1988 days (284 weeks) after initiation of nivolumab. HLA typing revealed disease susceptibility alleles for both fulminant T1DM and ICI-DM. With the increased survival after the ICI treatment, delayed-onset irAEs after long-term use of ICI have been reported; however, delayed-onset ICI-DM remains to be elucidated. This case provides important insight into ICI-DM that develops after prolonged ICI administration, and it suggests that patients should be monitored for ICI-DM regardless of the duration of ICI therapy.

Treatment-related adverse events, including fatal toxicities, in patients with solid tumours receiving neoadjuvant and adjuvant immune checkpoint blockade: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Incorporating immune checkpoint blockade into perioperative cancer therapy has improved clinical outcomes. However, the safety of immune checkpoint blockade needs better evaluation, given the chances of more prolonged disease-free survival. We aimed to assess how adding immune checkpoint blockade to perioperative therapy affects treatment-related adverse events.

METHODS

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed/MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library from database inception until Aug 8, 2023, for randomised controlled trials that assessed the addition of immune checkpoint blockade to neoadjuvant or adjuvant therapy for cancer, reported treatment-related deaths, and had a design in which the experimental group assessed immune checkpoint blockade in combination with the therapy used in the control group. Meta-analysis was done to pool odds ratios (ORs) of treatment-related deaths, any grade and grade 3-4 treatment-related adverse events, serious adverse events, and adverse events leading to treatment discontinuation. The protocol is registered with PROSPERO, CRD42022343741.

FINDINGS

28 randomised controlled trials with 16 976 patients were included. The addition of immune checkpoint blockade was not significantly associated with increased treatment-related deaths (OR 1·76, 95% CI 0·95-3·25; p=0·073), consistent across immune checkpoint blockade subtype (I2=0%). 40 fatal toxicities were identified across 9864 patients treated with immune checkpoint blockade, with pneumonitis being the most common (six [15·0%]); 13 fatal toxicities occurred among 7112 patients who were not treated with immune checkpoint blockade. The addition of immune checkpoint blockade increased the incidence of grade 3-4 treatment-related adverse events (OR 2·73, 95% CI 1·98-3·76; p<0·0001), adverse events leading to treatment discontinuation (3·67, 2·45-5·51; p<0·0001), and treatment-related adverse events of any grade (2·60 [1·88-3·61], p<0·0001). The immune checkpoint blockade versus placebo design primarily used as adjuvant therapy was associated with increased incidence of treatment-related deaths (4·02, 1·04-15·63; p=0·044) and grade 3-4 adverse events (5·31, 3·08-9·15; p<0·0001), whereas the addition of immune checkpoint blockade in the neoadjuvant setting was not associated with increased incidence of treatment-related death (1·11, 95% CI 0·38-3·29; p=0·84) or grade 3-4 adverse events (1·17, 0·90-1·51; p=0·23).

INTERPRETATION

The addition of immune checkpoint blockade to perioperative therapy was associated with an increase in grade 3-4 treatment-related adverse events and adverse events leading to treatment discontinuation. These findings provide safety insights for further clinical trials assessing neoadjuvant or adjuvant immune checkpoint blockade therapy. Clinicians should closely monitor patients for treatment-related adverse events to prevent treatment discontinuations and morbidity from these therapies in earlier-stage settings.

FUNDING

None.

Toxicity-specific peripheral blood T and B cell dynamics in anti-PD-1 and combined immune checkpoint inhibition

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have revolutionized the treatment landscape of advanced malignancies, but come with a diverse spectrum of immune-related adverse events (irAEs). Mechanistic studies can aid the transition from expert-opinion to evidence-based irAE treatment strategies. We aimed to longitudinally characterize peripheral blood T and B cell dynamics in ICI-treated patients by multicolor flow cytometry and serum multiplex immunoassay at baseline, ± 3 weeks and ± 6 weeks or upon clinically relevant irAEs. We analyzed samples from 44 ICI-treated patients (24 anti-PD-1 monotherapy, 20 combined anti-PD-1/anti-CTLA-4; cICI), of whom 21 developed irAEs, and 10 healthy donors. IrAEs after cICI were characterized by significantly enhanced proliferation of Th1-associated, mainly (CD4+) CD27- effector memory T cells, as well as Th17-associated immune responses and germinal center activation (reflected by CXCL13 and IL-21 increases). We observed no changes in CD21lo, memory, class-switched or newly activated B cell subsets. Particularly double-positive PD-1+LAG-3+ CD8+ T cells showed enhanced cytotoxic capacity in patients with irAEs after cICI. Within anti-PD-1 monotherapy, irAEs were associated with modestly enhanced Th1-associated responses reflected by increased serum CXCL9 and CXCL10. In conclusion, ICI-induced toxicity is dominated by enhanced Th1-associated responses, but in cICI we also found evidence for Th17-associated responses and germinal center activation. Together, our data add to the growing body of evidence that irAEs may be driven by newly activated CD4+ helper T cells, specifically after cICI. This study also supports tailored irAE treatment, based on ICI regimen, and to deploy specific strategies such as Th17 inhibition especially in cICI-associated irAEs.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor rechallenge in patients who previously experienced immune-related inflammatory arthritis: a multicentre observational study

OBJECTIVE

Another course of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) is often considered in patients with cancer progression and previous immune-related adverse events, including inflammatory arthritis (ICI-IA), but there are limited data regarding safety of ICI rechallenge in this setting. We aimed to assess the rate and clinical features associated with ICI-IA flare/recurrence on ICI rechallenge.

METHODS

We conducted a multicentre observational study including cancer patients with ICI-IA who started a second course of ICI more than 3 months after ICI discontinuation in four French university hospitals. Primary outcome was the frequency of ICI flare/recurrence after ICI rechallenge.

RESULTS

Twenty-three patients were included. At the time of ICI rechallenge, 18 patients reported no symptoms of ICI-IA (78%) and 5 had grade 1 (22%), 11 patients (48%) were not receiving any ICI-IA treatment, 11 (48%) were still on prednisone, 2 (9%) were on conventional synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs and 1 (4%) on anti-IL-6. ICI-IA flare/recurrence occurred in 12 patients (52%) with a median time of 1 month after ICI rechallenge. ICI-IA phenotype, disease activity and ICI-IA treatment at the time of ICI rechallenge did not differ according to ICI-IA flare/recurrence status.

CONCLUSION

In this first observational study of ICI-IA patients rechallenged with ICI, about half of the patients experienced ICI-IA flare/recurrence with a similar phenotype but occurring earlier than the initial ICI-IA, warranting close monitoring during the first month of retreatment. Risk of flare did not differ according to baseline immunosuppressive treatment at the time of rechallenge.