Modulation of cGMP by human HO-1 retrovirus gene transfer in pulmonary microvessel endothelial cells

A natural heme deficiency exists in biology that allows nitric oxide to control heme protein functions by regulating cellular heme distribution

A natural heme deficiency that exists in cells outside of the circulation broadly compromises the heme contents and functions of heme proteins in cells and tissues. Recently, we found that the signaling molecule, nitric oxide (NO), can trigger or repress the deployment of intracellular heme in a concentration-dependent hormetic manner. This uncovers a new role for NO and sets the stage for it to shape numerous biological processes by controlling heme deployment and consequent heme protein functions in biology.

New roles for GAPDH, Hsp90, and NO in regulating heme allocation and hemeprotein function in mammals

The intracellular trafficking of mitochondrial heme presents a fundamental challenge to animal cells. This article provides some background on heme allocation, discusses some of the concepts, and then reviews research done over the last decade, much in the author's laboratory, that is uncovering unexpected and important roles for glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), heat shock protein 90 (hsp90), and nitric oxide (NO) in enabling and regulating the allocation of mitochondrial heme to hemeproteins that mature and function outside of the mitochondria. A model for how hemeprotein functions can be regulated in cells through the coordinate participation of GAPDH, hsp90, and NO in allocating cellular heme is presented.

Role of Heme Oxygenase as a Modulator of Heme-Mediated Pathways

The heme oxygenase (HO) system is essential for heme and iron homeostasis and necessary for adaptation to cell stress. HO degrades heme to biliverdin (BV), carbon monoxide (CO) and ferrous iron. Although mostly beneficial, the HO reaction can also produce deleterious effects, predominantly attributed to excessive product formation. Underrated so far is, however, that HO may exert effects additionally via modulation of the cellular heme levels. Heme, besides being an often-quoted generator of oxidative stress, plays also an important role as a signaling molecule. Heme controls the anti-oxidative defense, circadian rhythms, activity of ion channels, glucose utilization, erythropoiesis, and macrophage function. This broad spectrum of effects depends on its interaction with proteins ranging from transcription factors to enzymes. In degrading heme, HO has the potential to exert effects also via modulation of heme-mediated pathways. In this review, we will discuss the multitude of pathways regulated by heme to enlarge the view on HO and its role in cell physiology. We will further highlight the contribution of HO to pathophysiology, which results from a dysregulated balance between heme and the degradation products formed by HO.

HO-1 overexpression and underexpression: Clinical implications

In this review we examine the effects of both over- and under-production of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and HO activity on a broad spectrum of biological systems and on vascular disease. In a few instances e.g., neonatal jaundice, overproduction of HO-1 and increased HO activity results in elevated levels of bilirubin requiring clinical intervention with inhibitors of HO activity. In contrast HO-1 levels and HO activity are low in obesity and the HO system responds to mitigate the deleterious effects of oxidative stress through increased levels of bilirubin (anti-inflammatory) and CO (anti-apoptotic) and decreased levels of heme (pro-oxidant). Site specific HO-1 overexpression diminishes adipocyte terminal differentiation and lipid accumulation of obesity mediated release of inflammatory molecules. A series of diverse strategies have been implemented that focus on increasing HO-1 and HO activity that are central to reversing the clinical complications associated with diseases including, obesity, metabolic syndrome and vascular disease.

Temporal inhibition of mouse mammary gland cancer metastasis by CORM-A1 and DETA/NO combination therapy

Carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are two of the most important vasoprotective mediators. Their downregulation observed during vascular dysfunction, which is associated with cancer progression, leads to uncontrolled platelet activation. Therefore, the aim of our studies was to improve vasoprotection and to decrease platelet activation during progression of mouse mammary gland cancer by concurrent use of CO and NO donors (CORM-A1 and DETA/NO, respectively). Methods: Mice injected intravenously with 4T1-luc2-tdTomato or orthotopically with 4T1 mouse mammary gland cancer cells were treated with CORM-A1 and DETA/NO. Ex vivo aggregation and activation of platelets were assessed in the blood of healthy donors and breast cancer patients. Moreover, we analyzed the compounds' direct effect on 4T1 mouse and MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells proliferation, adhesion and migration in vitro. Results: We have observed antimetastatic effect of combination therapy, which was only transient in orthotopic model. During early stages of tumor progression concurrent use of CORM-A1 and DETA/NO demonstrated vasoprotective ability (decreased endothelin-1, sICAM and sE-selectin plasma level) and downregulated platelets activation (decreased bound of fibrinogen and vWf to platelets) as well as inhibited EMT process. Combined treatment with CO and NO donors diminished adhesion and migration of breast cancer cells in vitro and inhibited aggregation as well as TGF-β release from breast cancer patients' platelets ex vivo. However, antimetastatic effect was not observed at a later stage of tumor progression which was accompanied by increased platelets activation and endothelial dysfunction related to a decrease of VASP level. Conclusion: The therapy was shown to have antimetastatic action and resulted in normalization of endothelial metabolism, diminution of platelet activation and inhibition of EMT process. The effect was more prominent during early stages of tumor dissemination. Such treatment could be applied to inhibit metastasis during the first stages of this process.

The non-canonical functions of the heme oxygenases

Heme oxygenase (HO) isoforms catalyze the conversion of heme to carbon monoxide (CO) and biliverdin with a concurrent release of iron, which can drive the synthesis of ferritin for iron sequestration. Most of the studies so far were directed at evaluating the protective effect of these enzymes because of their ability to generate antioxidant and antiapoptotic molecules such as CO and bilirubin. Recent evidences are suggesting that HO may possess other important physiological functions, which are not related to its enzymatic activity and for which we would like to introduce for the first time the term “non canonical functions”. Recent evidence suggest that both HO isoforms may form protein-protein interactions (i.e. cytochrome P450, adiponectin, CD91) thus serving as chaperone-like protein. In addition, truncated HO-1 isoform was localized in the nuclear compartment under certain experimental conditions (i.e. excitotoxicity, hypoxia) regulating the activity of important nuclear transcription factors (i.e. Nrf2) and DNA repair. In the present review, we discuss three potential signaling mechanisms that we refer to as the non-canonical functions of the HO isoforms: protein-protein interaction, intracellular compartmentalization, and extracellular secretion. The aim of the present review is to describe each of this mechanism and all the aspects warranting additional studies in order to unravel all the functions of the HO system.

Translational Significance of Heme Oxygenase in Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome

The global epidemic of obesity continues unabated with sequelae of diabetes and metabolic syndrome. This review reflects the dramatic increase in research on the role of increased expression of heme oxygenase (HO)-1/HO-2, biliverdin reductase, and HO activity on vascular disease. The HO system engages with other systems to mitigate the deleterious effects of oxidative stress in obesity and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Recent reports indicate that HO-1/HO-2 protein expression and HO activity have several important roles in hemostasis and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent perturbations associated with metabolic syndrome. HO-1 protects tissue during inflammatory stress in obesity through the degradation of pro-oxidant heme and the production of carbon monoxide (CO) and bilirubin, both of which have anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties. By contrast, repression of HO-1 is associated with increases of cellular heme and inflammatory conditions including hypertension, stroke, and atherosclerosis. HO-1 is a major focus in the development of potential therapeutic strategies to reverse the clinical complications of obesity and metabolic syndrome.

Expression of heme oxygenase-1 in thick ascending loop of henle attenuates angiotensin II-dependent hypertension

Kidney-specific induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) attenuates the development of angiotensin II (Ang II) -dependent hypertension, but the relative contribution of vascular versus tubular induction of HO-1 is unknown. To determine the specific contribution of thick ascending loop of Henle (TALH) -derived HO-1, we generated a transgenic mouse in which the uromodulin promoter controlled expression of human HO-1. Quantitative RT-PCR and confocal microscopy confirmed successful localization of the HO-1 transgene to TALH tubule segments. Medullary HO activity, but not cortical HO activity, was significantly higher in transgenic mice than control mice. Enhanced TALH HO-1 attenuated the hypertension induced by Ang II delivered by an osmotic minipump for 10 days (139 ± 3 versus 153 ±2 mmHg in the transgenic and control mice, respectively; P<0.05). The lower blood pressure in transgenic mice associated with a 60% decrease in medullary NKCC2 transporter expression determined by Western blot. Transgenic mice also exhibited a 36% decrease in ouabain-sensitive sodium reabsorption and a significantly attenuated response to furosemide in isolated TALH segments. In summary, these results show that increased levels of HO-1 in the TALH can lower blood pressure by a mechanism that may include alterations in NKCC2-dependent sodium reabsorption.

Crosstalk between EET and HO-1 downregulates Bach1 and adipogenic marker expression in mesenchymal stem cell derived adipocytes

Epoxygenase activity and synthesis of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EETs) have emerged as important modulators of obesity and diabetes. We examined the effect of the EET-agonist 12-(3-hexylureido)dodec-8(2) enoic acid on mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) derived adipocytes proliferation and differentiation. MSCs expressed substantial levels of EETs and inhibition of soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) increased the level of EETs and decreased adipogenesis. EET agonist treatment increased HO-1 expression by inhibiting a negative regulator of HO-1 expression, Bach-1. EET treatment also increased βcatenin and pACC levels while decreasing PPARγ C/EBPα and fatty acid synthase levels. These changes were manifested by a decrease in the number of large inflammatory adipocytes, TNFα, IFNγ and IL-1α, but an increase in small adipocytes and in adiponectin levels. In summary, EET agonist treatment inhibits adipogenesis and decreases the levels of inflammatory cytokines suggesting the potential action of EETs as intracellular lipid signaling modulators of adipogenesis and adiponectin.

Carbon monoxide as an endogenous vascular modulator

Carbon monoxide (CO) is produced by heme oxygenase (HO)-catalyzed heme degradation to CO, iron, and biliverdin. HO has two active isoforms, HO-1 (inducible) and HO-2 (constitutive). HO-2, but not HO-1, is highly expressed in endothelial and smooth muscle cells and in adjacent astrocytes in the brain. HO-1 is expressed basally only in the spleen and liver but can be induced to a varying extent in most tissues. Elevating heme, protein phosphorylation, Ca(2+) influx, and Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent processes increase HO-2 activity. CO dilates cerebral arterioles and may constrict or dilate skeletal muscle and renal arterioles. Selected vasodilatory stimuli, including seizures, glutamatergic stimulation, hypoxia, hypotension, and ADP, increase CO, and the inhibition of HO attenuates the dilation to these stimuli. Astrocytic HO-2-derived CO causes glutamatergic dilation of pial arterioles. CO dilates by activating smooth muscle cell large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) channels. CO binds to BK(Ca) channel-bound heme, leading to an increase in Ca(2+) sparks-to-BK(Ca) channel coupling. Also, CO may bind directly to the BK(Ca) channel at several locations. Endothelial nitric oxide and prostacyclin interact with HO/CO in circulatory regulation. In cerebral arterioles in vivo, in contrast to dilation to acute CO, a prolonged exposure of cerebral arterioles to elevated CO produces progressive constriction by inhibiting nitric oxide synthase. The HO/CO system is highly protective to the vasculature. CO suppresses apoptosis and inhibits components of endogenous oxidant-generating pathways. Bilirubin is a potent reactive oxygen species scavenger. Still many questions remain about the physiology and biochemistry of HO/CO in the circulatory system and about the function and dysfunction of this gaseous mediator system.

Novel water-soluble curcumin derivative mediating erectile signaling

INTRODUCTION

Curcumin is an inducer of heme oxygenase enzyme-1 (HO-1) that is involved in erectile signaling via elevating cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)levels.

AIM

To assess the effect of oral administration of a water-soluble long-acting curcumin derivative on erectile signaling.

METHODS

Two hundred and thirty six male white albino rats were divided into four groups; group 1 (N = 20) includes control. Group 2 (N = 72) was equally divided into four subgroups; subgroup 1 received pure curcumin (10 mg/kg), subgroup 2 received the long-acting curcumin derivative (2 mg/kg), subgroup 3 received the long-acting curcumin derivative (10 mg/kg), and subgroup 4 received sildenafil (4 mg/kg). Subgroups were sacrificed after the first, second, and third hour. Group 3 (N = 72) was equally divided into the same four subgroups already mentioned and were sacrificed after 24 hours, 48 hours, and 1 week. Group 4 (N = 72) was subjected to intracavernosal pressure (ICP) measurements 1 hour following oral administration of the same previous doses in the same rat subgroups.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Cavernous tissue HO enzyme activity, cGMP, and ICP.

RESULTS

In group 2, there was a significant progressive maintained elevation of HO activity and cGMP tissue levels starting from the first hour in subgroups 3 and 4, whereas, the rise in HO activity and cGMP started from second hour regarding the other rat subgroups. Sildenafil effect decreased after 3 hours. In group 3, there was a significant maintained elevation of HO activity and cGMP tissue levels extended to 1 week as compared to controls for all rat subgroups that received both forms of curcumin. In group 4, long-acting curcumin derivative exhibited more significant potentiation of intracavernosal pressure as compared to control and to the pure curcumin.

CONCLUSION

Water-soluble long-acting curcumin derivative could mediate erectile function via upregulating cavernous tissue cGMP.

Putative role of carbon monoxide signaling pathway in penile erectile function

INTRODUCTION

Erectile response depends on nitric oxide (NO) generated by NO synthase (NOS) enzyme of the nerves and vascular endothelium in the cavernous tissue. NO activates soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC), leading to the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). cGMP activates cGMP-dependent protein kinase that activates Ca(2+)/ATPase pump that activates Ca(2+)/K efflux pump extruding Ca(2+) across the plasma membrane with consequent smooth muscle cell relaxation. A role similar to that of NOS/NO signaling has been postulated for carbon monoxide (CO) produced in mammals from heme catabolism by heme oxygenase (HO) enzyme.

AIM

To assess CO signaling pathway for erectile function by reviewing published studies.

METHODS

A systematic review of published studies on this affair based on Pubmed and Medical Subject Heading databases, with search for all concerned articles.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Documentation of positive as well as negative criteria of CO/HO signaling focused on penile tissue.

RESULTS

The concept that HO-derived CO could play a role in mediating erectile function acting in synergism with, or as a potentiator for, NOS/NO signaling pathway is gaining momentum. CO/HO signaling pathway has been shown to partially mediate the actions of oral phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors. In addition, it was shown that the use of CO releasing molecules potentiated cavernous cGMP levels. However, increased CO production or release was reported to be associated, in some studies, with vasoconstriction.

CONCLUSION

This review sheds a light on the significance of cavernous tissue CO signaling pathway that may pave the way for creation of therapeutic modalities based on this pathway.

Cystathionine beta-synthase as a carbon monoxide-sensitive regulator of bile excretion

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a stress-inducible gas generated by heme oxygenase (HO) eliciting adaptive responses against toxicants; however, mechanisms for its reception remain unknown. Serendipitous observation in metabolome analysis in CO-overproducing livers suggested roles of cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) that rate-limits transsulfuration pathway and H(2)S generation, for the gas-responsive receptor. Studies using recombinant CBS indicated that CO binds to the prosthetic heme, stabilizing 6-coordinated CO-Fe(II)-histidine complex to block the activity, whereas nitric oxide (NO) forms 5-coordinated structure without inhibiting it. The CO-overproducing livers down-regulated H(2)S to stimulate HCO(3) (-)-dependent choleresis: these responses were attenuated by blocking HO or by donating H(2)S. Livers of heterozygous CBS knockout mice neither down-regulated H(2)S nor exhibited the choleresis while overproducing CO. In the mouse model of estradiol-induced cholestasis, CO overproduction by inducing HO-1 significantly improved the bile output through stimulating HCO(3) (-) excretion; such a choleretic response did not occur in the knockout mice.

CONCLUSION

Results collected from metabolome analyses suggested that CBS serves as a CO-sensitive modulator of H(2)S to support biliary excretion, shedding light on a putative role of the enzyme for stress-elicited adaptive response against bile-dependent detoxification processes.

NO- and haem-independent soluble guanylate cyclase activators

Oxidative stress, a risk factor for several cardiovascular disorders, interferes with the NO/sGC/cGMP signalling pathway through scavenging of NO and formation of the strong intermediate oxidant, peroxynitrite. Under these conditions, endothelial and vascular dysfunction develops, culminating in different cardio-renal and pulmonary-vascular diseases. Substituting NO with organic nitrates that release NO (NO donors) has been an important principle in cardiovascular therapy for more than a century. However, the development of nitrate tolerance limits their continuous clinical application and, under oxidative stress and increased formation of peroxynitrite foils the desired therapeutic effect. To overcome these obstacles of nitrate therapy, direct NO- and haem-independent sGC activators have been developed, such as BAY 58-2667 (cinaciguat) and HMR1766 (ataciguat), showing unique biochemical and pharmacological properties. Both compounds are capable of selectively activating the oxidized/haem-free enzyme via binding to the enzyme's haem pocket, causing pronounced vasodilatation. The potential importance of these new drugs resides in the fact that they selectively target a modified state of sGC that is prevalent under disease conditions as shown in several animal models and human disease. Activators of sGC may be beneficial in the treatment of a range of diseases including systemic and pulmonary hypertension (PH), heart failure, atherosclerosis, peripheral arterial occlusive disease (PAOD), thrombosis and renal fibrosis. The sGC activator HMR1766 is currently in clinical development as an oral therapy for patients with PAOD. The sGC activator BAY 58-2667 has demonstrated efficacy in a proof-of-concept study in patients with acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF), reducing pre- and afterload and increasing cardiac output from baseline. A phase IIb clinical study for the indication of ADHF is currently underway.

Heme oxygenase-1 induction depletes heme and attenuates pulmonary artery relaxation and guanylate cyclase activation by nitric oxide

This study examines in endothelium-denuded bovine pulmonary arteries the effects of increasing heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) activity on relaxation and soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) activation by nitric oxide (NO). A 24-h organ culture with 0.1 mM cobalt chloride (CoCl2) or 30 microM Co-protoporphyrin IX was developed as a method of increasing HO-1 expression. These treatments increased HO-1 expression and HO activity by approximately two- to fourfold and lowered heme levels by 40-45%. Induction of HO-1 was associated with an attenuation of pulmonary arterial relaxation to the NO-donor spermine-NONOate. The presence of a HO-1 inhibitor 30 microM chromium mesoporphyrin during the 24-h organ culture (but not acute treatment with this agent) reversed the attenuation of relaxation to NO seen in arteries co-cultured with agents that increased HO-1. Relaxation to isoproterenol, which is thought to be mediated through cAMP, was not altered in arteries with increased HO-1. Inducers of HO-1 did not appear to alter basal sGC activity in arterial homogenates or expression of the beta(1)-subunit of sGC. However, the increase in activity seen in the presence of 1 microM spermine-NONOate was attenuated in homogenates obtained from arteries with increased HO-1. Since arteries with increased HO-1 had decreased levels of superoxide detected by the chemiluminescence of 5 microM lucigenin, superoxide did not appear to be mediating the attenuation of relaxation to NO. These data suggest that increasing HO-1 activity depletes heme, and this is associated with an attenuation of pulmonary artery relaxation and sGC activation responses to NO.

Effect of hemin and carbon monoxide releasing molecule (CORM-3) on cGMP in rat penile tissue

INTRODUCTION

Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) levels can be regulated by heme oxygenase-1 and 2 (HO-1 and HO-2)-derived carbon monoxide (CO).

AIMS

Assessment of the effect of upregulating CO in rat corpora cavernosa (CC) on cavernous cGMP.

METHODS

Three experimental groups were studied: first group (N = 40), short-term HO induction over 2 weeks by injection of intraperitoneal increasing doses of hemin; the second group (N = 40) was subjected to intracavernosal injection of CO donor, CORM-3, or its inactive form (iCORM-3) over 2 weeks; the third group (N = 60) was subdivided into three subgroups: the first one received a combined hemin and CORM-3, the second one received hemin and its inhibitor stannus mesoporphyrin (SnMP), and third one received a combined hemin, CORM-3, and SnMP.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

In CC, HO-1 and HO-2 gene expression, Northern blot and Western blot, cGMP levels, and HO enzyme activity.

RESULTS

In the first group, maximum induction of HO-1 gene expression, HO enzyme activity, and cGMP occurred with 4-mg hemin dose with a successive increase over 2 weeks. In the second group, CORM-3 increased cGMP by twofold compared with iCORM-3, and also increased HO-1 protein. In the third group, SnMP inhibited the enhancing effect of CORM-3 and HO on erectile signaling molecules; i.e., HO-1 gene, enzyme activity, and cGMP.

CONCLUSIONS

CORM-3- or hemin-mediated CO release could increase cavernous tissue cGMP.

Hypoxia and heme oxygenases: oxygen sensing and regulation of expression

Heme is an essential molecule for life, as it is involved in sensing and using oxygen. Heme must be synthesized and degraded within an individual nucleated cell. Physiologic heme degradation is catalyzed by two functional isozymes of heme oxygenase, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and HO-2, yielding carbon monoxide, iron, and biliverdin, an immediate precursor to bilirubin. HO-1 is an inducible enzyme, but the expression level of HO-2 is maintained in a narrow range. Characteristically, human HO-1 contains no Cys residue, whereas human HO-2 contains three Cys residues, each of which might be involved in heme binding. These features suggest separate physiologic roles of HO-1 and HO-2. Recent studies have shown that the expression levels of HO-1 and HO-2 are reduced under hypoxia, depending on the cell types. Moreover, we have proposed HO-2 as a potential O(2) sensor, because HO-2-deficient mice show hypoxemia and a blunted hypoxic ventilatory response with normal hypercapnic ventilatory response. HO-2-deficient mice also show hypertrophy of the pulmonary venous myocardium and enlargement of the carotid body. These morphometric changes are attributable to chronic hypoxemia. Here, we update the understanding of the regulation of HO-1 and HO-2 expression and summarize the regulatory role of HO-2 in the intercellular communication.

Heme oxygenase vs. nitric oxide synthase in signaling mediating sildenafil citrate action

INTRODUCTION

Heme oxygenase (HO) enzyme catalyzes the rate limiting step in oxidative degradation of heme to biliverdin and carbon monoxide (CO). CO has been shown to share many properties with nitric oxide (NO), including activation of guanyl cyclase, signal transduction, and gene regulation.

AIM

To assess the signaling pathways mediating cavernous tissues response to sildenafil citrate intake experimentally.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

In dissected cavernous tissues; detection of HO-1, HO-2 and nueronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) gene expressions by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), HO enzyme activity assay, HO-1, HO-2 protein detection by Western blot, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) tissue levels by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and histopathology.

METHODS

Two hundred forty Sprague-Dawley rats divided into five equal groups were investigated: group (Gr) 1, controls received regular diet; Gr 2, received sildenafil citrate 4 mg/kg orally; Gr 3, received the same dose of sildenafil added to HO inducer, diferuloylmethane; Gr 4, received sildenafil added to HO inhibitor, zinc protoporphyrin, and Gr 5, received sildenafil kg orally by gastric tube. Gr 3 received the same dose of sildenafil added to HO inducer, added to nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, L-Nitroarginine methylester. Twelve rats from each group were sacrificed by cervical dislocation successively after 1/2, 1, 2, and 3 hours from the intake.

RESULTS

HO-2 gene expression was demonstrated in all groups. HO-1 was not expressed in controls, expressed in Gr 2, accentuated in Gr 3, and attenuated in Gr 4 and 5. These results were confirmed by Western blot. The nNOS was expressed in controls, increased in Gr 2 and 3, and decreased in Gr 4 and 5. HO enzyme activity and cGMP levels were significantly elevated in Gr 2, accentuated in Gr 3, and significantly decreased in Gr 4 and 5 compared to controls. Vasodilatations were observed in cavernous tissues of histopathologic sections of Gr 2 and increased in those of Gr 3.

CONCLUSION

Sildenafil citrate actions may be mediated by up-regulation of HO-1 gene expression.

Assessment of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) activity in the cavernous tissues of sildenafil citrate-treated rats

AIM

To assess heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) activity in the cavernous tissue of sildenafil citrate-treated rats.

METHODS

One hundred and ninety-two Sprague-Dawley male rats, divided into four equal groups, were investigated. Group 1, the control group, received regular animal chow; group 2 received sildenafil citrate by intragastric tube; group 3 received sildenafil and HO inhibitor (zinc protoporphyrin, ZnPP); and group 4 received sildenafil and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor L-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME). Twelve rats from each group were killed after 0.5 h, 1 h, 2 h and 3 h of drug administration. Then HO-1 activity, cGMP levels and NOS enzymatic activity in the cavernous tissues were estimated.

RESULTS

In cavernous tissue, HO-1 activity, NOS enzymatic activity and cGMP concentration increased significantly in sildenafil-treated rats compared to other groups throughout the experiment. Rats receiving either HO or NOS inhibitors showed a significant decrease in these parameters. HO-1 cavernous tissue activity and NOS enzymatic activity demonstrated a positive significant correlation with cGMP levels (r = 0.646, r = 0.612 respectively; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

The actions of PDE5 inhibitor sildenafil citrate in the cavernous tissue are partly mediated through the interdependent relationship between both HO-1 and NOS activities.

Astrocyte-specific heme oxygenase-1 hyperexpression attenuates heme-mediated oxidative injury

In prior studies, we have observed that HO activity protects astrocytes from heme-mediated injury, but paradoxically increases neuronal injury. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that an adenovirus encoding the human HO-1 gene driven by an enhanced glial fibrillary acidic protein promoter (Ad-GFAP-HO-1) would increase HO-1 expression selectively in astrocytes, and provide cytoprotection. Treatment with 100 MOI Ad-GFAP-HO-1 for 24 h resulted in HO-1 expression that was 6.4-fold higher in cultured primary astrocytes than in neurons. Astrocyte HO activity was increased by approximately fourfold over baseline, which was sufficient to reduce cell death after 24-h hemin exposure by 60%, as assessed by both MTT and LDH release assays. A similar reduction in cell protein oxidation, quantified by carbonyl assay, was also observed. These results suggest that HO-1 transgene expression regulated by an enhanced GFAP promoter selectively increases HO-1 expression in astrocytes, and is cytoprotective. Further investigation of this strategy in vivo is warranted.

Heme oxygenase-2 is a critical determinant for execution of an acute inflammatory and reparative response

Heme oxygenase (HO) represents an intrinsic anti-inflammatory system based on its ability to regulate leukocyte function and inhibit expression of proinflammatory cytokines. This anti-inflammatory function is linked to the inducible isoform HO-1; the role of the constitutive isoform HO-2 is unknown. The current study was undertaken to investigate the role of HO-2 in the regulation of the acute inflammatory and reparative response by using HO-2-null mice and well-established animal models of epithelial injury and antigen-induced peritonitis. Here we show that in vivo deletion of HO-2 disables execution of the acute inflammatory and reparative response after epithelial injury and leads to an exaggerated inflammatory response in antigen-induced peritonitis. HO-2 deletion was associated with impaired HO-1 induction, indicating that HO-2 is critical for HO-1 expression and that the subsequent failure to up-regulate the HO system may contribute to unresolved inflammation and the development of chronic inflammatory conditions. Indeed, supplementation with the HO bioactive product, biliverdin, rescued the acute inflammatory and reparative response in HO-2-null mice. Thus, HO-2 sets in place a basal tone of anti-inflammatory signals that may be a prerequisite for the ordered execution of an inflammatory and reparative response.

The role of heme oxygenase-1 in pulmonary disease

Heme oxygenase (HO)-1, the inducible isoform of heme oxygenase, is a cytoprotective enzyme that plays a central role in the defense against oxidative and inflammatory insults in the lung. HO-1 catalyzes the degradation of heme, a potent oxidant, into biliverdin, iron, and carbon monoxide (CO). These downstream products of heme catabolism have recently been found to mediate the antioxidant, antiapoptotic, antiproliferative, vasodilatory, and anti-inflammatory properties of HO-1. Although absence of HO-1 is rare in humans, a number of HO-1 promoter polymorphisms have been identified that may influence HO-1 expression in vivo and lead to disease states. This review will summarize studies that implicate HO-1 and heme metabolites in the pathophysiology of pulmonary disease and discuss recent advances in the therapeutic applications of HO-1.

Carbon monoxide and hydrogen sulfide: gaseous messengers in cerebrovascular circulation

This review focuses on two gaseous cellular messenger molecules, CO and H2S, that are involved in cerebrovascular flow regulation. CO is a dilatory mediator in active hyperemia, autoregulation, hypoxic dilation, and counteracting vasoconstriction. It is produced from heme by a constitutively expressed enzyme [heme oxygenase (HO)-2] expressed highly in the brain and by an inducible enzyme (HO-1). CO production is regulated by controlling substrate availability, HO-2 catalytic activity, and HO-1 expression. CO dilates arterioles by binding to heme that is bound to large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels. This binding elevates channel Ca2+ sensitivity, that increases coupling of Ca2+ sparks to large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel openings and, thereby, hyperpolarizes the vascular smooth muscle. In addition to dilating blood vessels, CO can either inhibit or accentuate vascular cell proliferation and apoptosis, depending on conditions. H2S may also function as a cerebrovascular dilator. It is produced in vascular smooth muscle cells by hydrolysis of l-cysteine catalyzed by cystathione gamma-lyase (CSE). H2S dilates arterioles at physiologically relevant concentrations via activation of ATP-sensitive K+ channels. In addition to dilating blood vessels, H2S promotes apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells and inhibits proliferation-associated vascular remodeling. Thus both CO and H2S modulate the function and the structure of circulatory system. Both the HO-CO and CSE-H2S systems have potential to interact with NO and prostanoids in the cerebral circulation. Much of the physiology and biochemistry of HO-CO and CSE-H2S in the cerebral circulation remains open for exploration.

Chronic CO levels has a beneficial effect on vascular relaxation in diabetes

Heme oxygenase (HO) has been shown to provide cytoprotection to the vascular system in diabetes. Isolated femoral arteries from diabetic rats treated with cobalt protoporphyrin (CoPP) exhibited increased relaxation to acetylcholine (ACh), which was markedly decreased in control diabetic rats. In control rats treated with either CoPP or with CO releasing molecules-3 (CORM-3), but not in rats treated with biliverdin, we observed an increased dilatory response to ACh. The inhibition of guanylyl-cyclase (GC) with 1H-[1,2,4]Oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (ODQ) caused a contractile response to ACh in control rats and in biliverdin-treated rats, while in rats treated with CoPP and CORM-3, the ACh dilatory effect was only decreased. Moreover, the inhibition of HO with chromium mesoporphyrin did not change the response to ACh in rats treated with CoPP, suggesting that the improving effect of overproduction of CO on vascular reactivity is due to a decrease in iNOS and the beneficial effect on vascular function.

Regulation of heme oxygenase-1 gene transcription: recent advances and highlights from the International Conference (Uppsala, 2003) on Heme Oxygenase

Recent investigations into the regulation of heme oxygenase-1 gene (hmox-1) transcription have exposed mechanisms of increasing diversity and complexity worthy of a gene whose expression is modulated by a seemingly endless array of physiological, pathophysiological, and nonphysiological agents and conditions. For instance, contrary to initial and prevalent assumptions that inducer-dependent gene stimulation is mediated principally by the positive action of transcription activators, it now appears that such induction may occur secondarily to deactivation of the repressor protein, Bach1. As a further complication, heme and cadmium, two potent inducers of the hmox-1 gene, inhibit Bach1 function by different mechanisms-by inhibition of DNA binding or promotion of nuclear export, respectively. Bach1 also plays a role in signal-dependent hmox-1 gene repression, an increasingly appreciated phenomenon that is manifested in a species- and cell-specific manner. Although extreme concentrations of the heme oxygenase-1 protein resulting from the opposing phenomena of gene activation and repression have physiological consequences, even minor modulation in the level of this enzyme, as elicited by variations in the length of a dinucleotide repeat region within the human hmox-1 promoter, may be of clinical relevance. Finally, mechanistic diversity is also apparent in the type and combination of protein kinase-dependent, signal transduction pathways used during hmox-1 gene activation.

Immunocytochemical localization and expression of heme oxygenase-1 in primary astroglial cell cultures during differentiation: effect of glutamate

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) catalyzes the rate-limiting step in heme degradation releasing iron, carbon monoxide (CO), and biliverdin. We investigated subcellular localization of HO-1 using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and the expression by Western blot in primary astroglial cells during differentiation and after exposure to glutamate (100microM). CLSM analysis of immunostained HO-1 in cultured astroglial cells during differentiation showed an increase of fluorescence between 7 and 14 days and a decrease between 14 and 21, although HO-1 peaked at 14 days it remained at high levels. The distribution of HO-1 protein undergoes modification in the various cellular compartments. Furthermore, localization of the protein in untreated astrocytes at 7 days appeared prevalently localized in the cytosol and in the perinuclear region. In contrast, at 14 and 21 days, fluorescence detection suggests that HO-1 was present also in the nucleus, and in the nucleoli. Fluorescence intensity significantly increased in glutamate-treated astrocytes during all development stages and the protein appeared in the cytosol, in the nucleus and in the nucleoli. The involvement of AMPA/Ka receptors was studied in glutamate-treated astroglial cells at 14 days by the preincubation of the cells with GYKI 52466, a specific receptor inhibitor, of AMPA/Ka receptor demonstrating the involvement of these receptors. Western blot analysis of HO-1 confirmed the CLSM results. Our results demonstrate that changes in HO-1 protein expression and localization in primary cultured astroglial cells may be part of the underlying mechanisms involved in brain development as well as in neurodegenerative diseases.

Influence of heme and heme oxygenase-1 transfection of pulmonary microvascular endothelium on oxidant generation and cGMP

Heme is a co-factor required for the stimulation of soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC) by nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide, and sGC activation by these agents is inhibited by superoxide. Because heme promotes oxidant generation, we examined the influence of rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMECs) with a stable human heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) transfection and heme on oxidant generation and cGMP. Culture of PMEC with low serum heme decreased cGMP and the detection of peroxide with 10 microM 2',7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate and increased HO-1 further decreased cGMP without altering the peroxide detection under these conditions. Under conditions where heme (30 microM) has been shown to stimulate cGMP production in PMECsby mechanisms involving NO and CO, heme increased the detection of peroxide in a PMEC-dependent manner and HO-1 transfection did not markedly alter the effects heme on peroxide detection. The addition of 1 microM catalase markedly inhibited the effects of heme on peroxide detection whereas increasing (0.1 mM ebselen) or decreasing (depleting glutathione with 7 mM diethylmaleate) rates of intracellular peroxide metabolism or inhibiting the biosynthesis of oxidants (with 10 microM diphenyliodonium or 0.1 mM nitro-L-arginine) had only modest effects. The detection of superoxide by 10 microM dihydroethidium from PMECs was not increased by exposure to heme. These actions of oxidant probes suggest that intracellular oxidants have a minimal influence on the response to heme. Thus, exposure of PMECs to heme causes a complex response involving an extracellular generation of peroxide-derived oxidant species, which do not appear to originate from increases in intracellular superoxide or peroxide. This enables heme and HO to regulate sGC through mechanisms involving NO and CO, which are normally inhibited by superoxide.

Functional expression of human heme oxygenase-1 gene in renal structure of spontaneously hypertensive rats

Heme oxygenase (HO), by catabolizing heme to bile pigments, regulates the levels and activity of cellular hemoprotein and HO activity. We examined the effect of delivery of the human HO-1 gene on cellular heme in renal tissue using a retroviral vector. We used a single intracardiac injection of the concentrated infectious viral particles in 5-day-old spontaneously hypertensive rats; 25 were transduced with empty vector and 25 were transduced with the human HO-1 gene. Functional expression of human and rat HO-1 was measured after 2 and 4 weeks. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction showed that human HO-1 mRNA was expressed as early as 2 weeks, with the highest levels in the kidney. Western blot analysis showed distribution of human HO-1 protein in rat kidney structures, predominantly in the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle as well as in proximal tubules and preglomerular arterioles. These areas also demonstrated higher HO activity as measured by increased conversion of heme to bilirubin and carbon monoxide. Functional expression of the human HO-1 gene was associated with a decrease in blood pressure in 4- and 8-week-old spontaneously hypertensive rats. Compared with nontransduced rats, human HO-1 gene overexpression in transduced rats was associated with a 35% decrease in urinary 20-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid, a potent vasoconstrictor and an inhibitor of tubular Na(+) transport, which may be related to the decrease in blood pressure.