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Mennigen JA, Magnan J, Touma K, Best C, Culbert BM, Bernier NJ, Gilmour KM. Social status-dependent regulation and function of the somatotropic axis in juvenile rainbow trout. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2022; 554:111709. [PMID: 35787462 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2022.111709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) develop social hierarchies when competing for resources in a constrained environment. Among the physiological consequences of social status are changes in organismal energy metabolism, which generally favour anabolic pathways in dominant fish and catabolic pathways in subordinate fish. The somatotropic axis is an important regulator of metabolism and growth that could be involved in mediating metabolic changes in response to social status in juvenile rainbow trout. Here we used juvenile trout housed either in dyads or individually (sham controls) to determine whether social status changes indices of somatotropic axis function. Although pituitary growth hormone expression (gh1 and gh2) did not differ among groups, circulating growth hormone (GH) increased ∼12-fold in subordinate fish compared to sham and dominant fish. Social status caused consistent differential expression of GH receptor paralogues in liver and muscle, two principal target tissues of GH. Compared to dominant and/or sham fish, ghra paralogue expression (ghra1 and ghra2) was lower, while ghrb1 expression was higher in subordinate fish. Across tissues, ghra paralogue expression was generally positively correlated with expression of insulin growth factors (igf1, igf2), while ghrb1 expression was positively correlated with transcript abundance of hormone sensitive lipase (hsl1). Because igf and hsl expression are subject to context-dependent GH control in rainbow trout, these results suggest that increased circulating GH in conjunction with differential expression of ghr paralogues may translate into prioritization of downstream catabolic lipolytic pathways in subordinate rainbow trout. These findings support a social context-dependent role for GH signalling in mediating metabolic changes in juvenile rainbow trout.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan A Mennigen
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Julianne Magnan
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kenan Touma
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Carol Best
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brett M Culbert
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nicholas J Bernier
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Effect of Fishmeal Content in the Diet on the Growth and Sexual Maturation of Olive Flounder ( Paralichthysolivaceus) at a Typical Fish Farm. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11072055. [PMID: 34359181 PMCID: PMC8300409 DOI: 10.3390/ani11072055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Increasing demand for an efficient and economic fishmeal feed for sustainable aquaculture has urged the aquafeed sector to seek an optimum fish-feed formulation. This study investigated the physiological response in olive flounder fed various fishmeal diets in a typical fish farm. The fish were farmed for 20 weeks, using the following experimental feeds: a control feed (CON), a replacement by 20% (F20), and 30% (F30) of the fish meal content of the CON. All groups showed no significant difference in growth and survival rates. However, due to investigating hormone expression associated with maturation, high expression of PSS-I and low expression of FSH-β, ER-α, and ER-β in FM30 compared to other experimental groups were observed. Therefore, up to 30% fishmeal replacement does not affect growth, but it appears to have a slight effect on the sexual development of olive flounder. Abstract Olive flounder (Paralichthys olivaceus) is a commercially important and valuable species for aquaculture in Korea. Due to the unstable supply of fishmeal for farmed fish, an optimum fish-feed formulation should be researched to ensure the sustainability of P. olivaceus aquaculture. This study investigated the effect of three experimental diets: Con (basal diet); FM20 (20% fishmeal replacement of CON); and FM30 (30% fishmeal replacement of CON) on P. olivaceus over 20 weeks at a typical farm by monitoring the growth and factors relating to sexual maturation. The results showed that no differences in growth were observed between the CON and diet-replacement groups. Gonadal oocyte development was similar between the CON and diet-replacement groups. Moreover, sbGnRH and GH expression did not differ between the CON and diet-replacement groups. The levels of Erβ and Vtg expression were significantly higher in the FM20 group than in the CON and FM30 groups after the experimental period. The expression of PSS-I was significantly higher in the FM30 group than in the CON and FM20 groups. Therefore, although growth occurred when 30% of the fishmeal was replaced, such high dietary protein replacement may be ill-advised during the maturation of olive flounder at the commercial fish farm.
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Callet T, Hu H, Larroquet L, Surget A, Liu J, Plagnes-Juan E, Maunas P, Turonnet N, Mennigen JA, Bobe J, Burel C, Corraze G, Panserat S, Marandel L. Exploring the Impact of a Low-Protein High-Carbohydrate Diet in Mature Broodstock of a Glucose-Intolerant Teleost, the Rainbow Trout. Front Physiol 2020; 11:303. [PMID: 32499714 PMCID: PMC7243711 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sustainable aquaculture production requires a greater reduction in the use of marine-derived ingredients, and one of the most promising solutions today is the augmentation in the proportion of digestible carbohydrates in aquafeed. This challenge is particularly difficult for high trophic level teleost fish as they are considered to be glucose-intolerant (growth delay and persistent postprandial hyperglycemia observed in juveniles fed a diet containing more than 20% of carbohydrates). It was previously suggested that broodstock could potentially use carbohydrates more efficiently than juveniles, probably due to important metabolic changes that occur during gametogenesis. To investigate this hypothesis, 2-year old male and female rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were either fed a diet containing no carbohydrates (NC) or a 35%-carbohydrate diet (HC) for an entire reproductive cycle. Zootechnical parameters as well as the activities of enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism were measured in livers and gonads. Fish were then reproduced to investigate the effects of such a diet on reproductive performance. Broodstock consumed the HC diet, and in contrast to what is commonly observed in juveniles, they were able to grow normally and they did not display postprandial hyperglycemia. The modulation of their hepatic metabolism, with an augmentation of the glycogenesis, the pentose phosphate pathway and a possible better regulation of gluconeogenesis, may explain their improved ability to use dietary carbohydrates. Although the HC diet did induce precocious maturation, the reproductive performance of fish was not affected, confirming that broodstock are able to reproduce when fed a low-protein high-carbohydrate diet. In conclusion, this exploratory work has shown that broodstock are able to use a diet containing digestible carbohydrates as high as 35% and can then grow and reproduce normally over an entire reproductive cycle for females and at least at the beginning of the cycle for males. These results are highly promising and suggest that dietary carbohydrates can at least partially replace proteins in broodstock aquafeed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thérèse Callet
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Huihua Hu
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France.,State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.,University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Laurence Larroquet
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Anne Surget
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Jingwei Liu
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Elisabeth Plagnes-Juan
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Patrick Maunas
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Nicolas Turonnet
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | | | - Julien Bobe
- INRAE, LPGP UR1037, Campus de Beaulieu, Rennes, France
| | - Christine Burel
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Geneviève Corraze
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Stephane Panserat
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
| | - Lucie Marandel
- INRAE, Université de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, NUMEA, Saint-Pée-sur-Nivelle, France
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Somatostatin 4 regulates growth and modulates gametogenesis in zebrafish. AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aaf.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Shirdel I, Kalbassi MR. Effects of nonylphenol on key hormonal balances and histopathology of the endangered Caspian brown trout (Salmo trutta caspius). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 183-184:28-35. [PMID: 26811907 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2016.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2015] [Revised: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) potentially pose a hazard to endangered species. Evaluation of the sensitivity of these species to EDCs could be helpful for protecting their populations. So, the present study investigated the adverse effects of nonylphenol, an EDC, on the endocrine hormones and histopathology of male and female juvenile Caspian brown trout (Salmo trutta caspius) following 21 days of exposure to nominal concentrations of 1, 10 and 100 μg/l. The results showed that the HSI and plasma total calcium of male and female fishes exposed to 100 μg/l nonylphenol were significantly increased compared with the control groups (P<0.001). The male plasma T3 level was significantly decreased in 10 (P<0.01) and 100 (P<0.001) μg/l nonylphenol. The female T3 level increased in 1 μg/l nonylphenol concentration (P<0.05). The plasma T4 of males showed significant elevation in fishes exposed to 100 μg/l nonylphenol (P<0.05), but no change for females in any of treatment groups relative to controls (P>0.05). No significant effect of nonylphenol exposure was observed on male plasma TSH levels (P>0.05), whereas, in females, nonylphenol at all concentrations significantly reduced TSH levels. A bell-shaped response was observed in male and female plasma GH levels. Moreover, various histopathological lesions were observed in gill and intestine tissues of fishes exposed to different nonylphenol concentrations. These results demonstrate the high sensitivity of this endangered species to even environmentally relevant concentrations of nonylphenol. Furthermore, Caspian brown trout could be used as bioindicators reflecting the toxicity of nonylphenol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Shirdel
- Department of Fisheries, Marine Sciences Faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O. Box: 46414-356, Noor, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Kalbassi
- Department of Fisheries, Marine Sciences Faculty, Tarbiat Modares University, P.O. Box: 46414-356, Noor, Iran.
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Cleveland BM, Weber GM. Effects of sex steroids on expression of genes regulating growth-related mechanisms in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Gen Comp Endocrinol 2015; 216:103-15. [PMID: 25482545 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2014.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 11/12/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Effects of a single injection of 17β-estradiol (E2), testosterone (T), or 5β-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) on expression of genes central to the growth hormone (GH)/insulin-like growth factor (IGF) axis, muscle-regulatory factors, transforming growth factor-beta (TGFβ) superfamily signaling cascade, and estrogen receptors were determined in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) liver and white muscle tissue. In liver in addition to regulating GH sensitivity and IGF production, sex steroids also affected expression of IGF binding proteins, as E2, T, and DHT increased expression of igfbp2b and E2 also increased expression of igfbp2 and igfbp4. Regulation of this system also occurred in white muscle in which E2 increased expression of igf1, igf2, and igfbp5b1, suggesting anabolic capacity may be maintained in white muscle in the presence of E2. In contrast, DHT decreased expression of igfbp5b1. DHT and T decreased expression of myogenin, while other muscle regulatory factors were either not affected or responded similarly for all steroid treatments. Genes within the TGFβ superfamily signaling cascade responded to steroid treatment in both liver and muscle, suggesting a regulatory role for sex steroids in the ability to transmit signals initiated by TGFβ superfamily ligands, with a greater number of genes responding in liver than in muscle. Estrogen receptors were also regulated by sex steroids, with era1 expression increasing for all treatments in muscle, but only E2- and T-treatment in liver. E2 reduced expression of erb2 in liver. Collectively, these data identify how physiological mechanisms are regulated by sex steroids in a manner that promotes the disparate effects of androgens and estrogens on growth in salmonids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth M Cleveland
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, USDA/ARS, 11861 Leetown Rd, Kearneysville, WV 25427, USA.
| | - Gregory M Weber
- National Center for Cool and Cold Water Aquaculture, USDA/ARS, 11861 Leetown Rd, Kearneysville, WV 25427, USA
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McCormick SD, O'dea MF, Moeckel AM, Lerner DT, Björnsson BT. Endocrine disruption of parr-smolt transformation and seawater tolerance of Atlantic salmon by 4-nonylphenol and 17beta-estradiol. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2005; 142:280-8. [PMID: 15935154 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2005.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2004] [Revised: 12/22/2004] [Accepted: 01/26/2005] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Sex steroids are known to interfere with the parr-smolt transformation of anadromous salmonids, and environmental estrogens such as nonylphenol have recently been implicated in reduced returns of Atlantic salmon in the wild. To determine the endocrine pathways by which estrogenic compounds affect smolt development and seawater tolerance, groups of juvenile Atlantic salmon were injected with one of five doses (0.5, 2, 10, 40 or 150 microg g(-1)) of branched 4-nonylphenol (NP), 2 microg g(-1) of 17beta-estradiol (E(2)), or vehicle, during the parr-smolt transformation in April, and the treatment was repeated 4, 8, and 11 days after the first injection. Plasma was obtained for biochemical analysis 7 and 14 days after initiation of treatment. After 14 days of treatment, additional fish from each treatment group were exposed to seawater for 24h to assess salinity tolerance. The E(2) treatment and the highest NP dose resulted in lower salinity tolerance and decreased plasma insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) levels, along with elevated levels of plasma vitellogenin and total calcium. Plasma growth hormone levels were elevated at intermediate NP doses only, and not affected by E(2). After 7 days, plasma thyroxine (T(4)) levels decreased in a strong, dose-dependent manner in response to nonylphenol, but after 14 days, this suppressive effect of T(4) occurred at the highest NP dose only. Similarly, E(2) decreased plasma T(4) levels at 7, but not 14 days. Plasma 3,3',5-triodo-l-thyronine was reduced by E(2) and the highest NP dose after 7 and 14 days of treatment. Plasma cortisol levels were not affected by any of the treatments. The results indicate that the parr-smolt transformation and salinity tolerance can be compromised by exposure to estrogenic compounds. Suppression of plasma IGF-I levels is a likely endocrine pathway for the effects of estrogenic compounds on hypo-osmoregulatory capacity, and the detrimental effects of E(2) and NP on thyroid hormone levels are also likely to compromise the normal parr-smolt transformation of Atlantic salmon.
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Madeo M, Giusi G, Aló R, Facciolo RM, Carelli A, Canonaco M. Different somatostatin receptor subtypes are operating in the brain of the teleost fish,Coris julis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 303:406-13. [PMID: 15828016 DOI: 10.1002/jez.a.184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Characterization of somatostatinergic (sst) neuronal activity through the application of nonpeptidyl agonists L-779,976 and L-817,818 which are highly specific for the sst receptors (sstr) sstr(2) and sstr(5), respectively, shows for the first time that sstr2, 5-like subtypes are the two major sstr subtypes operating in the brain of the teleost sea wrasse, Coris julis. A somewhat high but heterogeneous distribution pattern (> 30 < 180 fmol/mg wet tissue weight) of neurons expressing sstr2, 5 was reported in the different diencephalic regions plus in mesencephalon and telencephalon while low values were obtained in the cerebellum. Application of the above nonpeptidyl agonists permitted us to identify sstr2-like as the predominant subtype in telencephalic areas such as the entopeduncular nucleus (E) and postcommissural nucleus of the ventral telencephalon (Vp) as well as in hypothalamic and thalamic areas. At the same time high levels of neurons expressing sstr5-like, that greatly overlap those of sstr2-like in the diencephalic areas such as the anteroventral part of the preoptic nucleus (NPOav), the dorsal habenular nucleus (NHd) and the ventrolateral thalamic nucleus (VL), indicate that sstr2-like is very likely not the only sstr subtype acting in this fish brain. The predominance of sstr5-like in other brain areas is confirmed by the high quantities of this subtype in mesencephalic areas such as the torus longitudinalis (TLo). Overall, the discriminately differing densities of neurons expressing both subtypes seem to point to this system as a key molecular basis accounting for the distinct neurophysiological and behavioral sst-dependent activities in Coris julis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Madeo
- Comparative NeuroAnatomy Laboratory, Ecology Dept., University of Calabria, 87030 Rende (Cosenza), Italy
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Cardenas R, Lin X, Canosa LF, Luna M, Arámburo C, Peter RE. Estradiol reduces pituitary responsiveness to somatostatin (SRIF-14) and down-regulates the expression of somatostatin sst2 receptors in female goldfish pituitary. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2003; 132:119-24. [PMID: 12765651 DOI: 10.1016/s0016-6480(03)00055-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sex steroid hormones have been shown to regulate somatostatin (SRIF) gene expression in goldfish brain, which in turn influences the regulation of GH secretion. In this study, the influences of sex steroids on pituitary responsiveness to SRIF-14 and the pituitary expression of a type two SRIF receptor (sst(2)) were examined. Results from in vitro perifusion of pituitary fragments show that pituitaries from estradiol-primed sexually regressed female fish have significantly lower GH release responsiveness to pulse exposure to SRIF-14 than pituitaries from control or testosterone-treated sexually regressed females. Results from in vitro static culture show that pituitaries from sexually mature female fish have lower GH release responsiveness to SRIF-14 than those from sexually regressed females. In addition, the sst(2) receptor mRNA levels in pituitaries from mature and recrudescent female fish are significantly lower than in sexually regressed female fish. Our results indicate that estradiol acts at the level of the pituitary to regulate GH secretion by influencing the responsiveness to SRIF-14. The underlying mechanism includes, in part, reduction of the expression of sst(2) receptors, presumably leading to the lower number of the receptors available for SRIF binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolfo Cardenas
- Unidad de Morfología y Función, Escuela Nacional de Estudios Professionales Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, Av. de los Barrios #1, Los Reyes Iztacala, Tlalnepantla, Edo de Mex. 54090, Mexico
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Alexander L, Knutson D, Kittilson JD, Sheridan MA. Localization of somatostatin mRNAs in the brain and pancreas of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2001; 129:221-8. [PMID: 11399453 DOI: 10.1016/s1096-4959(01)00313-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Rainbow trout possess three distinct mRNAs, each encoding a separate precursor: PPSS I, which contains a 14-amino acid sequence at its C-terminus (somatostatin-14) that is highly conserved among vertebrates, as well as two others, PPSS II' and PPSS II", both containing [Tyr(7), Gly(10)]-somatostatin-14 at their C-terminus. In this study, we used RNA template-specific PCR and in situ hybridization to determine the distribution and cellular localization of PPSS mRNAs in the brain and Brockmann body of rainbow trout. PPSS I, PPSS II' and PPSS II" were expressed in the Brockmann body and pituitary; the expression of PPSS mRNAs in the brain was region specific. PPSS I mRNA was expressed in the Brockmann body predominantly by cells other than those that expressed PPSS IIs; however, there were several instances where PPSS I and PPSS IIs were co-expressed within the same cell. Of the PPSS II-expressing cells, many were observed to express both PPSS II' and PPSS II" mRNA; however, some cells expressed only PPSS II' mRNA, while other cells expressed only PPSS II" mRNA. In the brain, PPSS I mRNA was expressed in the optic tectum (OT) and in many hypothalamic nuclei, including the nucleus rotundus (NR), nucleus anterioris hypothalami (NAH), nucleus anterior tuberis (NAT), nucleus lateral tuberis (NLT), as well as in the pituitary (adenohypophysis). PPSS II" mRNA was present in the same regions as PPSS I mRNA; however, PPSS II' mRNA was present primarily in OT, NAT, NLT and adenohypohysis. These results indicate that PPSS mRNAs are expressed differently by different cells, suggesting that cell-specific mechanisms are involved with the control of PPSS expression and that particular biological responses may be associated with a specific SS isoform.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Alexander
- Department of Zoology and Regulatory Biosciences Center, North Dakota State University, 58105-5517, Fargo, ND, USA
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