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Notley SR, Mitchell D, Taylor NAS. A century of exercise physiology: concepts that ignited the study of human thermoregulation. Part 3: Heat and cold tolerance during exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:1-145. [PMID: 37796292 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05276-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
In this third installment of our four-part historical series, we evaluate contributions that shaped our understanding of heat and cold stress during occupational and athletic pursuits. Our first topic concerns how we tolerate, and sometimes fail to tolerate, exercise-heat stress. By 1900, physical activity with clothing- and climate-induced evaporative impediments led to an extraordinarily high incidence of heat stroke within the military. Fortunately, deep-body temperatures > 40 °C were not always fatal. Thirty years later, water immersion and patient treatments mimicking sweat evaporation were found to be effective, with the adage of cool first, transport later being adopted. We gradually acquired an understanding of thermoeffector function during heat storage, and learned about challenges to other regulatory mechanisms. In our second topic, we explore cold tolerance and intolerance. By the 1930s, hypothermia was known to reduce cutaneous circulation, particularly at the extremities, conserving body heat. Cold-induced vasodilatation hindered heat conservation, but it was protective. Increased metabolic heat production followed, driven by shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis, even during exercise and work. Physical endurance and shivering could both be compromised by hypoglycaemia. Later, treatments for hypothermia and cold injuries were refined, and the thermal after-drop was explained. In our final topic, we critique the numerous indices developed in attempts to numerically rate hot and cold stresses. The criteria for an effective thermal stress index were established by the 1930s. However, few indices satisfied those requirements, either then or now, and the surviving indices, including the unvalidated Wet-Bulb Globe-Thermometer index, do not fully predict thermal strain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean R Notley
- Defence Science and Technology Group, Department of Defence, Melbourne, Australia
- School of Human Kinetics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Duncan Mitchell
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- School of Human Sciences, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia
| | - Nigel A S Taylor
- Research Institute of Human Ecology, College of Human Ecology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Briganti GL, Chesini G, Tarditi D, Serli D, Capodici A. Effects of cold water exposure on stress, cardiovascular, and psychological variables. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2023; 239:e14056. [PMID: 37840386 DOI: 10.1111/apha.14056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Leonardo Briganti
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giulia Chesini
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Davide Tarditi
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Davide Serli
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Angelo Capodici
- Department of Biomedical and Neuromotor Science, Alma Mater Studiorum, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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3
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Rho NK. Revisiting the Role of Local Cryotherapy for Acne Treatment: A Review and Update. J Clin Med 2022; 12:jcm12010026. [PMID: 36614827 PMCID: PMC9821281 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12010026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Acne vulgaris is a well-recognized condition among adolescents and adults that adversely affects their quality of life. Local cryotherapy has long been reported to be effective in treating acne vulgaris, inducing a more rapid involution of acne than topical medications. However, the use of cryotherapy has been limited for acne treatment due to several drawbacks, including procedural pain and pigmentary alterations. Currently, newer cryotherapy devices are gaining attention in dermatology due to their ability to monitor and precisely control the target temperature. In this narrative review, a brief history and the latest update on acne cryotherapy will be presented. Additionally, a special emphasis is placed on the role of cryotherapy, alone or in combination with intralesional steroid injections for nodulocystic acne.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nark-Kyoung Rho
- Leaders Aesthetic Laser & Cosmetic Surgery Center, Seoul 06014, Republic of Korea
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4
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Cho EO, Cowgill LW, Middleton KM, Blomquist GE, Savoldi F, Tsoi J, Bornstein MM. The influence of climate and population structure on East Asian skeletal morphology. J Hum Evol 2022; 173:103268. [PMID: 36288639 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have shown that global variation in body proportions is more complex than previously thought as some traits formerly associated with climate adaptation are better explained by geographic proximity and neutral evolutionary forces. While the recent incorporation of quantitative genetic methodologies has improved understanding of patterns related to climate in Africa, Europe, and the Americas, Asia remains underrepresented in recent and historic studies of body form. As ecogeographic studies tend to focus on male morphology, potential sex differences in features influenced by climate remain largely unexplored. Skeletal measurements encompassing the dimensions of the skull, pelvis, limbs, hands, and feet were collected from male (n = 459) and female (n = 442) remains curated in 13 collections across seven countries in East Asia (n = 901). Osteological data were analyzed with sex and minimum temperature as covariates adjusted by autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphism population genetic distance using univariate Bayesian linear mixed models, and credible intervals were calculated for each trait. Analysis supports a relationship between specific traits and climate as well as providing the magnitude of response in both sexes. After accounting for genetic distance between populations, greater association between climate and morphology was found in postcranial traits, with the relationship between climate and the skull limited primarily to breadth measurements. Larger body size is associated with colder climates with most measurements increasing with decreased temperature. The same traits were not always associated with climate for males and females nor correlated with the same intensity for both sexes. The varied directional association with climate for different regions of the skeleton and between the sexes underscores the necessity of future ecogeographic research to holistically evaluate body form and to look for sex-specific patterns to better understand population responses to environmental stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth O Cho
- Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA; Center for Anatomical Sciences, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA.
| | - Libby W Cowgill
- Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Kevin M Middleton
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | | | - Fabio Savoldi
- Orthodontics, Division of Paediatric Dentistry & Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong S.A.R., P.R. China
| | - James Tsoi
- Dental Materials Science, Division of Applied Oral Sciences & Community Dental Care, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong S.A.R., P.R. China
| | - Michael M Bornstein
- Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, Division of Applied Oral Sciences & Community Dental Care, Faculty of Dentistry, The University of Hong Kong, Sai Ying Pun, Hong Kong S.A.R., P.R. China; Department of Oral Health and Medicine, University Center for Dental Medicine Basel UZB, University of Basel, Basel 4058, Switzerland
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Færevik H, Hansen JH, Wiggen Ø, Sandsund M. Cognitive Performance During Night Work in the Cold. Front Physiol 2021; 12:768517. [PMID: 34925063 PMCID: PMC8678462 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.768517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: The objective of this study was to investigate how night work at low ambient temperatures affects cognitive performance (short-term memory and reaction time), skin- and core temperature, thermal comfort, sleepiness, and cortisol. We hypothesized that cognitive performance is reduced at night compared with daytime and worsened when exposed to low ambient temperatures. Method: Eleven male subjects were recruited to perform three tests in a climatic chamber at night and daytime: Night –2°C, Night 23°C and Day 23°C. Each test lasted 6 h. Cognitive performance (short-term memory and reaction time), skin- and core temperature, thermal sensation and comfort, cortisol levels and sleepiness were measured during the tests. Results: A lower mean skin temperature and corresponding lower thermal sensation were observed at Night –2°C compared to Day 23°C and Night 23°C. Night work caused increased sleepiness and lower cortisol levels, but was not affected by changes in ambient temperatures, thermal comfort, or skin temperatures. There was no effect of either day/night work nor ambient temperature on the short-term memory or reaction time test. Conclusion: Lower skin- and core temperature were observed at night when exposed to low ambient temperature (–2°C), but there was no effect on short-term memory or reaction time. Increased sleepiness and lower cortisol levels were observed at night compared to daytime and was not influenced by low ambient temperature at night. The result from this study suggests that cognitive performance (short-term memory and reaction time) is not adversely affected by night work when exposed to low ambient temperatures if adequate protective clothing is worn.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilde Færevik
- SINTEF Digital, Department of Health Research, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Øystein Wiggen
- SINTEF Digital, Department of Health Research, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Mariann Sandsund
- SINTEF Digital, Department of Health Research, Trondheim, Norway
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Effects of whole-body cryotherapy on the innate and adaptive immune response in cyclists and runners. Immunol Res 2020; 68:422-435. [PMID: 33159311 DOI: 10.1007/s12026-020-09165-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The study aimed to identify the effects of whole-body cryotherapy (WBC) on immunological, hormonal, and metabolic responses of non-professional male athletes. Ten cyclists and ten middle-distance runners received 3 once-a-day sessions of WBC. Before initiating and after the final WBC session, a full set of hematologic parameters, serum chemistry profile, hormones, circulating mitochondrial (mt) DNA levels, cytokines, and chemokines concentration were evaluated. The phenotype of monocyte, T cells, and B cells was analyzed. mRNA expression of 6 genes involved in inflammasome activation (NAIP, AIM2, NLRP3, PYCARD, IL-1β, and IL-18) was quantified. WBC reduced glucose and C and S protein and increased HDL, urea, insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, follicle-stimulating hormone, IL-18, IL-1RA, CCL2, and CXCL8. Intermediate and non-classical monocyte percentages decreased, and the CD14, CCR5, CCR2, and CXCR4 expressions changed in different subsets. Only IL-1β mRNA increased in monocytes. Finally, a redistribution of B and T cell subsets was observed, suggesting the migration of mature cells to tissue. WBC seems to induce changes in both innate and adaptive branches of the immune system, hormones, and metabolic status in non-professional male athletes, suggesting a beneficial involvement of WBC in tissue repair.
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Ito R, Yamashita N, Ishihara K, Matsumoto T. Rain exacerbates cold and metabolic strain during high-intensity running. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2020; 59:1601-1607. [PMID: 31694361 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.19.09865-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Outdoor exercise often proceeds in rainy conditions. However, there are very few studies reporting the physiological effects of cold with rain or wet-cold exposure on humans during exercise. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of rain on physiological responses during running exercise at 80% V̇Omax in the cold. METHODS Twelve healthy men (age: 21.7±3.3 years; height: 1.760±0.085 m; body weight: 68.8±7.1 kg; maximal oxygen consumption: 67.3±5.00 mL/kg/min) exercised on a treadmill at 80% V̇Omax intensity for 60 minutes with rain (RAIN) or not (CON) at 5 °C. RESULTS Rectal temperature was significantly lower in RAIN than in CON at 10, 40, 50, and 60 minutes (P<0.05). Mean weighted skin temperature was significantly lower in RAIN than in CON during exercise (P<0.05). Oxygen consumption and rating of perceived exertion were significantly higher in RAIN than in CON at 50 and 60 minutes (P<0.05). Plasma lactate was significantly higher in RAIN than in CON at 10 minutes and from 40 to 60 minutes (P<0.05). Plasma norepinephrine levels were significantly higher in RAIN than in CON at 10 minutes and from 40 to 60 minutes (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that rain increased heat loss during the early phase of exercise in the cold, then heat production increased and transiently suppressed cold stress. However, with time, body heat loss intensified due to increasing wet area, and then energy expenditure and plasma lactate increased due to cold stress. Therefore, rain may decrease exercise performance and affect sport safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ito
- School of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Daido University, Nagoya, Japan -
| | - Naoyuki Yamashita
- Faculty of Arts and Sciences Kyoto Institute of Technology, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kohei Ishihara
- Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan
| | - Takaaki Matsumoto
- Graduate School of Health and Sport Sciences, Chukyo University, Toyota, Japan
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Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, Smith-Ryan A, Kleiner SM, Jäger R, Collins R, Cooke M, Davis JN, Galvan E, Greenwood M, Lowery LM, Wildman R, Antonio J, Kreider RB. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2018; 15:38. [PMID: 30068354 PMCID: PMC6090881 DOI: 10.1186/s12970-018-0242-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 380] [Impact Index Per Article: 63.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Sports nutrition is a constantly evolving field with hundreds of research papers published annually. In the year 2017 alone, 2082 articles were published under the key words ‘sport nutrition’. Consequently, staying current with the relevant literature is often difficult. Methods This paper is an ongoing update of the sports nutrition review article originally published as the lead paper to launch the Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition in 2004 and updated in 2010. It presents a well-referenced overview of the current state of the science related to optimization of training and performance enhancement through exercise training and nutrition. Notably, due to the accelerated pace and size at which the literature base in this research area grows, the topics discussed will focus on muscle hypertrophy and performance enhancement. As such, this paper provides an overview of: 1.) How ergogenic aids and dietary supplements are defined in terms of governmental regulation and oversight; 2.) How dietary supplements are legally regulated in the United States; 3.) How to evaluate the scientific merit of nutritional supplements; 4.) General nutritional strategies to optimize performance and enhance recovery; and, 5.) An overview of our current understanding of nutritional approaches to augment skeletal muscle hypertrophy and the potential ergogenic value of various dietary and supplemental approaches. Conclusions This updated review is to provide ISSN members and individuals interested in sports nutrition with information that can be implemented in educational, research or practical settings and serve as a foundational basis for determining the efficacy and safety of many common sport nutrition products and their ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad M Kerksick
- Exercise and Performance Nutrition Laboratory, School of Health Sciences, Lindenwood University, St. Charles, MO, USA.
| | - Colin D Wilborn
- Exercise & Sport Science Department, University of Mary-Hardin Baylor, Belton, TX, USA
| | | | - Abbie Smith-Ryan
- Department of Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | | | - Rick Collins
- Collins Gann McCloskey and Barry PLLC, Mineola, NY, USA
| | - Mathew Cooke
- Department of Health and Medical Sciences, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jaci N Davis
- Exercise & Sport Science Department, University of Mary-Hardin Baylor, Belton, TX, USA
| | - Elfego Galvan
- University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX, USA
| | - Mike Greenwood
- Exercise & Sports Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Lonnie M Lowery
- Department of Human Performance & Sport Business, University of Mount Union, Alliance, OH, USA
| | | | - Jose Antonio
- Department of Health and Human Performance, Nova Southeastern University, Davie, FL, USA
| | - Richard B Kreider
- Exercise & Sports Nutrition Lab, Human Clinical Research Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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9
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Kim W, Lee W, Choi JG, Ju IG, Kim YK, Lee TH, Oh MS. Inhibitory effects of Aconiti Lateralis Radix Preparata on chronic intermittent cold-induced inflammation in the mouse hypothalamus. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2018; 215:27-33. [PMID: 29288825 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.12.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Aconiti Lateralis Radix Preparata (AR) is the most frequently used herb to generate heat and treat symptoms associated with coldness in Asia. AIMS OF THE STUDY The hypothalamus is one of the master regulators to maintain constant core body temperature. Chronic exposure to cold stress disturbs homeostatic regulation, gradually resulting in hypothalamic inflammation. This study investigate the effects of AR, on the chronic intermittent cold (CIC)-induced release of pro-inflammatory signaling molecules in the mouse hypothalamus. MATERIALS AND METHODS Aconiti Lateralis Radix Preparata extract (ARE) were solubilized in distilled water and diluted with saline before administration. Male ICR mice (7 weeks old, 30-32g) were divided randomly into 6 groups: (1) control, (2) cold stress, (3) ARE 30, (4) ARE 100, (5) ARE 300, and (6) ARE 1000mg/kg groups. Groups (2)-(6) were exposed to CIC stress once a day for 14 days. CIC stress was achieved by exposing the mice to 4°C and 60 ± 10% humidity for 120min once a day. Rectal temperature was measured after terminating cold stress. Cortisol levels were measured from serum. Hypothalamus tissue was used for western blot analysis, and IL-9, IL-13, PGE1, and PGE2 levels were assessed. RESULTS ARE treatment prevented the CIC-induced decrease in rectal temperature and increase in serum cortisol level. ARE-treated CIC-exposed mice demonstrated decrease in nuclear c-Fos levels dose-dependently compared to CIC-exposed mice. Nuclear NF-kB expression showed significant increase in CIC-exposed mice. ARE treatment significantly blunted the increase in nuclear NF-kB expression. CIC-exposed mice had significantly increased levels of both IL-9 and IL-13. Treatment with ARE suppressed the elevated IL-9 and IL-13 levels. Between control and CIC-exposed mice PGE1 levels showed no difference. However ARE (1000mg/kg)-treated CIC-exposed mice had a significant increase in PGE1 level compared to CIC-exposed mice. PGE2 levels were significantly higher in CIC-exposed mice compared to control mice. ARE treatment significantly attenuated the increase in PGE2 levels. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest CIC stress disturbs the anti-inflammatory effect of cortisol and maintenance of the body temperature. Thus AR contributes to suppress the activated proinflammatory factors, IL-9, IL-13, and PGE-2, and to increase the heat production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonnam Kim
- Section of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
| | - Wonil Lee
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jin Gyu Choi
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - In Gyoung Ju
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yun-Kyung Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Wonkwang University, 460 Iksan-daero, Iksan, Jeonbuk 54538, Republic of Korea.
| | - Tae Hee Lee
- Department of Formulae Pharmacology, School of Oriental Medicine, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdae-ro, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea.
| | - Myung Sook Oh
- Department of Life and Nanopharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea; Department of Oriental Pharmaceutical Science, College of Pharmacy and Kyung Hee East-West Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
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10
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The association between mid-facial morphology and climate in northeast Europe differs from that in north Asia: Implications for understanding the morphology of Late Pleistocene Homo sapiens. J Hum Evol 2017; 107:36-48. [PMID: 28526288 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The climate of northeastern Europe is likely to resemble in many ways Late Pleistocene periglacial conditions in Europe, but there have been relatively few studies exploring the association between climate and morphology in the mid-face of modern northeastern European populations. To fill this gap, we sampled 540 male skulls from 22 European and Near Eastern groups, including 314 skulls from 11 populations from northeastern Europe, to test for possible climate-morphology association at the continental scale. Our results found a moderate and highly significant association (R = 0.48, p = 0.0013, Mantel test) between sets of 23 mid-facial measurements and eight climatic variables. A partial least squares analysis revealed this association to be mostly driven by differences between groups from northeastern Europe and populations from the Mediterranean and the Caucasus. Matrices of between-group genetic distances based on Y-chromosome and mtDNA markers, as well as cranial non-metric and geographic distance matrices, were used to control for the possible influence of shared population history. Irrespective of which measure of neutral between-population distances is taken into account, the association between cranial variables and climate remains significant. The pattern of association between climate and morphology of the mid-face in western Eurasia was then compared to that in east and north Asia. Although differences between the two were found, there were also similarities that support existing functional interpretations of morphology for the bony parts of the upper airways. Last, in a preliminary analysis using a reduced set of measurements, mid-facial morphology of several Upper Paleolithic European Homo sapiens specimens was found to be more similar to groups from northern and northeastern Europe than to southern European populations. Thus, the population of northeastern Europe rather than east and north Asian groups should be used as a model when studying climate-mediated mid-facial morphology of Upper Paleolithic European H. sapiens.
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Castellani JW, Tipton MJ. Cold Stress Effects on Exposure Tolerance and Exercise Performance. Compr Physiol 2015; 6:443-69. [PMID: 26756639 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c140081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Cold weather can have deleterious effects on health, tolerance, and performance. This paper will review the physiological responses and external factors that impact cold tolerance and physical performance. Tolerance is defined as the ability to withstand cold stress with minimal changes in physiological strain. Physiological and pathophysiological responses to short-term (cold shock) and long-term cold water and air exposure are presented. Factors (habituation, anthropometry, sex, race, and fitness) that influence cold tolerance are also reviewed. The impact of cold exposure on physical performance, especially aerobic performance, has not been thoroughly studied. The few studies that have been done suggest that aerobic performance is degraded in cold environments. Potential physiological mechanisms (decreases in deep body and muscle temperature, cardiovascular, and metabolism) are discussed. Likewise, strength and power are also degraded during cold exposure, primarily through a decline in muscle temperature. The review also discusses the concept of thermoregulatory fatigue, a reduction in the thermal effector responses of shivering and vasoconstriction, as a result of multistressor factors, including exhaustive exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Castellani
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, U.S. Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michael J Tipton
- Extreme Environments Laboratory, Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, United Kingdom
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Ito R, Yamashita N, Suzuki E, Matsumoto T. Rain influences the physiological and metabolic responses to exercise in hot conditions. J Sports Sci 2015; 33:892-8. [PMID: 25555077 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2014.977938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Outdoor exercise often proceeds in rainy conditions. However, the cooling effects of rain on human physiological responses have not been systematically studied in hot conditions. The present study determined physiological and metabolic responses using a climatic chamber that can precisely simulate hot, rainy conditions. Eleven healthy men ran on a treadmill at an intensity of 70% VO2max for 30 min in the climatic chamber at an ambient temperature of 33°C in the presence (RAIN) or absence (CON) of 30 mm · h(-1) of precipitation and a headwind equal to the running velocity of 3.15 ± 0.19 m · s(-1). Oesophageal temperature, mean skin temperature, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, blood parameters, volume of expired air and sweat loss were measured. Oesophageal and mean skin temperatures were significantly lower from 5 to 30 min, and heart rate was significantly lower from 20 to 30 min in RAIN than in CON (P < 0.05 for all). Plasma lactate and epinephrine concentrations (30 min) and sweat loss were significantly lower (P < 0.05) in RAIN compared with CON. Rain appears to influence physiological and metabolic responses to exercise in heat such that heat-induced strain might be reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Ito
- a University Educational Center, Nihon Fukushi University , Mihama-cho , Japan
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13
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Cheung SS. Responses of the hands and feet to cold exposure. Temperature (Austin) 2015; 2:105-20. [PMID: 27227009 PMCID: PMC4843861 DOI: 10.1080/23328940.2015.1008890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An initial response to whole-body or local exposure of the extremities to cold is a strong vasoconstriction, leading to a rapid decrease in hand and foot temperature. This impairs tactile sensitivity, manual dexterity, and muscle contractile characteristics while increasing pain and sympathetic drive, decreasing gross motor function, occupational performance, and survival. A paradoxical and cyclical vasodilatation often occurs in the fingers, toes, and face, and this has been termed the hunting response or cold-induced vasodilatation (CIVD). Despite being described almost a century ago, the mechanisms of CIVD are still disputed; research in this area has remained largely descriptive in nature. Recent research into CIVD has brought increased standardization of methodology along with new knowledge about the impact of mediating factors such as hypoxia and physical fitness. Increasing mechanistic analysis of CIVD has also emerged along with improved modeling and prediction of CIVD responses. The present review will survey work conducted during this century on CIVD, its potential mechanisms and modeling, and also the broader context of manual function in cold conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen S Cheung
- Environmental Ergonomics Laboratory; Department of Kinesiology ; Brock University; St. Catharines , Canada
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14
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Muller MD, Muller SM, Ryan EJ, Bellar DM, Kim CH, Glickman EL. Pain and thermal sensation in the cold: the effect of interval versus continuous exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 111:979-87. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1726-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Yamane M, Oida Y, Ohnishi N, Matsumoto T, Kitagawa K. Effects of wind and rain on thermal responses of humans in a mildly cold environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 2010; 109:117-23. [PMID: 20135145 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-010-1369-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to clarify the effects of wind and rain on peripheral heat loss by non-exercising minimally clothed humans in a mildly cold environment. Seven healthy young male subjects wearing only shorts rested in a standing position for 20 min at an ambient temperature of 15 degrees C under three conditions: without exposure to wind or rain (CON), with exposure to wind (3 m/s) (WIND) and with exposure to wind (3 m/s) and rain (40 mm/h) (WIND + RAIN). Mean heat loss measured using a heat flux transducer was significantly greater in the subjects exposed to WIND + RAIN compared to those exposed to CON and WIND conditions (p < 0.01). Metabolic heat production was significantly greater under WIND + RAIN than under CON and WIND (p < 0.01). Decrease in heat storage was significantly larger at WIND + RAIN compared with CON and WIND (p < 0.01). Mean skin temperature was significantly lower under WIND + RAIN than under CON and WIND conditions (p < 0.01). These results indicate that peripheral heat loss significantly increases when humans are exposed to wind and rain for a short period (20 min) under a mildly cold condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Motoi Yamane
- Department of Human Sciences, Aichi Mizuho College, Hiratobashi-cho, Toyota, Japan.
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16
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Kreider RB, Wilborn CD, Taylor L, Campbell B, Almada AL, Collins R, Cooke M, Earnest CP, Greenwood M, Kalman DS, Kerksick CM, Kleiner SM, Leutholtz B, Lopez H, Lowery LM, Mendel R, Smith A, Spano M, Wildman R, Willoughby DS, Ziegenfuss TN, Antonio J. ISSN exercise & sport nutrition review: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2010. [PMCID: PMC2853497 DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-7-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Sports nutrition is a constantly evolving field with hundreds of research papers published annually. For this reason, keeping up to date with the literature is often difficult. This paper is a five year update of the sports nutrition review article published as the lead paper to launch the JISSN in 2004 and presents a well-referenced overview of the current state of the science related to how to optimize training and athletic performance through nutrition. More specifically, this paper provides an overview of: 1.) The definitional category of ergogenic aids and dietary supplements; 2.) How dietary supplements are legally regulated; 3.) How to evaluate the scientific merit of nutritional supplements; 4.) General nutritional strategies to optimize performance and enhance recovery; and, 5.) An overview of our current understanding of the ergogenic value of nutrition and dietary supplementation in regards to weight gain, weight loss, and performance enhancement. Our hope is that ISSN members and individuals interested in sports nutrition find this review useful in their daily practice and consultation with their clients.
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Cappaert TA, Stone JA, Castellani JW, Krause BA, Smith D, Stephens BA. National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: environmental cold injuries. J Athl Train 2009; 43:640-58. [PMID: 19030143 DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-43.6.640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To present recommendations for the prevention, recognition, and treatment of environmental cold injuries. BACKGROUND Individuals engaged in sport-related or work-related physical activity in cold, wet, or windy conditions are at risk for environmental cold injuries. An understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology, risk management, recognition, and immediate care of environmental cold injuries is an essential skill for certified athletic trainers and other health care providers working with individuals at risk. RECOMMENDATIONS These recommendations are intended to provide certified athletic trainers and others participating in athletic health care with the specific knowledge and problem-solving skills needed to address environmental cold injuries. Each recommendation has been graded (A, B, or C) according to the Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy criterion scale.
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18
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Kreider RB, Almada AL, Antonio J, Broeder C, Earnest C, Greenwood M, Incledon T, Kalman DS, Kleiner SM, Leutholtz B, Lowery LM, Mendel R, Stout JR, Willoughby DS, Ziegenfuss TN. ISSN Exercise & Sport Nutrition Review: Research & Recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2004. [PMCID: PMC2129137 DOI: 10.1186/1550-2783-1-1-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Sport nutrition is a constantly evolving field with literally thousands of research papers published annually. For this reason, keeping up to date with the literature is often difficult. This paper presents a well-referenced overview of the current state of the science related to how to optimize training through nutrition. More specifically, this article discusses: 1.) how to evaluate the scientific merit of nutritional supplements; 2.) general nutritional strategies to optimize performance and enhance recovery; and, 3.) our current understanding of the available science behind weight gain, weight loss, and performance enhancement supplements. Our hope is that ISSN members find this review useful in their daily practice and consultation with their clients.
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19
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Abstract
Tolerance to cold and heat exposure shows large variations for which there is still insufficient explanation. On the other hand the relationship between the responses to mental stress and individual personality is well documented. The aim of this study was then to find if personality traits have some influence on the responses to environmental temperature exposure. A group of 20 young adults were exposed for 90 min to cold (10 degrees C) while skin temperature (Ts), oxygen consumption and discomfort rating were recorded. In a second experiment they were exposed to heat (40 degrees C) for 90 min when the sweat rate and the discomfort rating were recorded. Prior to these tests the Big Five Personality Test was used to measure the personality traits of the subjects. The results show significant negative correlation between neuroticism and the O(2) consumed, the discomfort rating and Ts for the test in the cold, while extraversion was positively related to O(2) consumption but not to Ts and discomfort rating. In response to heat, neuroticism predominance was associated with greater discomfort, reduced tolerance and diminished sweat rate. The discomfort rating, in this case, was negatively related to extraversion. It is proposed that the reduced O(2) consumption in the cold and the lower rate of sweating in the heat observed with neuroticism, are caused by enhanced activity of the sympathetic nervous system. Further investigation is required to assess the validity of this proposal. Overall, the present investigation shows that physical environmental stresses, in common with mental stress, could be in some ways related to personality traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J LeBlanc
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Laval University, G1K 7P4, Quebec, Canada.
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20
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Tikuisis P. Heat balance precedes stabilization of body temperatures during cold water immersion. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2003; 95:89-96. [PMID: 12639852 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01195.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Certain previous studies suggest, as hypothesized herein, that heat balance (i.e., when heat loss is matched by heat production) is attained before stabilization of body temperatures during cold exposure. This phenomenon is explained through a theoretical analysis of heat distribution in the body applied to an experiment involving cold water immersion. Six healthy and fit men (mean +/- SD of age = 37.5 +/- 6.5 yr, height = 1.79 +/- 0.07 m, mass = 81.8 +/- 9.5 kg, body fat = 17.3 +/- 4.2%, maximal O2 uptake = 46.9 +/- 5.5 l/min) were immersed in water ranging from 16.4 to 24.1 degrees C for up to 10 h. Core temperature (Tco) underwent an insignificant transient rise during the first hour of immersion, then declined steadily for several hours, although no subject's Tco reached 35 degrees C. Despite the continued decrease in Tco, shivering had reached a steady state of approximately 2 x resting metabolism. Heat debt peaked at 932 +/- 334 kJ after 2 h of immersion, indicating the attainment of heat balance, but unexpectedly proceeded to decline at approximately 48 kJ/h, indicating a recovery of mean body temperature. These observations were rationalized by introducing a third compartment of the body, comprising fat, connective tissue, muscle, and bone, between the core (viscera and vessels) and skin. Temperature change in this "mid region" can account for the incongruity between the body's heat debt and the changes in only the core and skin temperatures. The mid region temperature decreased by 3.7 +/- 1.1 degrees C at maximal heat debt and increased slowly thereafter. The reversal in heat debt might help explain why shivering drive failed to respond to a continued decrease in Tco, as shivering drive might be modulated by changes in body heat content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Tikuisis
- Defence Research and Development Canada, Human Performance and Protection, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3M 3B9.
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21
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Proulx CI, Ducharme MB, Kenny GP. Effect of water temperature on cooling efficiency during hyperthermia in humans. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2003; 94:1317-23. [PMID: 12626467 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00541.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 149] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We evaluated the cooling rate of hyperthermic subjects, as measured by rectal temperature (T(re)), during immersion in a range of water temperatures. On 4 separate days, seven subjects (4 men, 3 women) exercised at 65% maximal oxygen consumption at an ambient temperature of 39 degrees C until T(re) increased to 40 degrees C (45.4 +/- 4.1 min). After exercise, the subjects were immersed in a circulated water bath controlled at 2, 8, 14, or 20 degrees C until T(re) returned to 37.5 degrees C. No difference in cooling rate was observed between the immersions at 8, 14, and 20 degrees C despite the differences in the skin surface-to-water temperature gradient, possibly because of the presence of shivering at 8 and 14 degrees C. Compared with the other conditions, however, the rate of cooling (0.35 +/- 0.14 degrees C/min) was significantly greater during the 2 degrees C water immersion, in which shivering was seldom observed. This rate was almost twice as much as the other conditions (P < 0.05). Our results suggest that 2 degrees C water is the most effective immersion treatment for exercise-induced hyperthermia.
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Affiliation(s)
- C I Proulx
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa Ontario, Canada K1N 6N5
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiina Pääkkönen
- Arctic Medical Center, Thule Institute, Finland. tiina.paakkonen.oulu.fi
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Castellani JW, Young AJ, Degroot DW, Stulz DA, Cadarette BS, Rhind SG, Zamecnik J, Shek PN, Sawka MN. Thermoregulation during cold exposure after several days of exhaustive exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2001; 90:939-46. [PMID: 11181604 DOI: 10.1152/jappl.2001.90.3.939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the hypothesis that several days of exhaustive exercise would impair thermoregulatory effector responses to cold exposure, leading to an accentuated core temperature reduction compared with exposure of the same individual to cold in a rested condition. Thirteen men (10 experimental and 3 control) performed a cold-wet walk (CW) for up to 6 h (6 rest-work cycles, each 1 h in duration) in 5 degrees C air on three occasions. One cycle of CW consisted of 10 min of standing in the rain (5.4 cm/h) followed by 45 min of walking (1.34 m/s, 5.4 m/s wind). Clothing was water saturated at the start of each walking period (0.75 clo vs. 1.1 clo when dry). The initial CW trial (day 0) was performed (afternoon) with subjects rested before initiation of exercise-cold exposure. During the next 7 days, exhaustive exercise (aerobic, anaerobic, resistive) was performed for 4 h each morning. Two subsequent CW trials were performed on the afternoon of days 3 and 7, approximately 2.5 h after cessation of fatiguing exercise. For controls, no exhaustive exercise was performed on any day. Thermoregulatory responses and body temperature during CW were not different on days 0, 3, and 7 in the controls. In the experimental group, mean skin temperature was higher (P < 0.05) during CW on days 3 and 7 than on day 0. Rectal temperature was lower (P < 0.05) and the change in rectal temperature was greater (P < 0.05) during the 6th h of CW on day 3. Metabolic heat production during CW was similar among trials. Warmer skin temperatures during CW after days 3 and 7 indicate that vasoconstrictor responses to cold, but not shivering responses, are impaired after multiple days of severe physical exertion. These findings suggest that susceptibility to hypothermia is increased by exertional fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- J W Castellani
- Thermal and Mountain Medicine Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, Massachusetts 01760-5007, USA.
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