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Noguera Hurtado H, Gresch A, Düfer M. NMDA receptors - regulatory function and pathophysiological significance for pancreatic beta cells. Biol Chem 2023; 404:311-324. [PMID: 36626848 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2022-0236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Due to its unique features amongst ionotropic glutamate receptors, the NMDA receptor is of special interest in the physiological context but even more as a drug target. In the pathophysiology of metabolic disorders, particularly type 2 diabetes mellitus, there is evidence that NMDA receptor activation contributes to disease progression by impairing beta cell function. Consequently, channel inhibitors are suggested for treatment, but up to now there are many unanswered questions about the signaling pathways NMDA receptors are interfering with in the islets of Langerhans. In this review we give an overview about channel structure and function with special regard to the pancreatic beta cells and the regulation of insulin secretion. We sum up which signaling pathways from brain research have already been transferred to the beta cell, and what still needs to be proven. The main focus is on the relationship between an over-stimulated NMDA receptor and the production of reactive oxygen species, the amount of which is crucial for beta cell function. Finally, pilot studies using NMDA receptor blockers to protect the islet from dysfunction are reviewed and future perspectives for the use of such compounds in the context of impaired glucose homeostasis are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héctor Noguera Hurtado
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Anne Gresch
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Martina Düfer
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmacology, University of Münster, Corrensstraße 48, D-48149 Münster, Germany
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Wang R, Liu C, Guo W, Wang L, Chen S, Zhao J, Qin X, Bai W, Yang Z, Kong D, Jia Z, Liu S, Zhang W. Movement disorder caused by FRRS1L deficiency may be associated with morphological and functional disorders in Purkinje cells. Brain Res Bull 2022; 191:93-106. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Laksono RM, Kalim H, Rohman MS, Widodo N, Ahmad MR. Serine racemase interaction with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors antagonist reveals potential alternative target of chronic pain treatment: Molecular docking study. J Adv Pharm Technol Res 2022; 13:232-237. [PMID: 35935687 PMCID: PMC9355058 DOI: 10.4103/japtr.japtr_72_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Serine racemase (SR) catalyzes L-serine racemization to activate the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). NMDAR activation is associated with the progression of acute-to-chronic neuropathic pain. This study aimed to investigate NMDAR antagonist interactions with SR to obtain potential chronic pain target therapy. Several NMDAR antagonist drugs were obtained from the drug bank, and malonate was used as a control inhibitor. Ligands were prepared using the open babel feature on PyRx. The SR structure was obtained from Protein data bank (PDB) (3l6B) and then docked with ligands using the AutoDock Vina. Haloperidol had a lower binding affinity than malonate and other ligands. Ethanol had the highest binding affinity than other drugs but could bind to the Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding domain. Haloperidol is bound to reface that function for reprotonation in racemization reaction to produce D-serine. Halothane bond with Arg135 residues aligned negatively charged substrates to be reprotonated properly by reface. Tramadol is bound to amino acid residues in the triple serine loop, which determines the direction of the SR reaction. Several NMDAR antagonists such as haloperidol, halothane, ethanol, and tramadol bind to SR in the specific binding site. It reveals that SR potentially becomes an alternative target for chronic pain treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ristiawan Muji Laksono
- Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Brawijaya University/Dr. Saiful Anwar General Hospital, Malang, Indonesia,Address for correspondence: Dr. Ristiawan Muji Laksono, Department of Anesthesiology and Intensive Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Brawijaya University/Dr. Saiful Anwar Malang, Jl. Jaksa Agung Suprapto no. 2 Malang, East Java, Indonesia. E-mail:
| | - Handono Kalim
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Brawijaya University/Dr Saiful Anwar General Hospital, Malang, Indonesia
| | - Mohammad Saifur Rohman
- Department of Cardiology and Vascular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Brawijaya University/Dr Saiful Anwar General Hospital, Malang, Indonesia
| | - Nashi Widodo
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
| | - Muhammad Ramli Ahmad
- Department of Anesthesiology, Intensive Care and Pain Management, Faculty of Medicine, Hasanuddin University, Makassar, Indonesia
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Stone TW. Relationships and Interactions between Ionotropic Glutamate Receptors and Nicotinic Receptors in the CNS. Neuroscience 2021; 468:321-365. [PMID: 34111447 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Although ionotropic glutamate receptors and nicotinic receptors for acetylcholine (ACh) have usually been studied separately, they are often co-localized and functionally inter-dependent. The objective of this review is to survey the evidence for interactions between the two receptor families and the mechanisms underlying them. These include the mutual regulation of subunit expression, which change the NMDA:AMPA response balance, and the existence of multi-functional receptor complexes which make it difficult to distinguish between individual receptor sites, especially in vivo. This is followed by analysis of the functional relationships between the receptors from work on transmitter release, cellular electrophysiology and aspects of behavior where these can contribute to understanding receptor interactions. It is clear that nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) on axonal terminals directly regulate the release of glutamate and other neurotransmitters, α7-nAChRs generally promoting release. Hence, α7-nAChR responses will be prevented not only by a nicotinic antagonist, but also by compounds blocking the indirectly activated glutamate receptors. This accounts for the apparent anticholinergic activity of some glutamate antagonists, including the endogenous antagonist kynurenic acid. The activation of presynaptic nAChRs is by the ambient levels of ACh released from pre-terminal synapses, varicosities and glial cells, acting as a 'volume neurotransmitter' on synaptic and extrasynaptic sites. In addition, ACh and glutamate are released as CNS co-transmitters, including 'cholinergic' synapses onto spinal Renshaw cells. It is concluded that ACh should be viewed primarily as a modulator of glutamatergic neurotransmission by regulating the release of glutamate presynaptically, and the location, subunit composition, subtype balance and sensitivity of glutamate receptors, and not primarily as a classical fast neurotransmitter. These conclusions and caveats should aid clarification of the sites of action of glutamate and nicotinic receptor ligands in the search for new centrally-acting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor W Stone
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7FY, UK; Institute of Neuroscience, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, UK.
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Chen R, Hornemann T, Štefanić S, Schraner EM, Zuellig R, Reding T, Malagola E, Henstridge DC, Hills AP, Graf R, Sonda S. Serine administration as a novel prophylactic approach to reduce the severity of acute pancreatitis during diabetes in mice. Diabetologia 2020; 63:1885-1899. [PMID: 32385601 DOI: 10.1007/s00125-020-05156-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
AIMS/HYPOTHESIS Compared with the general population, individuals with diabetes have a higher risk of developing severe acute pancreatitis, a highly debilitating and potentially lethal inflammation of the exocrine pancreas. In this study, we investigated whether 1-deoxysphingolipids, atypical lipids that increase in the circulation following the development of diabetes, exacerbate the severity of pancreatitis in a diabetic setting. METHODS We analysed whether administration of an L-serine-enriched diet to mouse models of diabetes, an established method for decreasing the synthesis of 1-deoxysphingolipids in vivo, reduced the severity of acute pancreatitis. Furthermore, we elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the lipotoxicity exerted by 1-deoxysphingolipids towards rodent pancreatic acinar cells in vitro. RESULTS We demonstrated that L-serine supplementation reduced the damage of acinar tissue resulting from the induction of pancreatitis in diabetic mice (average histological damage score: 1.5 in L-serine-treated mice vs 2.7 in the control group). At the cellular level, we showed that L-serine decreased the production of reactive oxygen species, endoplasmic reticulum stress and cellular apoptosis in acinar tissue. Importantly, these parameters, together with DNA damage, were triggered in acinar cells upon treatment with 1-deoxysphingolipids in vitro, suggesting that these lipids are cytotoxic towards pancreatic acinar cells in a cell-autonomous manner. In search of the initiating events of the observed cytotoxicity, we discovered that 1-deoxysphingolipids induced early mitochondrial dysfunction in acinar cells, characterised by ultrastructural alterations, impaired oxygen consumption rate and reduced ATP synthesis. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION Our results suggest that 1-deoxysphingolipids directly damage the functionality of pancreatic acinar cells and highlight that an L-serine-enriched diet may be used as a promising prophylactic intervention to reduce the severity of pancreatitis in the context of diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Chen
- Swiss Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Center, Department of Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thorsten Hornemann
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Saša Štefanić
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Elisabeth M Schraner
- Institute of Veterinary Anatomy and Virology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Richard Zuellig
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Clinical Nutrition, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Theresia Reding
- Swiss Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Center, Department of Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ermanno Malagola
- Swiss Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Center, Department of Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Darren C Henstridge
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Andrew P Hills
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Rolf Graf
- Swiss Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Center, Department of Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Sabrina Sonda
- Swiss Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Center, Department of Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
- School of Health Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia.
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Mothet JP, Billard JM, Pollegioni L, Coyle JT, Sweedler JV. Investigating brain d-serine: Advocacy for good practices. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2019; 226:e13257. [PMID: 30650253 PMCID: PMC6462235 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The last two decades have witnessed remarkable advance in our understanding the role of d-amino acids in the mammalian nervous system: from the unknown, to known molecules with unknown functions, to potential central players in health and disease. d-Amino acids have emerged as an important class of signaling molecules. In particular, the exploration of the roles of d-serine in brain physiopathology is a vibrant field that is growing at an accelerating pace. However, disentangling the functions of a chiral molecule in a complex chemical matrice as the brain requires specific measurement and detection methods but is also a challenging task as many molecular tools and models investigators are using can lead to confounded observations. Thus, study of d-amino acids demands accurate methodologies and specific controls, and these have often been lacking. Here we outline best practices for d-amino acid research, with a special emphasis on d-serine. We hope these concepts help move the field to greater rigor and reproducibility, allowing the field to advance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Pierre Mothet
- Team Gliotransmission & Synaptopathies, Aix Marseille University, Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de Marseille UMR7286 CNRS, Marseille, France
| | | | - Loredano Pollegioni
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Scienze della Vita, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Joseph T Coyle
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Jonathan V Sweedler
- Department of Chemistry and the Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
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Spezia Adachi LN, Vercelino R, de Oliveira C, Scarabelot VL, de Souza A, Medeiros LF, Cioato SG, Caumo W, Torres ILS. Isoflurane and the Analgesic Effect of Acupuncture and Electroacupuncture in an Animal Model of Neuropathic Pain. J Acupunct Meridian Stud 2018; 11:97-106. [PMID: 29436370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jams.2018.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to determine whether isoflurane interferes with the analgesic effects of acupuncture (Ac) and electroacupuncture (EA), using a neuropathic pain (NP) rat model. In total, 140 male Wistar rats were used; isoflurane-induced nociceptive response was evaluated using the von Frey test, serum calcium-binding protein β (S100β) levels and nerve growth factor (NGF) levels in the left sciatic nerve. The NP model was induced by chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve at 14 days after surgery. Treatment was initiated after NP induction with or without isoflurane anesthesia (20 min/day/8 days). The von Frey test was performed at baseline, 14 days postoperatively, and immediately, 24 h, and 48 h after the last treatment. Results of the nociceptive test and three-way analysis of variance were analyzed by generalized estimating equations, the Bonferroni test, followed by Student-Newman-Keuls or Fisher's least significant difference tests for comparing biochemical parameters (significance defined as p ≤ 0.05). At baseline, no difference was noted in the nociceptive response threshold among all groups. Fourteen days after surgery, compared with other groups, NP groups showed a decreased pain threshold, confirming establishment of NP. Ac and EA enhanced the mechanical pain threshold immediately after the last session in the NP groups, without anesthesia. Isoflurane administration caused increased nociceptive threshold in all groups, and this effect persisted for 48 h after the last treatment. There was an interaction between the independent variables: pain, treatments, and anesthesia in serum S100β levels and NGF levels in the left sciatic nerve. Isoflurane enhanced the analgesic effects of Ac and EA and altered serum S100β and left sciatic nerve NGF levels in rats with NP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren N Spezia Adachi
- Graduate Program in Medicine, Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Rafael Vercelino
- Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Centro Universitário FADERGS, Health and Wellness School Laureate International Universities, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Carla de Oliveira
- Graduate Program in Medicine, Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Vanessa L Scarabelot
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, Physiology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Andressa de Souza
- Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Liciane F Medeiros
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, Physiology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Stefania G Cioato
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, 90050-170, Brazil; Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Wolnei Caumo
- Graduate Program in Medicine, Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Iraci L S Torres
- Graduate Program in Medicine, Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, Physiology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, 90050-170, Brazil; Laboratory of Pain Pharmacology and Neuromodulation: Preclinical Researchs, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Basic Health Sciences, Universidade Federal Do Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Animal Experimentation Unit, Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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Sinitskiy AV, Pande VS. Simulated Dynamics of Glycans on Ligand-Binding Domain of NMDA Receptors Reveals Strong Dynamic Coupling between Glycans and Protein Core. J Chem Theory Comput 2017; 13:5496-5505. [PMID: 29019687 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.7b00817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
N-Methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, key neuronal receptors playing the central role in learning and memory, are heavily glycosylated in vivo. Astonishingly little is known about the structure, dynamics, and physiological relevance of glycans attached to them. We recently demonstrated that certain glycans on the ligand binding domain (LBD) of NMDA receptors (NMDARs) can serve as intramolecular potentiators, changing EC50 of NMDAR coagonists. In this work, we use molecular dynamics trajectories, in aggregate 86.5 μs long, of the glycosylated LBD of the GluN1 subunit of the NMDAR to investigate the behavior of glycans on NMDARs. Though all glycans in our simulations were structurally the same (Man5), the dynamics of glycans at different locations on NMDARs was surprisingly different. The slowest-time scale motions that we detected in various glycans in some cases corresponded to a flipping of parts of glycans relative to each other, while in other cases they reduced to a head-to-tail bending of a glycan. We predict that time scales of conformational changes in glycans on the GluN1 LBD of NMDARs range from nanoseconds to at least hundreds of microseconds. Some of the conformational changes in the glycans correlate with the physiologically important clamshell-like opening and closing of the GluN1 LBD domain. Thus, glycans are an integral part of NMDARs, and computational models of NMDARs should include glycans to faithfully represent the structure and the dynamics of these receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anton V Sinitskiy
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Computer Science, and §Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Vijay S Pande
- Department of Chemistry, ‡Department of Computer Science, and §Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University , Stanford, California 94305, United States
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Acton D, Miles GB. Gliotransmission and adenosinergic modulation: insights from mammalian spinal motor networks. J Neurophysiol 2017; 118:3311-3327. [PMID: 28954893 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00230.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are proposed to converse with neurons at tripartite synapses, detecting neurotransmitter release and responding with release of gliotransmitters, which in turn modulate synaptic strength and neuronal excitability. However, a paucity of evidence from behavioral studies calls into question the importance of gliotransmission for the operation of the nervous system in healthy animals. Central pattern generator (CPG) networks in the spinal cord and brain stem coordinate the activation of muscles during stereotyped activities such as locomotion, inspiration, and mastication and may therefore provide tractable models in which to assess the contribution of gliotransmission to behaviorally relevant neural activity. We review evidence for gliotransmission within spinal locomotor networks, including studies indicating that adenosine derived from astrocytes regulates the speed of locomotor activity via metamodulation of dopamine signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Acton
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife , United Kingdom
| | - Gareth B Miles
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife , United Kingdom
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