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Taylor AB, Terhune CE, Ross CF, Vinyard CJ. The impact of measurement technique and sampling on estimates of skeletal muscle fibre architecture. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2024; 307:3071-3084. [PMID: 38406878 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle fibre architecture provides important insights into performance of vertebrate locomotor and feeding behaviours. Chemical digestion and in situ sectioning of muscle bellies along their lengths to expose fibres, fibre orientation and intramuscular tendon, are two classical methods for estimating architectural variables such as fibre length (Lf) and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). It has recently been proposed that Lf estimates are systematically shorter and hence less accurate using in situ sectioning. Here we addressed this hypothesis by comparing Lf estimates between the two methods for the superficial masseter and temporalis muscles in a sample of strepsirrhine and platyrrhine primates. Means or single-specimen Lf estimates using chemical digestion were greater in 17/32 comparisons (53.13%), indicating the probability of achieving longer fibres using chemical digestion is no greater than chance in these taxonomic samples. We further explored the impact of sampling on scaling of Lf and PCSA in platyrrhines applying a bootstrapping approach. We found that sampling-both numbers of individuals within species and representation of species across the clade significantly influence scaling results of Lf and PCSA in platyrrhines. We show that intraspecific and clade sampling strategies can account for differences between previously published platyrrhine scaling studies. We suggest that differences in these two methodological approaches to assessing muscle architecture are relatively less consequential when estimating Lf and PCSA for comparative studies, whereas achieving more reliable estimates within species through larger samples and representation of the full clade space are important considerations in comparative studies of fibre architecture and scaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea B Taylor
- Department of Foundational Biomedical Sciences, Touro University California, Vallejo, California, USA
| | - Claire E Terhune
- Department of Anthropology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA
| | - Callum F Ross
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Christopher J Vinyard
- Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University-Heritage College of Osteopathic, Medicine, Athens, Ohio, USA
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2
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Hinks A, Patterson MA, Njai BS, Power GA. Age-related blunting of serial sarcomerogenesis and mechanical adaptations following 4 wk of maximal eccentric resistance training. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2024; 136:1209-1225. [PMID: 38511212 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00041.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Revised: 02/26/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024] Open
Abstract
During aging, muscles undergo atrophy, which is partly accounted for by a loss of sarcomeres in series. Serial sarcomere number (SSN) is associated with aspects of muscle mechanical function including the force-length and force-velocity-power relationships; hence, the age-related loss of SSN contributes to declining performance. Training emphasizing eccentric contractions increases SSN in young healthy rodents; however, the ability for eccentric training to increase SSN in old age is unknown. Ten young (8 mo) and 11 old (32 mo) male Fisher344/BN rats completed 4 wk of unilateral eccentric plantar flexion training. Pre- and posttraining, the plantar flexors were assessed for the torque-frequency, passive torque-angle, and torque-velocity-power relationships. The soleus, lateral gastrocnemius (LG), and medial gastrocnemius (MG) were harvested for SSN assessment via laser diffraction, with the untrained leg used as a control. In the untrained leg/pretraining, old rats had lower SSN in the soleus, LG, and MG, lower maximum torque, power, and shortening velocity, and greater passive torque than young. Young showed increased soleus and MG SSN following training. In contrast, old had no change in soleus SSN and experienced SSN loss in the LG. Pre- to posttraining, young experienced an increase in maximum isometric torque, whereas old had reductions in maximum torque, shortening velocity, and power, and increased passive torque. Our results show that although young muscle has the ability to add sarcomeres in response to maximal eccentric training, this stimulus could be not only ineffective, but also detrimental to aged muscle leading to dysfunctional remodeling.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The loss of sarcomeres in series with age contributes to declining muscle performance. The present study investigated whether eccentric training could improve performance via serial sarcomere addition in old muscle, like in young muscle. Four weeks of maximal eccentric training induced serial sarcomere addition in the young rat plantar flexors and improved in vivo performance, however, led to dysfunctional remodeling accompanied by further impaired performance in old rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Hinks
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological SciencesUniversity of GuelphGuelphOntarioCanada
| | - Makenna A Patterson
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological SciencesUniversity of GuelphGuelphOntarioCanada
| | - Binta S Njai
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological SciencesUniversity of GuelphGuelphOntarioCanada
| | - Geoffrey A Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, College of Biological SciencesUniversity of GuelphGuelphOntarioCanada
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3
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Son J, Ward SR, Lieber RL. Scaling relationships between human leg muscle architectural properties and body size. J Exp Biol 2024; 227:jeb246567. [PMID: 38357776 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.246567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024]
Abstract
A skeletal muscle's peak force production and excursion are based on its architectural properties that are, in turn, determined by its mass, muscle fiber length and physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA). In the classic interspecific study of mammalian muscle scaling, it was demonstrated that muscle mass scales positively allometrically with body mass whereas fiber length scales isometrically with body mass, indicating that larger mammals have stronger leg muscles than they would if they were geometrically similar to smaller ones. Although this relationship is highly significant across species, there has never been a detailed intraspecific architectural scaling study. We have thus created a large dataset of 896 muscles across 34 human lower extremities (18 females and 16 males) with a size range including approximately 90% and 70% of the United States population height and mass, respectively, across the range 36-103 years. Our purpose was to quantify the scaling relationships between human muscle architectural properties and body size. We found that human muscles depart greatly from isometric scaling because muscle mass scales with body mass1.3 (larger exponent than isometric scaling of 1.0) and muscle fiber length scales with negative allometry with body mass0.1 (smaller exponent than isometric scaling of 0.33). Based on the known relationship between architecture and function, these results suggest that human muscles place a premium on muscle force production (mass and PCSA) at the expense of muscle excursion (fiber length) with increasing body size, which has implications for understanding human muscle design as well as biomechanical modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jongsang Son
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Samuel R Ward
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Radiology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Richard L Lieber
- Shirley Ryan AbilityLab, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Department of Physiology, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60611, USA
- Research Service, Hines VA Hospital, Maywood, IL 60153, USA
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4
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Hooijmans MT, Veeger TTJ, Mazzoli V, van Assen HC, de Groot JH, Gottwald LM, Nederveen AJ, Strijkers GJ, Kan HE. Muscle fiber strain rates in the lower leg during ankle dorsi-/plantarflexion exercise. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2024; 37:e5064. [PMID: 38062865 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.5064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 09/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
Static quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides readouts of structural changes in diseased muscle, but current approaches lack the ability to fully explain the loss of contractile function. Muscle contractile function can be assessed using various techniques including phase-contrast MRI (PC-MRI), where strain rates are quantified. However, current two-dimensional implementations are limited in capturing the complex motion of contracting muscle in the context of its three-dimensional (3D) fiber architecture. The MR acquisitions (chemical shift-encoded water-fat separation scan, spin echo-echoplanar imaging with diffusion weighting, and two time-resolved 3D PC-MRI) wereperformed at 3 T. PC-MRI acquisitions and performed with and without load at 7.5% of the maximum voluntary dorsiflexion contraction force. Acquisitions (3 T, chemical shift-encoded water-fat separation scan, spin echo-echo planar imaging with diffusion weighting, and two time-resolved 3D PC-MRI) were performed with and without load at 7.5% of the maximum voluntary dorsiflexion contraction force. Strain rates and diffusion tensors were calculated and combined to obtain strain rates along and perpendicular to the muscle fibers in seven lower leg muscles during the dynamic dorsi-/plantarflexion movement cycle. To evaluate strain rates along the proximodistal muscle axis, muscles were divided into five equal segments. t-tests were used to test if cyclic strain rate patterns (amplitude > 0) were present along and perpendicular to the muscle fibers. The effects of proximal-distal location and load were evaluated using repeated measures ANOVAs. Cyclic temporal strain rate patterns along and perpendicular to the fiber were found in all muscles involved in dorsi-/plantarflexion movement (p < 0.0017). Strain rates along and perpendicular to the fiber were heterogeneously distributed over the length of most muscles (p < 0.003). Additional loading reduced strain rates of the extensor digitorum longus and gastrocnemius lateralis muscle (p < 0.001). In conclusion, the lower leg muscles involved in cyclic dorsi-/plantarflexion exercise showed cyclic fiber strain rate patterns with amplitudes that varied between muscles and between the proximodistal segments within the majority of muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa T Hooijmans
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Thom T J Veeger
- C. J. Gorter MRI Center, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Valentina Mazzoli
- Department of Radiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Hans C van Assen
- Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jurriaan H de Groot
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Lukas M Gottwald
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Aart J Nederveen
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Gustav J Strijkers
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Physics, Amsterdam University Medical Centers, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Movement Sciences, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Hermien E Kan
- C. J. Gorter MRI Center, Department of Radiology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Duchenne Center Netherlands, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Kalkhoven JT, Lukauskis-Carvajal M, Sides DL, McLean BD, Watsford ML. A Conceptual Exploration of Hamstring Muscle-Tendon Functioning during the Late-Swing Phase of Sprinting: The Importance of Evidence-Based Hamstring Training Frameworks. Sports Med 2023; 53:2321-2346. [PMID: 37668895 PMCID: PMC10687166 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-023-01904-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
An eccentrically lengthening, energy-absorbing, brake-driven model of hamstring function during the late-swing phase of sprinting has been widely touted within the existing literature. In contrast, an isometrically contracting, spring-driven model of hamstring function has recently been proposed. This theory has gained substantial traction within the applied sporting world, influencing understandings of hamstring function while sprinting, as well as the development and adoption of certain types of hamstring-specific exercises. Across the animal kingdom, both spring- and motor-driven muscle-tendon unit (MTU) functioning are frequently observed, with both models of locomotive functioning commonly utilising some degree of active muscle lengthening to draw upon force enhancement mechanisms. However, a method to accurately assess hamstring muscle-tendon functioning when sprinting does not exist. Accordingly, the aims of this review article are three-fold: (1) to comprehensively explore current terminology, theories and models surrounding muscle-tendon functioning during locomotion, (2) to relate these models to potential hamstring function when sprinting by examining a variety of hamstring-specific research and (3) to highlight the importance of developing and utilising evidence-based frameworks to guide hamstring training in athletes required to sprint. Due to the intensity of movement, large musculotendinous stretches and high mechanical loads experienced in the hamstrings when sprinting, it is anticipated that the hamstring MTUs adopt a model of functioning that has some reliance upon active muscle lengthening and muscle actuators during this particular task. However, each individual hamstring MTU is expected to adopt various combinations of spring-, brake- and motor-driven functioning when sprinting, in accordance with their architectural arrangement and activation patterns. Muscle function is intricate and dependent upon complex interactions between musculoskeletal kinematics and kinetics, muscle activation patterns and the neuromechanical regulation of tensions and stiffness, and loads applied by the environment, among other important variables. Accordingly, hamstring function when sprinting is anticipated to be unique to this particular activity. It is therefore proposed that the adoption of hamstring-specific exercises should not be founded on unvalidated claims of replicating hamstring function when sprinting, as has been suggested in the literature. Adaptive benefits may potentially be derived from a range of hamstring-specific exercises that vary in the stimuli they provide. Therefore, a more rigorous approach is to select hamstring-specific exercises based on thoroughly constructed evidence-based frameworks surrounding the specific stimulus provided by the exercise, the accompanying adaptations elicited by the exercise, and the effects of these adaptations on hamstring functioning and injury risk mitigation when sprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judd T Kalkhoven
- Sport & Exercise Science Discipline Group, Faculty of Health, Human Performance Research Centre, University of Technology Sydney, Moore Park Precinct, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, 2007, Australia.
| | - Mathias Lukauskis-Carvajal
- Sport & Exercise Science Discipline Group, Faculty of Health, Human Performance Research Centre, University of Technology Sydney, Moore Park Precinct, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, 2007, Australia
- SpeedLab, Cali, Colombia
| | - Deborah L Sides
- UK Sports Institute, Manchester Institute of Health and Performance, Manchester, UK
| | - Blake D McLean
- Sport & Exercise Science Discipline Group, Faculty of Health, Human Performance Research Centre, University of Technology Sydney, Moore Park Precinct, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, 2007, Australia
| | - Mark L Watsford
- Sport & Exercise Science Discipline Group, Faculty of Health, Human Performance Research Centre, University of Technology Sydney, Moore Park Precinct, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW, 2007, Australia
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Tingle JL, Jurestovsky DJ, Astley HC. The relative contributions of multiarticular snake muscles to movement in different planes. J Morphol 2023; 284:e21591. [PMID: 37183497 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Muscles spanning multiple joints play important functional roles in a wide range of systems across tetrapods; however, their fundamental mechanics are poorly understood, particularly the consequences of anatomical position on mechanical advantage. Snakes provide an excellent study system for advancing this topic. They rely on the axial muscles for many activities, including striking, constriction, defensive displays, and locomotion. Moreover, those muscles span from one or a few vertebrae to over 30, and anatomy varies among muscles and among species. We characterized the anatomy of major epaxial muscles in a size series of corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) using diceCT scans, and then took several approaches to calculating contributions of each muscle to force and motion generated during body bending, starting from a highly simplistic model and moving to increasingly complex and realistic models. Only the most realistic model yielded equations that included the consequence of muscle span on torque-displacement trade-offs, as well as resolving ambiguities that arose from simpler models. We also tested whether muscle cross-sectional areas or lever arms (total magnitude or pitch/yaw/roll components) were related to snake mass, longitudinal body region (anterior, middle, posterior), and/or muscle group (semispinalis-spinalis, multifidus, longissimus dorsi, iliocostalis, and levator costae). Muscle cross-sectional areas generally scaled with positive allometry, and most lever arms did not depart significantly from geometric similarity (isometry). The levator costae had lower cross-sectional area than the four epaxial muscles, which did not differ significantly from each other in cross-sectional area. Lever arm total magnitudes and components differed among muscles. We found some evidence for regional variation, indicating that functional regionalization merits further investigation. Our results contribute to knowledge of snake muscles specifically and multiarticular muscle systems generally, providing a foundation for future comparisons across species and bioinspired multiarticular systems.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Derek J Jurestovsky
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, USA
- Department of Kinesiology, Biomechanics Laboratory, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Henry C Astley
- Department of Biology, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio, USA
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7
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Holt NC, Mayfield DL. Muscle-tendon unit design and tuning for power enhancement, power attenuation, and reduction of metabolic cost. J Biomech 2023; 153:111585. [PMID: 37126884 PMCID: PMC10949972 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2023.111585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The contractile elements in skeletal muscle fibers operate in series with elastic elements, tendons and potentially aponeuroses, in muscle-tendon units (MTUs). Elastic strain energy (ESE), arising from either work done by muscle fibers or the energy of the body, can be stored in these series elastic elements (SEEs). MTUs vary considerably in their design in terms of the relative lengths and stiffnesses of the muscle fibers and SEEs, and the force and work generating capacities of the muscle fibers. However, within an MTU it is thought that contractile and series elastic elements can be matched or tuned to maximize ESE storage. The use of ESE is thought to improve locomotor performance by enhancing contractile element power during activities such as jumping, attenuating contractile element power during activities such as landing, and reducing the metabolic cost of movement during steady-state activities such as walking and running. The effectiveness of MTUs in these potential roles is contingent on factors such as the source of mechanical energy, the control of the flow of energy, and characteristics of SEE recoil. Hence, we suggest that MTUs specialized for ESE storage may vary considerably in the structural, mechanical, and physiological properties of their components depending on their functional role and required versatility.
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Affiliation(s)
- N C Holt
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA.
| | - D L Mayfield
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Organismal Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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8
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Sahd L, Doubell N, Bennett NC, Kotzé SH. Muscle architecture and muscle fibre type composition in the forelimb of two African mole-rat species, Bathyergus suillus and Heterocephalus glaber. J Morphol 2023; 284:e21557. [PMID: 36630620 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The scratch-digging Cape dune mole-rat (Bathyergus suillus), and the chisel-toothed digging naked mole-rat (Heterocephalus glaber) are African mole-rats that differ in their digging strategy. The aim of this study was to determine if these behavioural differences are reflected in the muscle architecture and fibre-type composition of the forelimb muscles. Muscle architecture parameters of 39 forelimb muscles in both species were compared. Furthermore, muscle fibre type composition of 21 forelimb muscles were analysed using multiple staining protocols. In B. suillus, muscles involved with the power stroke of digging (limb retractors and scapula elevators), showed higher muscle mass percentage, force output and shortening capacity compared to those in H. glaber. Additionally, significantly higher percentages of glycolytic fibres were observed in the scapular elevators and digital flexors of B. suillus compared to H. glaber, suggesting that the forelimb muscles involved in digging in B. suillus provide fast, powerful motions for effective burrowing. In contrast, the m. sternohyoideus a head and neck flexor, had significantly more oxidative fibres in H. glaber compared to B. suillus. In addition, significantly greater physiological cross-sectional area and fascicle length values were seen in the neck flexor, m. sternocleidomastoideus, in H. glaber compared to B. suillus, which indicates a possible adaptation for chisel-tooth digging. While functional demands may play a significant role in muscle morphology, the phylogenetic differences between the two species may play an additional role which needs further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Sahd
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.,Evolutionary Developmental Biology Research Group, Department of Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Narusa Doubell
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nigel C Bennett
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, Mammal Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sanet H Kotzé
- Division of Clinical Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa.,Division of Anatomy, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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Werkhausen A, Gløersen Ø, Nordez A, Paulsen G, Bojsen-Møller J, Seynnes OR. Linking muscle architecture and function in vivo: conceptual or methodological limitations? PeerJ 2023; 11:e15194. [PMID: 37077309 PMCID: PMC10108853 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2023] [Indexed: 04/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Despite the clear theoretical link between sarcomere arrangement and force production, the relationship between muscle architecture and function remain ambiguous in vivo. Methods We used two frequently used ultrasound-based approaches to assess the relationships between vastus lateralis architecture parameters obtained in three common conditions of muscle lengths and contractile states, and the mechanical output of the muscle in twenty-one healthy subjects. The relationship between outcomes obtained in different conditions were also examined. Muscle architecture was analysed in panoramic ultrasound scans at rest with the knee fully extended and in regular scans at an angle close to maximum force (60°), at rest and under maximum contraction. Isokinetic and isometric strength tests were used to estimate muscle force production at various fascicle velocities. Results Measurements of fascicle length, pennation angle and thickness obtained under different experimental conditions correlated moderately with each other (r = 0.40-.74). Fascicle length measured at 60° at rest correlated with force during high-velocity knee extension (r = 0.46 at 400° s-1) and joint work during isokinetic knee extension (r = 0.44 at 200° s-1 and r = 0.57 at 100° s-1). Muscle thickness was related to maximum force for all measurement methods (r = 0.44-0.73). However, we found no significant correlations between fascicle length or pennation angle and any measures of muscle force or work. Most correlations between architecture and force were stronger when architecture was measured at rest close to optimal length. Conclusion These findings reflect methodological limitations of current approaches to measure fascicle length and pennation angle in vivo. They also highlight the limited value of static architecture measurements when reported in isolation or without direct experimental context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie Werkhausen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Øyvind Gløersen
- Smart Sensors and Microsystems, SINTEF Digital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Antoine Nordez
- Movement - Interactions - Performance, MIP, Nantes Université, Nantes, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, IUF, France
| | - Gøran Paulsen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jens Bojsen-Møller
- Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Olivier R. Seynnes
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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10
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Charles J, Kissane R, Hoehfurtner T, Bates KT. From fibre to function: are we accurately representing muscle architecture and performance? Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2022; 97:1640-1676. [PMID: 35388613 PMCID: PMC9540431 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The size and arrangement of fibres play a determinate role in the kinetic and energetic performance of muscles. Extrapolations between fibre architecture and performance underpin our understanding of how muscles function and how they are adapted to power specific motions within and across species. Here we provide a synopsis of how this 'fibre to function' paradigm has been applied to understand muscle design, performance and adaptation in animals. Our review highlights the widespread application of the fibre to function paradigm across a diverse breadth of biological disciplines but also reveals a potential and highly prevalent limitation running through past studies. Specifically, we find that quantification of muscle architectural properties is almost universally based on an extremely small number of fibre measurements. Despite the volume of research into muscle properties, across a diverse breadth of research disciplines, the fundamental assumption that a small proportion of fibre measurements can accurately represent the architectural properties of a muscle has never been quantitatively tested. Subsequently, we use a combination of medical imaging, statistical analysis, and physics-based computer simulation to address this issue for the first time. By combining diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and deterministic fibre tractography we generated a large number of fibre measurements (>3000) rapidly for individual human lower limb muscles. Through statistical subsampling simulations of these measurements, we demonstrate that analysing a small number of fibres (n < 25) typically used in previous studies may lead to extremely large errors in the characterisation of overall muscle architectural properties such as mean fibre length and physiological cross-sectional area. Through dynamic musculoskeletal simulations of human walking and jumping, we demonstrate that recovered errors in fibre architecture characterisation have significant implications for quantitative predictions of in-vivo dynamics and muscle fibre function within a species. Furthermore, by applying data-subsampling simulations to comparisons of muscle function in humans and chimpanzees, we demonstrate that error magnitudes significantly impact both qualitative and quantitative assessment of muscle specialisation, potentially generating highly erroneous conclusions about the absolute and relative adaption of muscles across species and evolutionary transitions. Our findings have profound implications for how a broad diversity of research fields quantify muscle architecture and interpret muscle function.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Charles
- Structure and Motion Lab, Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA, U.K.,Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, U.K
| | - Roger Kissane
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, U.K
| | - Tatjana Hoehfurtner
- School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Joseph Banks Laboratories, Green Lane, Lincoln, LN6 7DL, U.K
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, The William Henry Duncan Building, 6 West Derby Street, Liverpool, L7 8TX, U.K
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11
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Elite Rugby Players have Unique Morphological Characteristics of the Hamstrings and Quadriceps Femoris Muscles According to their Playing Positions. J Hum Kinet 2022; 83:155-163. [PMID: 36157955 PMCID: PMC9465766 DOI: 10.2478/hukin-2022-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Rugby is a popular sport requiring high-intensity and maximal speed actions. Numerous studies have demonstrated that physical performance variables, such as strength, sprinting, and jumping, are different between the forwards and backs. However, there is little information about muscle morphological characteristics specific for each rugby playing position. This study aimed to clarify the morphological characteristics of the thigh muscles in forwards and backs. Ultrasound images were obtained from the proximal, middle, and distal regions of the thigh. Then, the anatomical cross-sectional areas of particular muscles in the hamstrings and quadriceps femoris were calculated for seven forwards, seven backs, and ten non-athletes. The anatomical cross-sectional areas were normalised by the two-third power of lean body mass, and the normalised values of the three regions were averaged as that of the individual muscle. In the hamstrings, the normalised anatomical cross-sectional areas of the biceps femoris long head were significantly greater in forwards than in non-athletes, whereas those of the semitendinosus were significantly greater in backs than in non-athletes. Furthermore, in the quadriceps femoris, the normalised anatomical cross-sectional areas of the rectus femoris and vastus intermedius were significantly greater in forwards than in backs and non-athletes. These results suggest that forwards have great muscularity of the biceps femoris long head and vastus intermedius which can generate large force, whereas backs possess great muscularity of the semitendinosus which can generate high contraction velocity. These findings allow coaches to design more effective training programs according to particular rugby playing positions.
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12
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Ema R. Association between elastography-assessed muscle mechanical properties and high-speed dynamic performance. Eur J Sport Sci 2022:1-7. [PMID: 35771491 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2022.2097129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Clarifying the muscular factors that contribute to performance improvement can be beneficial for athletes and coaches. The present study examined the relationships between the resting muscle shear modulus and dynamic performance during the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) and explosive exercises. To this end, we measured the jump height during three types of vertical jumps (squat jump [SJ], countermovement jump [CMJ], and rebound jump [RJ]) and the multi-joint leg extension power at three velocities (low, moderate, and high) of 30 healthy women. Using ultrasound elastography, the resting shear modulus of the vastus lateralis was assessed in the sitting position as an index of passive muscle mechanical properties. The results showed that the shear modulus was positively correlated with RJ height and multi-joint leg extension power at moderate and high velocities (r = 0.435-0.563, P < 0.05). There was no significant correlation between the shear modulus and SJ height, CMJ height, and multi-joint leg extension power at low velocity. Contact time (i.e., the time under force exertion against the ground) during RJ (161 ± 19 ms) was 19% of that during CMJ (869 ± 171 ms). The results suggest that passive muscle mechanical properties play an important role in high-speed SSCs and dynamic explosive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryoichi Ema
- Faculty of Sport Science, Shizuoka Sangyo University, 1572-1 Owara, Iwata, Shizuoka 438-0043, Japan
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13
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MOREAU NOELLEG, LIEBER RICHARDL. Effects of voluntary exercise on muscle structure and function in cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2022; 64:700-708. [PMID: 35142371 PMCID: PMC9086177 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.15173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscles are required for functional movement and force production. While it is clear that cerebral palsy (CP) results in loss of muscle strength and bodily function, and that much of this loss is caused by injury to the central nervous system, muscle is a very plastic tissue that is also dramatically affected. In many studies, it is assumed that voluntary exercise will cause the muscle to respond in the same way that typically developing muscle does, but there are scarce data demonstrating that this is true. The purpose of this review is to briefly describe muscle architectural adaptation to various forms of exercise with specific reference to voluntary exercise performed in children with CP. Exercise itself is not generic but can vary by intensity, duration, and the exact nature of the muscle length change and velocity imposed during the exercise. Our goal is to stimulate discussion in this area by pointing out salient experimental variables and, ultimately, to improve activity and participation in children with CP.
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Affiliation(s)
- NOELLE G MOREAU
- Department of Physical Therapy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA
| | - RICHARD L LIEBER
- Shirley Ryan AbilityLab and Department of Physiology, Northwestern University, Hines VA Medical Center, Chicago IL, USA
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14
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Hinks A, Franchi MV, Power GA. The influence of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth on mechanical function. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2022; 133:87-103. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00114.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle has the remarkable ability to remodel and adapt, such as the increase in serial sarcomere number (SSN) or fascicle length (FL) observed after overstretching a muscle. This type of remodelling is termed longitudinal muscle fascicle growth, and its impact on biomechanical function has been of interest since the 1960s due to its clinical applications in muscle strain injury, muscle spasticity, and sarcopenia. Despite simplified hypotheses on how longitudinal muscle fascicle growth might influence mechanical function, existing literature presents conflicting results partly due to a breadth of methodologies. The purpose of this review is to outline what is currently known about the influence of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth on mechanical function and suggest future directions to address current knowledge gaps and methodological limitations. Various interventions indicate longitudinal muscle fascicle growth can increase the optimal muscle length for active force, but whether the whole force-length relationship widens has been less investigated. Future research should also explore the ability for longitudinal fascicle growth to broaden the torque-angle relationship's plateau region, and the relation to increased force during shortening. Without a concurrent increase in intramuscular collagen, longitudinal muscle fascicle growth also reduces passive tension at long muscle lengths; further research is required to understand whether this translates to increased joint range of motion. Lastly, some evidence suggests longitudinal fascicle growth can increase maximum shortening velocity and peak isotonic power, however, there has yet to be direct assessment of these measures in a neurologically intact model of longitudinal muscle fascicle growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avery Hinks
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Martino V. Franchi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences,, University of Padua, Padova, Veneto, Italy
| | - Geoffrey A. Power
- Department of Human Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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15
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Wright MA, Sears KE, Pierce SE. Comparison of Hindlimb Muscle Architecture Properties in Small-Bodied, Generalist Mammals Suggests Similarity in Soft Tissue Anatomy. J MAMM EVOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10914-022-09608-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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16
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Kositsky A, Saxby DJ, Lesch KJ, Barrett RS, Kröger H, Lahtinen O, Diamond LE, Korhonen RK, Stenroth L. In vivo assessment of the passive stretching response of the bi-compartmental human semitendinosus muscle using shear wave elastography. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2021; 132:438-447. [PMID: 34941438 PMCID: PMC8799393 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00473.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The semitendinosus muscle contains distinct proximal and distal compartments arranged anatomically in-series but separated by a tendinous inscription, with each compartment innervated by separate nerve branches. Although extensively investigated in other mammals, compartment-specific mechanical properties within the human semitendinosus have scarcely been assessed in vivo. Experimental data obtained during muscle-tendon unit stretching (e.g., slack angle) can also be used to validate and/or improve musculoskeletal model estimates of semitendinosus muscle force. The purpose of this study was to investigate the passive stretching response of proximal and distal humans semitendinosus compartments to distal joint extension. Using two-dimensional shear wave elastography, we bilaterally obtained shear moduli of both semitendinosus compartments from 14 prone-positioned individuals at ten knee flexion angles (from 90° to 0° [full extension] at 10° intervals). Passive muscle mechanical characteristics (slack angle, slack shear modulus, and the slope of the increase in shear modulus) were determined for each semitendinosus compartment by fitting a piecewise exponential model to the shear modulus-joint angle curves. We found no differences between compartments or legs for slack angle, slack shear modulus, or the slope of the increase in shear modulus. We also found the experimentally determined slack angle occurred at ~15-80° higher knee flexion angles compared to estimates from two commonly used musculoskeletal models, depending on participant and model used. Overall, these findings demonstrate that passive shear modulus-joint angle curves do not differ between proximal and distal human semitendinosus compartments, and provide experimental data to improve semitendinosus force estimates derived from musculoskeletal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Kositsky
- Griffith Centre of Biomedical and Rehabilitation Engineering (GCORE), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia.,Department of Applied Physics, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - David J Saxby
- Griffith Centre of Biomedical and Rehabilitation Engineering (GCORE), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Kim J Lesch
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Rod S Barrett
- Griffith Centre of Biomedical and Rehabilitation Engineering (GCORE), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Heikki Kröger
- Department of Orthopaedics, Traumatology and Hand Surgery, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland.,Kuopio Musculoskeletal Research Unit (KMRU), University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Olli Lahtinen
- Diagnostic Imaging Centre, Department of Clinical Radiology, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Unit of Radiology, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Laura E Diamond
- Griffith Centre of Biomedical and Rehabilitation Engineering (GCORE), Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rami K Korhonen
- Department of Applied Physics, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Lauri Stenroth
- Department of Applied Physics, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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17
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Bishop PJ, Wright MA, Pierce SE. Whole-limb scaling of muscle mass and force-generating capacity in amniotes. PeerJ 2021; 9:e12574. [PMID: 34909284 PMCID: PMC8638577 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle mass, architecture and force-generating capacity are well known to scale with body size in animals, both throughout ontogeny and across species. Investigations of limb muscle scaling in terrestrial amniotes typically focus on individual muscles within select clades, but here this question was examined at the level of the whole limb across amniotes generally. In particular, the present study explored how muscle mass, force-generating capacity (measured by physiological cross-sectional area) and internal architecture (fascicle length) scales in the fore- and hindlimbs of extant mammals, non-avian saurians (‘reptiles’) and bipeds (birds and humans). Sixty species spanning almost five orders of magnitude in body mass were investigated, comprising previously published architectural data and new data obtained via dissections of the opossum Didelphis virginiana and the tegu lizard Salvator merianae. Phylogenetic generalized least squares was used to determine allometric scaling slopes (exponents) and intercepts, to assess whether patterns previously reported for individual muscles or functional groups were retained at the level of the whole limb, and to test whether mammals, reptiles and bipeds followed different allometric trajectories. In general, patterns of scaling observed in individual muscles were also observed in the whole limb. Reptiles generally have proportionately lower muscle mass and force-generating capacity compared to mammals, especially at larger body size, and bipeds exhibit strong to extreme positive allometry in the distal hindlimb. Remarkably, when muscle mass was accounted for in analyses of muscle force-generating capacity, reptiles, mammals and bipeds almost ubiquitously followed a single common scaling pattern, implying that differences in whole-limb force-generating capacity are principally driven by differences in muscle mass, not internal architecture. In addition to providing a novel perspective on skeletal muscle allometry in animals, the new dataset assembled was used to generate pan-amniote statistical relationships that can be used to predict muscle mass or force-generating capacity in extinct amniotes, helping to inform future reconstructions of musculoskeletal function in the fossil record.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Bishop
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology,Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America.,Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Mark A Wright
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology,Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Stephanie E Pierce
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology,Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
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18
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Deceleration Training in Team Sports: Another Potential 'Vaccine' for Sports-Related Injury? Sports Med 2021; 52:1-12. [PMID: 34716561 PMCID: PMC8761154 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01583-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
High-intensity horizontal decelerations occur frequently in team sports and are typically performed to facilitate a reduction in momentum preceding a change of direction manoeuvre or following a sprinting action. The mechanical underpinnings of horizontal deceleration are unique compared to other high-intensity locomotive patterns (e.g., acceleration, maximal sprinting speed), and are characterised by a ground reaction force profile of high impact peaks and loading rates. The high mechanical loading conditions observed when performing rapid horizontal decelerations can lead to tissue damage and neuromuscular fatigue, which may diminish co-ordinative proficiency and an individual’s ability to skilfully dissipate braking loads. Furthermore, repetitive long-term deceleration loading cycles if not managed appropriately may propagate damage accumulation and offer an explanation for chronic aetiological consequences of the ‘mechanical fatigue failure’ phenomenon. Training strategies should look to enhance an athlete’s ability to skilfully dissipate braking loads, develop mechanically robust musculoskeletal structures, and ensure frequent high-intensity horizontal deceleration exposure in order to accustom individuals to the potentially damaging effects of intense decelerations that athletes will frequently perform in competition. Given the apparent importance of horizontal decelerations, in this Current Opinion article we provide considerations for sport science and medicine practitioners around the assessment, training and monitoring of horizontal deceleration. We feel these considerations could lead to new developments in injury-mitigation and physical development strategies in team sports.
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19
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Holmes M, Taylor AB. The influence of jaw-muscle fibre-type phenotypes on estimating maximum muscle and bite forces in primates. Interface Focus 2021; 11:20210009. [PMID: 34938437 PMCID: PMC8361599 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2021.0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Numerous anthropological studies have been aimed at estimating jaw-adductor muscle forces, which, in turn, are used to estimate bite force. While primate jaw adductors show considerable intra- and intermuscular heterogeneity in fibre types, studies generally model jaw-muscle forces by treating the jaw adductors as either homogeneously slow or homogeneously fast muscles. Here, we provide a novel extension of such studies by integrating fibre architecture, fibre types and fibre-specific tensions to estimate maximum muscle forces in the masseter and temporalis of five anthropoid primates: Sapajus apella (N = 3), Cercocebus atys (N = 4), Macaca fascicularis (N = 3), Gorilla gorilla (N = 1) and Pan troglodytes (N = 2). We calculated maximum muscle forces by proportionally adjusting muscle physiological cross-sectional areas by their fibre types and associated specific tensions. Our results show that the jaw adductors of our sample ubiquitously express MHC α-cardiac, which has low specific tension, and hybrid fibres. We find that treating the jaw adductors as either homogeneously slow or fast muscles potentially overestimates average maximum muscle forces by as much as approximately 44%. Including fibre types and their specific tensions is thus likely to improve jaw-muscle and bite force estimates in primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Holmes
- Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
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20
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Dickinson E, Pastor F, Santana SE, Hartstone-Rose A. Functional and ecological correlates of the primate jaw abductors. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:1245-1263. [PMID: 34505739 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
While the adductor musculature of the primate jaw has been extensively analyzed within the context of dietary and social ecology, little is known about the corresponding muscles of jaw abduction. Nonetheless, these muscles significantly contribute to a species' maximum gape potential, and thus might constrain dietary niche diversity and impact social display behaviors. In this study, we quantify the architectural properties of the digastric (a jaw abductor) and lateral pterygoid (a jaw abductor and anterior translator) across a broad sample of male and female anthropoid primates. We test the hypothesis that the abductor musculature reflects specialization to dietary and behavioral ecology. Our sample comprises 14 catarrhine and 13 platyrrhine species spanning a wide range of dietary and social categories. All specimens were sharp dissected and muscles subsequently chemically digested using a standardized protocol. Our findings demonstrate that relative fascicle lengths within the lateral pterygoid (but not the digastric) are significantly greater within species that habitually consume larger food items. Meanwhile, canine length is more strongly associated with fascicle lengths in the digastric than in the lateral pterygoid, particularly within males. Neither dietary mechanical resistance nor the intensity of social competition relates to the size or architectural properties of the jaw abductors. These findings suggest that dietary-and to a lesser extent, socioecological-aspects of a primate's life history may be reflected in the architecture of these muscles, albeit to varying degrees. This underlines the importance of considering the complete masticatory apparatus when interpreting the evolution of the primate jaw.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Francisco Pastor
- Departamento de Anatomia y Radiologia, Universidad de Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Sharlene E Santana
- Department of Biology and Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Adam Hartstone-Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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21
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Dickinson E, Boettcher ML, Smith MR, Worden NA, Swindell SR, Seelye JS, Pastor F, Hartstone‐Rose A. Myological variation in the forearm anatomy of Callitrichidae and Lemuridae. J Anat 2021; 239:669-681. [PMID: 34018180 PMCID: PMC8349451 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The anatomy of the primate forearm is frequently investigated in terms of locomotor mode, substrate use, and manual dexterity. Such studies typically rely upon broad, interspecific samples for which one or two representative taxa are used to characterize the anatomy of their genus or family. To interpret variation between distantly related taxa, however, it is necessary to contextualize these differences by quantifying variation at lower hierarchical levels, that is, more fine-grained representation within specific genera or families. In this study, we present a focused evaluation of the variation in muscle organization, integration, and architecture within two speciose primate families: the Callitrichidae and Lemuridae. We demonstrate that, within each lineage, several muscle functional groups exhibit substantial variation in muscle organization. Most notably, the digital extensors appear highly variable (particularly among callitrichids), with many unique configurations represented. In terms of architectural variables, both families are more conservative, with the exception of the genus Callimico-for which an increase is observed in forearm muscle mass and strength. We suggest this reflects the increased use of vertical climbing and trunk-to-trunk leaping within this genus relative to the more typically fine-branch substrate use of the other callitrichids. Overall, these data emphasize the underappreciated variation in forearm myology and suggest that overly generalized typification of a taxon's anatomy may conceal significant intraspecific and intrageneric variation therein. Thus, considerations of adaptation within the forearm musculature should endeavor to consider the full range of anatomical variation when making comparisons between multiple taxa within an evolutionary context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Marissa L. Boettcher
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
- Medical University of South CarolinaCharlestonSCUSA
| | - Madison R. Smith
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Nikole A. Worden
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Sidney R. Swindell
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Jason S. Seelye
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
| | - Francisco Pastor
- Departamento de Anatomia y RadiologiaUniversidad de ValladolidMuseo AnatomicoValladolidSpain
| | - Adam Hartstone‐Rose
- Department of Biological SciencesNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNCUSA
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22
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Hartstone-Rose A, Dickinson E, Deutsch AR, Worden N, Hirschkorn GA. Masticatory muscle architectural correlates of dietary diversity in Canidae, Ursidae, and across the order Carnivora. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:477-497. [PMID: 34449131 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Carnivorans represent extreme ecomorphological diversity, encompassing remarkable variation in form, habitat, and diet. The relationship between the masticatory musculature and dietary ecology has been explored in a number of carnivoran lineages, including felids and the superfamily Musteloidea. In this study, we present novel architectural data on two additional carnivoran families-Ursidae and Canidae-and supplement these previous studies with additional felid, musteloid, herpestid, hyaenid, and viverrid taxa (a total of 53 species across 10 families). Gross dissection data were collected following a standardized protocol-sharp dissection followed by chemical digestion. Summed jaw adductor forces were also transformed into bite force estimates (BF) using osteologically calculated leverages. All data were linearized, log-transformed, and size-adjusted using two proxies for each taxon-body mass (BM) and cranial geometric mean-to assess relative scaling trends. These architectural data were then analyzed in the context of dietary ecology to examine the impact of dietary size (DS) and dietary mechanical properties (DMP). Muscle mass, physiological cross-sectional area, and BF scaled with isometry or positive allometry in all cases, whereas fascicle lengths (FLs) scaled with isometry or negative allometry. With respect to diet, BM-adjusted FLs were strongly correlated with DS in musteloids, but not in any other lineage. The relationship between size-adjusted BF and DMP was also significant within musteloids, and across the sample as a whole, but not within other individual lineages. This interfamilial trend may reflect the increased morphological and dietary diversity of musteloids relative to other carnivoran groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Hartstone-Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ashley R Deutsch
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nikole Worden
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Gabrielle A Hirschkorn
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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23
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Rose KAR, Tickle PG, Elsey RM, Sellers WI, Crossley DA, Codd JR. Scaling of axial muscle architecture in juvenile Alligator mississippiensis reveals an enhanced performance capacity of accessory breathing mechanisms. J Anat 2021; 239:1273-1286. [PMID: 34302302 PMCID: PMC8602021 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantitative functional anatomy of amniote thoracic and abdominal regions is crucial to understanding constraints on and adaptations for facilitating simultaneous breathing and locomotion. Crocodilians have diverse locomotor modes and variable breathing mechanics facilitated by basal and derived (accessory) muscles. However, the inherent flexibility of these systems is not well studied, and the functional specialisation of the crocodilian trunk is yet to be investigated. Increases in body size and trunk stiffness would be expected to cause a disproportionate increase in muscle force demands and therefore constrain the basal costal aspiration mechanism, necessitating changes in respiratory mechanics. Here, we describe the anatomy of the trunk muscles, their properties that determine muscle performance (mass, length and physiological cross‐sectional area [PCSA]) and investigate their scaling in juvenile Alligator mississippiensis spanning an order of magnitude in body mass (359 g–5.5 kg). Comparatively, the expiratory muscles (transversus abdominis, rectus abdominis, iliocostalis), which compress the trunk, have greater relative PCSA being specialised for greater force‐generating capacity, while the inspiratory muscles (diaphragmaticus, truncocaudalis ischiotruncus, ischiopubis), which create negative internal pressure, have greater relative fascicle lengths, being adapted for greater working range and contraction velocity. Fascicle lengths of the accessory diaphragmaticus scaled with positive allometry in the alligators examined, enhancing contractile capacity, in line with this muscle's ability to modulate both tidal volume and breathing frequency in response to energetic demand during terrestrial locomotion. The iliocostalis, an accessory expiratory muscle, also demonstrated positive allometry in fascicle lengths and mass. All accessory muscles of the infrapubic abdominal wall demonstrated positive allometry in PCSA, which would enhance their force‐generating capacity. Conversely, the basal tetrapod expiratory pump (transversus abdominis) scaled isometrically, which may indicate a decreased reliance on this muscle with ontogeny. Collectively, these findings would support existing anecdotal evidence that crocodilians shift their breathing mechanics as they increase in size. Furthermore, the functional specialisation of the diaphragmaticus and compliance of the body wall in the lumbar region against which it works may contribute to low‐cost breathing in crocodilians.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayleigh A R Rose
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Wales, UK
| | - Peter G Tickle
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Ruth M Elsey
- Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, Grand Chenier, LA, USA
| | - William I Sellers
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Dane A Crossley
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of North Texas, Denton, TX, USA
| | - Jonathan R Codd
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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24
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Faller B, Bonneau D, Wooten L, Jayaseelan DJ. Eccentric exercise in the prevention of patellofemoral pain in high-volume runners: A rationale for integration. SPORTS MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2021; 3:119-124. [PMID: 35782158 PMCID: PMC9219282 DOI: 10.1016/j.smhs.2021.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Patellofemoral pain (PFP) is a common overuse condition seen in high-volume runners, such as military recruits. Exercise is commonly prescribed, with benefit, for the rehabilitation of individuals with PFP. However, a substantial number of individuals with the condition do not achieve an optimal outcome, suggesting the condition can be difficult and complex. Given the challenging nature of the condition, and the risk of developing PFP in high-volume runners, it seems logical to investigate options for injury prevention. Eccentric exercise has been useful in the prevention of some pathologies so its utility in preventing PFP should be explored. Current evidence regarding prevention programs for PFP are limited. Preventative exercise programs for PFP have not been well described or reported, and questions remain regarding their effectiveness. Based on available evidence or lack thereof, and known physiological and clinical effects of eccentric exercise, suggestions for integration of eccentric exercise into PFP prevention programs are offered. Eccentric exercise may be useful for PFP prevention from a theoretical framework however additional longitudinal cohort studies would be useful in determining its utility.
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Mpampoulis T, Methenitis S, Papadopoulos C, Papadimas G, Spiliopoulou P, Stasinaki AN, Bogdanis GC, Karampatsos G, Terzis G. Weak Association Between Vastus Lateralis Muscle Fiber Composition and Fascicle Length in Young Untrained Females. Sports (Basel) 2021; 9:56. [PMID: 33925196 PMCID: PMC8146508 DOI: 10.3390/sports9050056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the relationships between vastus lateralis muscle fiber length and fiber type composition in individuals with minimal exposure to systematic resistance/power training. In sixty female physical education students (age: 21.03 ± 2.1 years, body weight: 59.8 ± 9.7 kg, body height: 166.2 ± 6.5 cm), with no experience in systematic training, lean body mass, VL muscle architecture and fiber composition type, countermovement jumping (CMJ) performance, and isometric leg press rate of force development were evaluated. Data were analyzed for all participants, as well as two equally numbered groups assigned according to their maximum countermovement jumping power (High-Power or Low-Power group). Significant but low correlations were found between type II muscle fiber percentage and fascicle length (N = 60, p < 0.05). Significant correlations were found between type IIa and IIx muscle fiber percentage cross-sectional area (%CSA) and fascicle length (N = 60; r = 0.321, and r = 0.378; respectively, p < 0.05). These correlations were higher for the High-Power group (r = 0.499, and r = 0.522; respectively, p < 0.05), and lower, and nonsignificant, for the Low-Power group. The best predictor of strength/power performance was the lean body mass of the lower extremities (r = 0.389-0.645, p < 0.05). These results suggest that in females with minimal exposure to systematic training, fascicle length may be weakly linked with type II fiber areas, only in females with high-power profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Mpampoulis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
| | - Spyridon Methenitis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
| | - Constantinos Papadopoulos
- A’ Neurology Clinic, Aiginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (C.P.); (G.P.)
| | - Giorgos Papadimas
- A’ Neurology Clinic, Aiginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece; (C.P.); (G.P.)
| | - Polyxeni Spiliopoulou
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
| | - Angeliki-Nikoletta Stasinaki
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
| | - Gregory C. Bogdanis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
| | - Giorgos Karampatsos
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
| | - Gerasimos Terzis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education & Sports Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 17237 Athens, Greece; (S.M.); (P.S.); (A.-N.S.); (G.C.B.); (G.K.); (G.T.)
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Leonard KC, Worden N, Boettcher ML, Dickinson E, Hartstone-Rose A. Effects of long-term ethanol storage on muscle architecture. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2021; 305:184-198. [PMID: 33843155 DOI: 10.1002/ar.24638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Muscle excursion and force potential can be estimated from architectural variables, including mass, volume, fascicle length, and density. These have been collected from fresh specimens, preserved specimens, and sometimes mixed samples of both. However, preservation alters the gross morphology of muscles. This study aims to quantify the effects of long-term storage on myological properties across a sample of fresh and ethanol preserved Mus musculus specimens ranging in storage time from 16 to 130 years. Masses, volumes, and densities of biceps femoris, quadriceps femoris, and triceps surae were measured, and histological cross-sections of some specimens were used to evaluate the microscale effects of long-term fluid preservation. For the remainder of the sample, chemically dissected fascicle lengths were measured to evaluate the fixation effects on the linear dimensions of muscle architecture. Relative muscle mass, volume, fascicle length, average fiber area, and density, and percent fiber area were regressed against years stored in ethanol. Muscle size dropped steeply between fresh and stored samples, ultimately decreasing by 62 and 60%, respectively. These losses correlate with histologically measured shrinking of average muscle fiber area. Density of stored specimens plateaued 5% below that of fresh ones. Although muscles lost mass and volume during ethanol storage, fascicle lengths did not shorten significantly (presumably because they were preserved attached on either end to bone). This study demonstrates that muscle mass, volume, and density of specimens stored long-term in ethanol should be corrected by factors of 2.64, 2.49, and 1.054 respectively for comparability to fresh specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn C Leonard
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Meredith College, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nikole Worden
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Marissa L Boettcher
- College of Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Adam Hartstone-Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
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Takahashi K, Kamibayashi K, Wakahara T. Gluteus and posterior thigh muscle sizes in sprinters: Their distributions along muscle length. Eur J Sport Sci 2021; 22:799-807. [PMID: 33749535 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2021.1907450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Muscle hypertrophy can occur non-uniformly in athletes who repetitively perform particular movements, presumably leading to a unique muscle size distribution along the length. The present study aimed to examine if sprinters have unique size distributions within the gluteus and posterior thigh muscles. Nineteen male sprinters and 20 untrained males participated in the present study. T1-weighted magnetic resonance images of the hips and right thigh were obtained in order to determine whole and regional (proximal, middle, and distal) volumes of the gluteus maximus and individual posterior thigh muscles. The results showed that the volumes of all the examined muscles relative to body mass were significantly larger in sprinters than in untrained males (all P < 0.001, d = 1.40-3.29). Moreover, the magnitude of the difference in relative volume between sprinters and untrained males was different between the regions within the gluteus maximus (P = 0.048, partial η2 = 0.187), semitendinosus (P = 0.004, partial η2 = 0.331), and adductor magnus (P = 0.007, partial η2 = 0.322), but not within the other posterior thigh muscles (P = 0.091-0.555, partial η2 = 0.025-0.176). The magnitude of the difference in relative volume between the sprinters and untrained males was greatest in the distal regions within the gluteus maximus and semitendinosus, while the proximal region within the adductor magnus. These findings indicate that sprinters have unique size distributions within the gluteus maximus, semitendinosus, and adductor magnus, which may be attributed to their competitive and training activities. HighlightsSprinters showed larger gluteus maximus and individual posterior thigh muscles than untrained males.The magnitude of difference varied within the gluteus maximus, semitendinosus, and adductor magnus.The greatest difference was found in distal regions within the gluteus maximus and semitendinosus, while proximal region within the adductor magnus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuki Takahashi
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Taku Wakahara
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan.,Human Performance Laboratory, Waseda University, Saitama, Japan
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Takahashi K, Kamibayashi K, Wakahara T. Muscle size of individual hip extensors in sprint runners: Its relation to spatiotemporal variables and sprint velocity during maximal velocity sprinting. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0249670. [PMID: 33819316 PMCID: PMC8021153 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hip extensor muscle size is related to sprint running performance. However, the mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. To gain insights into this issue, the present study examined the relationships between the individual hip extensor sizes, spatiotemporal variables (step frequency and length, and their determinants), and sprint velocity during maximal velocity sprinting. Magnetic resonance images of the hip and right thigh were obtained from 26 male sprinters to determine the volumes of the gluteus maximus, individual hamstrings and adductors, and gracilis. Muscle volumes were normalized to their respective body mass and recorded as relative muscle volumes. The sprinters performed a 100-m sprint with their maximal effort. Their sprint motions were recorded using cameras to calculate the mean sprint velocity and the spatiotemporal variables at 50–60 m interval. The sprint velocity was significantly correlated with the relative volume of the semitendinosus (r = 0.497, P = 0.010), but not with the volumes of the other examined muscles. The relative volume of semitendinosus significantly correlated with the stance distance (r = 0.414, P = 0.036) and the stance distance adjusted by the stance time (r = 0.490, P = 0.011). Moreover, there were significant correlations between the stance distance and step length (r = 0.592, P = 0.001), and between the step length and sprint velocity (r = 0.509, P = 0.008). These results suggest that the semitendinosus contributes to attaining long stance distance and thereby high sprint velocity during maximal velocity sprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuki Takahashi
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Taku Wakahara
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
- Human Performance Laboratory, Waseda University, Saitama, Japan
- * E-mail:
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Jakobsen JR, Krogsgaard MR. The Myotendinous Junction-A Vulnerable Companion in Sports. A Narrative Review. Front Physiol 2021; 12:635561. [PMID: 33841171 PMCID: PMC8032995 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.635561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The incidence of strain injuries continues to be high in many popular sports, especially hamstring strain injuries in football, despite a documented important effect of eccentric exercise to prevent strains. Studies investigating the anatomical properties of these injuries in humans are sparse. The majority of strains are seen at the interface between muscle fibers and tendon: the myotendinous junction (MTJ). It has a unique morphology with a highly folded muscle membrane filled with invaginations of collagen fibrils from the tendon, establishing an increased area of force transmission between muscle and tendon. There is a very high rate of remodeling of the muscle cells approaching the MTJ, but little is known about how the tissue adapts to exercise and which structural changes heavy eccentric exercise may introduce. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the anatomy, composition and adaptability of the MTJ, and discusses reasons why strain injuries can be prevented by eccentric exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Rithamer Jakobsen
- Section of Sports Traumatology, M51, A Part of IOC Research Center, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg Hospital, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Lee HJ, Lee KW, Takeshi K, Lee YW, Kim HJ. Correlation analysis between lower limb muscle architectures and cycling power via ultrasonography. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5362. [PMID: 33686180 PMCID: PMC7940634 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84870-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The primary purpose was to examine the relationship between the muscle architectural characteristics of short and long-distance cyclist—including muscle thickness, fascicle angle, and fascicle length—of the anterior thigh and posterior leg and its impact in 20-s cycling power. The secondary purpose was to clarify the muscle variables that predict the cycling power by using ultrasonography to measure the muscle architectural characteristics. Twenty-four varsity cyclists participated in this study, of whom 12 were short-distance cyclists and 12 were long-distance cyclists. B-mode ultrasonography was used to measure muscle architecture parameters. A cycle ergometer was used to measure the cycling power. The rectus femoris, vastus medialis, and medial head of gastrocnemius were significantly thicker in short-distance cyclists than in long-distance cyclists at every site (p < 0.05). Our analysis revealed that the rectus femoris fascicle length at the 30% level of the thigh was a significant independent predictor of the 20-s cycling power in short-distance cyclists, while the rectus femoris fascicle angle at the 50% level was that of the 20-s cycling power in long-distance cyclists. These findings highlight the significance of rectus femoris muscle architecture to cycling power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyung-Jin Lee
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Room 6 01, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang-Woo Lee
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Room 6 01, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Kurokawa Takeshi
- National Institute of Fitness & Sports in KANOYA (Coaching of Sports and Budo), 1, Shiromizucho, Kanoya City, Kagoshima Pre., 891-2311, Japan
| | - Yong-Woo Lee
- Department of Physical Education, College of Sports Science, Korea National Sport University, Yangjaedaero 1239, Songpa-gu, Seoul, 05541, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee-Jin Kim
- Division in Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Department of Oral Biology, Human Identification Research Institute, BK21 PLUS Project, Yonsei University College of Dentistry, Room 6 01, 50 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, 03722, Republic of Korea.
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Hirata K, Kanehisa H, Miyamoto N. Association between medial gastrocnemius muscle-tendon unit architecture and ankle dorsiflexion range of motion with and without consideration of slack angle. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0248125. [PMID: 33667276 PMCID: PMC7935265 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0248125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Joint flexibility is theoretically considered to associate with muscle-tendon unit (MTU) architecture. However, this potential association has not been experimentally demonstrated in humans in vivo. We aimed to identify whether and how MTU architectural parameters are associated with joint range of motion (RoM), with a special emphasis on slack angle. The fascicle length, pennation angle, tendinous tissue length, MTU length, and shear modulus of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) were assessed during passive ankle dorsiflexion using ultrasound shear wave elastography in 17 healthy males. During passive dorsiflexion task, the ankle joint was rotated from 40° plantar flexion to the maximal dorsiflexion joint angle at which each subject started experiencing pain. From the ankle joint angle-shear modulus relationship, the angle at which shear modulus began to rise (slack angle) was calculated. Two dorsiflexion RoMs were determined as follows; 1) range from the anatomical position to maximal angle (RoManat-max) and 2) range from the MG slack angle to maximal angle (RoMslack-max). The MTU architectural parameters were analyzed at the anatomical position and MG slack angle. The resolved fascicle length (fascicle length × cosine of pennation angle) and ratios of resolved fascicle or tendinous tissue length to MTU length measured at the MG slack angle significantly correlated with the RoMslack-max (r = 0.491, 0.506, and -0.506, respectively). Any MTU architectural parameters assessed at the anatomical position did not correlate with RoManat-max or RoMslack-max. These results indicate that MTUs with long fascicle and short tendinous tissue are advantageous for joint flexibility. However, this association cannot be found unless MTU architecture and joint RoM are assessed with consideration of muscle slack.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Hirata
- Research Fellow of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.,Graduate School of Engineering and Science, Shibaura Institute of Technology, Saitama, Japan.,Department of Sports and Life Sciences, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Kanehisa
- Department of Sports and Life Sciences, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan.,Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan
| | - Naokazu Miyamoto
- Department of Sports and Life Sciences, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan.,Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
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Fiber-type phenotype of the jaw-closing muscles in Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes, and Pan paniscus: A test of the Frequent Recruitment Hypothesis. J Hum Evol 2021; 151:102938. [PMID: 33493971 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2020.102938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle fiber types are important determinants of the contractile properties of muscle fibers, such as fatigue resistance and shortening velocity. Yet little is known about how jaw-adductor fiber types correlate with feeding behavior in primates. Compared with chimpanzees and bonobos, gorillas spend a greater percentage of their daily time feeding and shift to herbaceous vegetation when fruits are scarce. We thus used the African apes to test the hypothesis that chewing with unusually high frequency is correlated with the expression in the jaw adductors of a high proportion of type 1 (slow, fatigue-resistant) fibers at the expense of other fiber types (the Frequent Recruitment Hypothesis). We used immunohistochemistry to determine the presence and distribution of the four major myosin heavy chain (MHC) isoforms in the anterior superficial masseter (ASM), superficial anterior temporalis, and deep anterior temporalis of four Gorilla gorilla, two Pan paniscus, and four Pan troglodytes. Serial sections were stained against slow (MHC-1/-α-cardiac) and fast (MHC-2/-M) fibers. Fibers were counted and scored for staining intensity, and fiber cross-sectional areas (CSAs) were measured and used to estimate percentage of CSA of each MHC isoform. Hybrid fibers accounted for nearly 100% of fiber types in the masseter and temporalis of all three species, resulting in three main hybrid phenotypes. As predicted, the gorilla ASM and deep anterior temporalis comprised a greater percentage of CSA of the slower, fatigue-resistant hybrid fiber type, significantly so for the ASM (p = 0.015). Finally, the results suggest that fiber phenotype of the chewing muscles contributes to behavioral flexibility in ways that would go undetected in paleontological studies relying solely on morphology of the bony masticatory apparatus.
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Muscle architecture and morphology as determinants of explosive strength. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1099-1110. [PMID: 33458800 PMCID: PMC7966212 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-020-04585-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Neural drive and contractile properties are well-defined physiological determinants of explosive strength, the influence of muscle architecture and related morphology on explosive strength is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between Quadriceps muscle architecture (pennation angle [ΘP] and fascicle length [FL]) and size (e.g., volume; QVOL), as well as patellar tendon moment arm (PTMA) with voluntary and evoked explosive knee extension torque in 53 recreationally active young men. METHOD Following familiarisation, explosive voluntary torque at 50 ms intervals from torque onset (T50, T100, T150), evoked octet at 50 ms (8 pulses at 300-Hz; evoked T50), as well as maximum voluntary torque, were assessed on two occasions with isometric dynamometry. B-mode ultrasound was used to assess ΘP and FL at ten sites throughout the quadriceps (2-3 sites) per constituent muscle. Muscle size (QVOL) and PTMA were quantified using 1.5 T MRI. RESULT There were no relationships with absolute early phase explosive voluntary torque (≤ 50 ms), but θP (weak), QVOL (moderate to strong) and PTMA (weak) were related to late phase explosive voluntary torque (≥ 100 ms). Regression analysis revealed only QVOL was an independent variable contributing to the variance in T100 (34%) and T150 (54%). Evoked T50 was also related to QVOL and θP. When explosive strength was expressed relative to MVT there were no relationships observed. CONCLUSION It is likely that the weak associations of θP and PTMA with late phase explosive voluntary torque was via their association with MVT/QVOL rather than as a direct determinant.
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Fukutani A, Tsuruhara Y, Miyake Y, Takao K, Ueno H, Otsuka M, Suga T, Terada M, Nagano A, Isaka T. Comparison of the relative muscle volume of triceps surae among sprinters, runners, and untrained participants. Physiol Rep 2020; 8:e14588. [PMID: 33038068 PMCID: PMC7547585 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Muscle hypertrophy is considered more prominent in fast‐twitch than in slow‐twitch muscles. This leads to the hypothesis that the relative muscle volume of the medial gastrocnemius (MG) and lateral gastrocnemius (LG) becomes larger than that of the soleus (SOL) in highly trained participants because MG and LG include more fast‐twitch muscles than SOL. Thus, we compared relative muscle volume among highly trained sprinters, long‐distance runners, and untrained participants to examine whether the above hypothesis is correct. Magnetic resonance imaging was used to calculate the muscle volume of MG, LG, and SOL from 126 participants. The total muscle volume of the three muscles and the relative muscle volume of each muscle with respect to the total muscle volume were calculated. The total muscle volume was significantly larger in the sprinters than in the long‐distance runners and untrained participants. The relative muscle volume of MG was significantly larger in the sprinters than in the long‐distance runners and untrained participants and that of SOL was significantly smaller in the sprinters than in the long‐distance runners and untrained participants. These results indicate that the relative muscle volume can vary among participants, possibly due to fiber type‐dependent muscle hypertrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuki Fukutani
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Yume Tsuruhara
- College of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Yuto Miyake
- Graduate School of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Kenji Takao
- Graduate School of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Hiromasa Ueno
- Graduate School of Health and Sport Science, Nippon Sport Science University, Setagaya, Tokyo, Japan.,Research Fellowship for Young Scientists, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Otsuka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Tadashi Suga
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Masafumi Terada
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Akinori Nagano
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Tadao Isaka
- Faculty of Sport and Health Science, Ritsumeikan University, Kusatsu, Shiga, Japan
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35
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Javidi M, McGowan CP, Lin DC. Estimation of the force-velocity properties of individual muscles from measurement of the combined plantarflexor properties. J Exp Biol 2020; 223:jeb219980. [PMID: 32680898 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.219980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The force-velocity (F-V) properties of isolated muscles or muscle fibers have been well studied in humans and other animals. However, determining properties of individual muscles in vivo remains a challenge because muscles usually function within a synergistic group. Modeling has been used to estimate the properties of an individual muscle from the experimental measurement of the muscle group properties. While this approach can be valuable, the models and the associated predictions are difficult to validate. In this study, we measured the in situ F-V properties of the maximally activated kangaroo rat plantarflexor group and used two different assumptions and associated models to estimate the properties of the individual plantarflexors. The first model (Mdl1) assumed that the percent contributions of individual muscles to group force and power were based upon the muscles' cross-sectional area and were constant across the different isotonic loads applied to the muscle group. The second model (Mdl2) assumed that the F-V properties of the fibers within each muscle were identical, but because of differences in muscle architecture, the muscles' contributions to the group properties changed with isotonic load. We compared the two model predictions with independent estimates of the muscles' contributions based upon sonomicrometry measurements of muscle length. We found that predictions from Mdl2 were not significantly different from sonomicrometry-based estimates while those from Mdl1 were significantly different. The results of this study show that incorporating appropriate fiber properties and muscle architecture is necessary to parse the individual muscles' contributions to the group F-V properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehrdad Javidi
- Voiland School of Chemical Engineering and Bioengineering, Washington State University, PO Box 646515, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - Craig P McGowan
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 3051, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
- WWAMI Medical Education Program, University of Idaho, 875 Perimeter Drive, MS 4207, Moscow, ID 83844, USA
- Washington Center for Muscle Biology, Washington State University, PO Box 646515, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
| | - David C Lin
- Voiland School of Chemical Engineering and Bioengineering, Washington State University, PO Box 646515, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
- Washington Center for Muscle Biology, Washington State University, PO Box 646515, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
- Department of Integrative Physiology and Neuroscience, Washington State University, PO Box 647620, Pullman, WA 99164, USA
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Monti E, Franchi MV, Badiali F, Quinlan JI, Longo S, Narici MV. The Time-Course of Changes in Muscle Mass, Architecture and Power During 6 Weeks of Plyometric Training. Front Physiol 2020; 11:946. [PMID: 32848873 PMCID: PMC7417646 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose To investigate the time-course of changes in knee-extensors muscle mass, architecture and function in response to plyometric training (PLT) performed on a novel training device, the Tramp-Trainer. This machine consists in a trampoline connected to an inclined sledge which allows the performance of repeated jumps while the subject is sitting on a chair. Methods Eight healthy males (173.6 ± 4.7 cm, 69.7 ± 13.5 kg, 25.3 ± 4.6 years) underwent 6 weeks of bilateral PLT on the tramp-trainer machine. Training was performed three times per week (between 120 and 150 bounces per session). Knee-extensor maximum voluntary torque (MVT) and power, quadriceps femoris (QF) volume (VOL), cross-sectional area from the 20% to the 60% of femur length and CSAmean, together with vastus lateralis (VL) architecture (fascicle length, Lf, and pennation angle, PA) were assessed after 2, 4, and 6 weeks of PLT. Results All results are presented as changes versus baseline values. MVT increased by 17.8% (week 2, p < 0.001) and 22.2% (week 4, p < 0.01), respectively, and declined to 13.3% (p < 0.05) at week 6 of PLT. Power increased by 18.2% (week 4, p < 0.05) and 19.7% (week 6, p < 0.05). QF VOL increased by 4.7% (week 4, p < 0.05) and 5.8% (week 6, p < 0.01); VL VOL increased by 5.2%, (p < 0.05), 8.2%, (p < 0.01), and 9.6% (p < 0.05) at weeks 2, 4, and 6, respectively. An increase in Lf was detected already at wk 2 (2.2%, p < 0.05), with further increase at 4 and 6 weeks of PLT (4 and 4.4%, respectively, p < 0.01). PA increased by 5.8% (p < 0.05) at week 6. Significant positive correlations were found between CSAmean and Power (R2 = 0.46, p < 0.001) and between QF VOL and Power (R2 = 0.44, p < 0.024). Conclusions PLT induced rapid increases in muscle volume, fascicle length, pennation angle, torque and power in healthy younger adults. Notably, changes in VL VOL and Lf were detectable already after 2 weeks, followed by increases in knee extensors VOL and power from week 4 of PLT. Since the increase in CSAmean and QF VOL cannot fully explain the increment in muscle power, it is likely that other factors (such as adaptations in neural drive or tendon mechanical properties) may have contributed to such fucntional changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Monti
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Martino V Franchi
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Badiali
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan I Quinlan
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom.,School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.,NIHR Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals Birmingham, NHS Foundation Trust and University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Stefano Longo
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom.,Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Marco V Narici
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom.,CIR-Myo Myology Centre, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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37
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Astley HC. The Biomechanics of Multi-articular Muscle-Tendon Systems in Snakes. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:140-155. [PMID: 32211841 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The geometry of the musculoskeletal system, such as moment arms and linkages, determines the link between muscular functions and external mechanical results, but as the geometry becomes more complex, this link becomes less clear. The musculoskeletal system of snakes is extremely complex, with several muscles that span dozens of vertebrae, ranging from 10 to 45 vertebrae in the snake semispinalis-spinalis muscle (a dorsiflexor). Furthermore, this span correlates with habitat in Caenophidians, with burrowing and aquatic species showing shorter spans while arboreal species show longer spans. Similar multi-articular spans are present in the prehensile tails of primates, the necks of birds, and our own digits. However, no previous analysis has adequately explained the mechanical consequences of these multi-articular spans. This paper uses techniques from the analysis of static systems in engineering to analyze the consequences of multiarticular muscle configurations in cantilevered gap bridging and compares these outcomes to a hypothetical mono-articular system. Multi-articular muscle spans dramatically reduce the forces needed in each muscle, but the consequent partitioning of muscle cross-sectional area between numerous muscles results in a small net performance loss. However, when a substantial fraction of this span is tendinous, performance increases dramatically. Similarly, metabolic cost is increased for purely muscular multi-articular spans, but decreases rapidly with increasing tendon ratio. However, highly tendinous spans require increased muscle strain to achieve the same motion, while purely muscular systems are unaffected. These results correspond well with comparative data from snakes and offer the potential to dramatically improve the mechanics of biomimetic snake robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry C Astley
- Departments of Biology and Polymer Science, Biomimicry Research and Innovation Center, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
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38
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Koryak YA. Changes in human skeletal muscle architecture and function induced by extended spaceflight. J Biomech 2019; 97:109408. [PMID: 31662199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2019.109408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to quantitatively describe the relationships between joint angles and muscle architecture (lengths (Lf) and angles (Θf) of fascicles) of human triceps surae [medial (MG) and lateral (LG) gastrocnemius and soleus (SOL) muscles] invivo for three men-cosmonaut after long-duration spaceflight. Sagittal sonographs of MG, LG, SOL were taken at ankle was positioned at 15° (dorsiflexion), 0° (neutral position), +15°, and +30° (plantarflexion), with the knee at 90° at rest and after a long-duration spaceflight. At each position, longitudinal ultrasonic images of the MG and LG and SOL were obtained while the cosmonauts was relaxed from which fascicle lengths and angles with respect to the aponeuroses were determined. After space flight plantarflexor force declined significantly (26%; p < 0.001). The internal architecture of the GM, and LG, and SOL muscle was significantly altered. In the passive condition, Lf changed from 45, 53, and 39 mm (knee, 0°, ankle, -15°) to 26, 33, and 28 mm (knee, 90° ankle, 30°) for MG, LG, and SOL, respectively. Different lengths and angles of fascicles, and their changes by contraction, might be related to differences in force-producing capabilities of the muscles and elastic characteristics of tendons and aponeuroses. The three heads of the triceps surae muscle substantially differ in architecture, which probably reflects their functional roles. Differences in fiber length and pennation angle that were observed among the muscles and could be associated with differences in force production and in elastic properties of musculo-tendinous complex and aponeuroses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri A Koryak
- State Scientific Center of the Russian Federation - Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia.
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Deutsch AR, Dickinson E, Leonard KC, Pastor F, Muchlinski MN, Hartstone‐Rose A. Scaling of Anatomically Derived Maximal Bite Force in Primates. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 303:2026-2035. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Revised: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ashley R. Deutsch
- Department of Anthropology University of Florida Gainesville Florida
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
| | - Kaitlyn C. Leonard
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
| | - Francisco Pastor
- Departamento de Anatomia y Radiologia Universidad de Valladolid, Museo Anatomico Valladolid Spain
| | | | - Adam Hartstone‐Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
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40
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Charles JP, Suntaxi F, Anderst WJ. In vivo human lower limb muscle architecture dataset obtained using diffusion tensor imaging. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0223531. [PMID: 31613899 PMCID: PMC6793854 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0223531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
'Gold standard' reference sets of human muscle architecture are based on elderly cadaveric specimens, which are unlikely to be representative of a large proportion of the human population. This is important for musculoskeletal modeling, where the muscle force-generating properties of generic models are defined by these data but may not be valid when applied to models of young, healthy individuals. Obtaining individualized muscle architecture data in vivo is difficult, however diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DTI) has recently emerged as a valid method of achieving this. DTI was used here to provide an architecture data set of 20 lower limb muscles from 10 healthy adults, including muscle fiber lengths, which are important inputs for Hill-type muscle models commonly used in musculoskeletal modeling. Maximum isometric force and muscle fiber lengths were found not to scale with subject anthropometry, suggesting that these factors may be difficult to predict using scaling or optimization algorithms. These data also highlight the high level of anatomical variation that exists between individuals in terms of lower limb muscle architecture, which supports the need of incorporating subject-specific force-generating properties into musculoskeletal models to optimize their accuracy for clinical evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P. Charles
- Evolutionary Morphology and Biomechanics Lab, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - Felipe Suntaxi
- Biodynamics Lab, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - William J. Anderst
- Biodynamics Lab, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
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41
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Boettcher ML, Leonard KC, Dickinson E, Aujard F, Herrel A, Hartstone‐Rose A. The Forearm Musculature of the Gray Mouse Lemur (
Microcebus murinus
): An Ontogenetic Study. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 303:1354-1363. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 07/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marissa L. Boettcher
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
| | - Kaitlyn C. Leonard
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
| | - Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
| | | | | | - Adam Hartstone‐Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
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42
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Turton P, Hay R, Welters I. Assessment of peripheral muscle thickness and architecture in healthy volunteers using hand-held ultrasound devices; a comparison study with standard ultrasound. BMC Med Imaging 2019; 19:69. [PMID: 31426754 PMCID: PMC6699072 DOI: 10.1186/s12880-019-0373-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pocket-sized ultrasound devices are increasingly used in a variety of clinical situations, and perform well against standard ultrasound machines. We sought to investigate if a pocket-sized ultrasound device can assess muscle thickness and architecture in healthy volunteers. METHODS Healthy male volunteers (n = 21) across a range of ages were recruited to the study. Laying supine, ultrasound images were taken from the right anterior and lateral thigh. Thickness of the rectus femoris (RFMT), vastus intermedius (VIMT), and the two combined (anterior thigh, AMT) were measured, along with thickness of vastus lateralis (VLMT), pennation angle (VLPA) and derived fascicle length (VLFL). These scans were performed initially using a pocket-sized ultrasound (VScan) and then using a standard device (Telemed Echoblaster 128). RESULTS In all six variables, there was no significant difference between the two sets of measurements. Intra-class correlation co-efficients (ICC) for VLMT, VLPA, and AMT were all excellent (0.93, 0.89, 0.90 respectively) with the derived value of VLFL having an ICC of 0.84. All ICC values were statistically significant. Regression analysis demonstrated no evidence of proportional bias in any of the measured or derived variables. CONCLUSION A pocket-sized ultrasound device gives similar measurements of lower limb muscle thickness and architecture as a standard device in healthy volunteers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Turton
- Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Richard Hay
- Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Liverpool, UK
| | - Ingeborg Welters
- Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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43
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Dickinson E, Basham C, Rana A, Hartstone‐Rose A. Visualization and Quantification of Digitally Dissected Muscle Fascicles in the Masticatory Muscles of
Callithrix jacchus
Using Nondestructive DiceCT. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2019; 302:1891-1900. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Edwin Dickinson
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
| | - Colin Basham
- Department of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Biomedical Engineering University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee
| | | | - Adam Hartstone‐Rose
- Department of Biological Sciences North Carolina State University Raleigh North Carolina
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44
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Zacharia E, Spiliopoulou P, Methenitis S, Stasinaki AN, Zaras N, Papadopoulos C, Papadimas G, Karampatsos G, Bogdanis GC, Terzis G. Changes in Muscle Power and Muscle Morphology with Different Volumes of Fast Eccentric Half-Squats. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7070164. [PMID: 31284388 PMCID: PMC6681343 DOI: 10.3390/sports7070164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to evaluate power performance and muscle morphology adaptations in response to 5 weeks of fast-eccentric squat training (FEST) performed twice per week, with three different training volumes. Twenty-five moderately trained females were assigned into three groups performing eight repetitions of FEST of either four sets (4 × 8 group; N = 9), 6 sets (6 × 8 group; N = 8) or eight sets (8 × 8 group, N = 8). Before and after the intervention, countermovement jumping height (CMJh) and power (CMJp), half squat maximal strength (1-RM), quadriceps cross-sectional area (QCSA) and vastus lateralis (VL) architecture and fiber type composition were evaluated. Significant increases (p < 0.05) were found for all groups, with no differences among them in 1-RM (4 × 8: 14.8 ± 8.2%, 6 × 8: 13.1 ± 9.2% and 8 × 8: 21.6 ± 7.0%), CMJh (4 × 8: 12.5 ± 8.5%, 6 × 8: 11.3 ± 9.3% and 8 × 8: 7.0 ± 6.2%), CMJp (4 × 8: 9.1 ± 6.0%, 6 × 8: 7.1 ± 5.2% and 8 × 8: 5.0 ± 3.9%) and QCSA (4 × 8: 7.7 ± 4.7%, 6 × 8: 9.0 ± 6.8% and 8 × 8: 8.2 ± 6.5%). Muscle fiber type distribution remained unaltered after training in all groups. VL fascicle length increased and fascicle angle decreased only in 6 × 8 and 8 × 8 groups. In conclusion, four sets of eight fast-eccentric squats/week increase lower body power and strength performance and maintain type IIX muscle fibers after 5 weeks, at least in moderately trained females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evangelia Zacharia
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Polyxeni Spiliopoulou
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Spyridon Methenitis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece.
| | - Angeliki-Nikoletta Stasinaki
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Zaras
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
- Department of Life and Health Sciences, School of Sciences and Engineering, University of Nicosia, CY-1700 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Constantinos Papadopoulos
- A' Neurology Clinic, Aiginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece
| | - Giorgos Papadimas
- A' Neurology Clinic, Aiginition Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11528 Athens, Greece
| | - Giorgos Karampatsos
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Gregory C Bogdanis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
| | - Gerasimos Terzis
- Sports Performance Laboratory, School of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Daphne, 17237 Athens, Greece
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45
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Collings AJ, Richards CT. Digital dissection of the pelvis and hindlimb of the red-legged running frog, Phlyctimantis maculatus, using Diffusible Iodine Contrast Enhanced computed microtomography (DICE μCT). PeerJ 2019; 7:e7003. [PMID: 31211012 PMCID: PMC6557250 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.7003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The current study applies both traditional and Diffusible Iodine Contrast Enhanced computed microtomography (DICE µCT) techniques to reveal the musculoskeletal anatomy of Phlyctimantis maculatus. DICE µCT has emerged as a powerful tool to visualise intricate musculoskeletal anatomy. By generating 3D digital models, anatomical analyses can be conducted non-destructively, preserving the in situ 3D topography of the system, therefore eliminating some of the drawbacks associated with traditional methods. We aim to describe the musculature of the spine, pelvis, and hindlimb, compare the musculoskeletal anatomy and pelvic morphology of P. maculatus with functionally diverse frogs, and produce 3D digital anatomy reference data. Method An adult frog was stained using an aqueous Lugol’s solution and scanned in a SkyScan1176 in vivo µCT scanner. Scan images were reconstructed, resampled, and digitally segmented to produce a 3D model. A further adult female frog was dissected traditionally for visualisation of tendinous insertions. Results Our work revealed three main findings: (1) P. maculatus has similar gross muscular anatomy to Rana catesbeiana (bullfrog) but is distinct from those species that exhibit ancestral traits (leopelmids) and those that are highly specialised (pipids), (2) P. maculatus’s pelvic anatomy best fits the description of Emerson’s walking/hopping pelvic morphotype IIA, and (3) a split in the semimembranosus and gracilis major muscles is consistent with the reported myology in other anuran species. Discussion While DICE µCT methods were instrumental in characterising the 3D anatomy, traditional dissection was still required to visualise important structures such as the knee aponeurosis, tendinous insertions, and fasciae. Nonetheless, the anatomical data presented here marks the first detailed digital description of an arboreal and terrestrial frog. Further, our digital model presents P. maculatus as a good frog model system and as such has formed a crucial platform for further functional analysis within the anuran pelvis and hindlimb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber J Collings
- School of Science Engineering and Design, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, United Kingdom.,Structure and Motion Laboratory, Royal Veterinary College, London, United Kingdom
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Gonzales JM, Galpin AJ, Montgomery MM, Pamukoff DN. Comparison of lower limb muscle architecture and geometry in distance runners with rearfoot and forefoot strike pattern. J Sports Sci 2019; 37:2184-2190. [PMID: 31170885 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1626050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We examined the association between footfall pattern and characteristics of lower limb muscle function and compared lower limb muscle function between forefoot and rearfoot runners. Fifteen rearfoot and 16 forefoot runners were evaluated using ultrasonography of the gastrocnemii and tibialis anterior while strike index and heel strike angle quantified footfall pattern. Higher strike index was associated with lower medial gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.05), lower lateral gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.04), smaller tibialis anterior pennation angle (p = 0.05), and longer lateral gastrocnemius fascicle length (p = 0.04). Larger heel strike angle was associated with smaller medial gastrocnemius cross-sectional area (p = 0.04), shorter lateral gastrocnemius fascicle length (p < 0.01), and lower plantar flexion moment (p < 0.01). Larger plantar flexion moment was associated with lesser medial gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.04), lesser lateral gastrocnemius echo intensity (p = 0.03), and greater lateral gastrocnemius fascicle length (p = 0.02). A smaller plantar flexion moment, larger heel strike angle, lower tibialis anterior echo intensity, larger tibialis anterior pennation angle, and smaller lateral gastrocnemius pennation angle were observed in rearfoot compared to forefoot runners (p < 0.05). Lower limb muscle architecture is associated with footfall pattern and ankle mechanics during running. Abbreviation: EMG: electromyographic; MG: medial gastrocnemius; LG: lateral gastrocnemius; TA: tibialis anterior; EI: echo intensity; CSA: cross-sectional area; PA: pennation angle; FL: fascicle length; FT: fat thickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph M Gonzales
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
| | - Andrew J Galpin
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
| | - Melissa M Montgomery
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
| | - Derek N Pamukoff
- a Department of Kinesiology, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA.,b Center for Sport Performance, California State University , Fullerton , CA , USA
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Koryak YA. Architectural and functional specifics of the human triceps surae muscle in vivo and its adaptation to microgravity. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2019; 126:880-893. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00634.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Long-term exposure to microgravity (μG) is known to reduce the strength of a skeletal muscle contraction and the level of general physical performance in humans, while little is known about its effect on muscle architecture. Architectural and contractile properties of the triceps surae (TS) muscle were determined in vivo for male cosmonauts in response ( n = 8) to a spaceflight (213.0 ± 30.5 days). The maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), tetanic tension ( Ро), and voluntary and electrically evoked contraction times and force deficiency (Pd) were determined. The ankle was positioned at 15° dorsiflexion (−15°) and 0, 15, and 30° plantar flexion, with the knee set at 90°. At each position, longitudinal ultrasonic images of the medial (MG) and lateral (LG) gastrocnemius and soleus (SOL) muscles were obtained while the subject was relaxed. After a spaceflight, MVC and Pо decreased by 42 and 26%, respectively, and Pd increased by 50%. The rate of tension of a voluntary contraction substantially reduced but evoked contractions remained unchanged. In the passive condition, fiber length ( Lf) changed from 43, 57, and 35 mm (knee, 0°; ankle, −15°) to 34, 38, and 25 mm (knee, 0°; ankle, 30°) for MG, LG, and SOL, respectively, and Θf changed from 27, 21, and 23° (knee, 0°; ankle, −15°) to 43, 29, and 34° (knee, 0°; ankle, 30°) for MG, LG, and SOL, respectively. Different Lf and Θf, and their changes after spaceflight, might be related to differences in force-producing capabilities of the muscles and elastic characteristics of tendons and aponeuroses. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The present work was the first to combine measuring the fiber length and pennation angle (ultrasound imaging) as main determinants of mechanical force production and evaluating the muscle function after a long-duration spaceflight. The results demonstrate that muscles with different functional roles may differently respond to unloading, and this circumstance is important to consider when planning rehabilitation after unloading of any kind, paying particular attention to postural muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri A. Koryak
- State Scientific Center of the Russian Federation, Institute of Biomedical Problems of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
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48
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Kellis E. Intra- and Inter-Muscular Variations in Hamstring Architecture and Mechanics and Their Implications for Injury: A Narrative Review. Sports Med 2019; 48:2271-2283. [PMID: 30117053 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-018-0975-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the architecture, anatomy, and biomechanics of the hamstrings may assist in explaining the mechanisms that affect and improve their function. The aim of this review is to specifically examine intra- and inter-muscular variations in architecture and mechanical properties of the hamstrings. Of the hamstrings, the long head of the biceps femoris shows the shortest and more pennated fibers. The semimembranosus has a similar muscle architecture with a long head of the biceps femoris but it has a different proximal attachment as well as a different moment arm compared with the long head of the biceps femoris. For the same joint motion, the semitendinosus displays less relative strain than the other hamstrings probably owing to a greater length, longer fascicles and, possibly, a longer tendon. Intra-muscular variations in architecture are documented but their implications are currently unclear. Proximally, the long head of the biceps femoris has shorter and more pennated fibers coupled with a narrower aponeurosis than distally, while the semitendinosus is the only muscle that entails a tendinous inscription. In conclusion, some of the identified intra- and inter-muscular variations in architecture may help explain why some muscles sustain injuries more than others. In the same line, exercises designed for the hamstrings may not provide the same stimulus for all components of this muscle group. Future research could examine whether intervention strategies that target specific muscles or specific areas of the hamstrings may offer additional benefits for injury prevention or rehabilitation of their function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftherios Kellis
- Laboratory of Neuromechanics, Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences at Serres, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Serres, 62110, Greece.
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49
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Franchi MV, Monti E, Carter A, Quinlan JI, Herrod PJJ, Reeves ND, Narici MV. Bouncing Back! Counteracting Muscle Aging With Plyometric Muscle Loading. Front Physiol 2019; 10:178. [PMID: 30890953 PMCID: PMC6411845 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The preservation of muscle power is crucial in aging for maintaining mobility and performing daily tasks. Resistance training involving high movement velocities represents a valid strategy to slow down the rate of sarcopenia, counteracting the loss of muscle mass and muscle power. Plyometric exercise may represent an effective training modality for increasing muscle power; however, its application in older populations has been sparingly investigated, as the high impact actions involved may reduce its feasibility for older individuals. By adopting a safer modality of plyometric training, we investigated if a 6-week plyometric training intervention could increase knee extensor muscle size, architecture, force and power in 14 young (YM, age = 25.4 ± 3.5 y; means ± SD) and nine older males (OM, age = 69.7 ± 3.4 y). Volunteers trained 3 times/week using a device similar to a leg press machine where the user was required to bounce against his body mass on a trampoline. Pre-to-post training changes in isometric maximum voluntary torque (MVT), leg extension power and vastus lateralis (VL) architecture were assessed. Muscle power increased in both groups (+27% OM -P < 0.001, 20% YM -P < 0.001), although the total external work performed during the training period was significantly lower for OM (i.e., ~-47%). Both groups showed significant increases in muscle thickness (MT) (+5.8 OM -P < 0.01 vs. +3.8% YM -P < 0.01), fascicle length (Lf) (+8% OM -P < 0.001 vs. +6% YM -P < 0.001), and pennation angle (PA) (+7.5% OM -P < 0.001 vs. +4.1% YM -P < 0.001). The current study shows that trampoline-based plyometric training is an effective intervention producing a rapid increase in muscle mass and power in both young and older individuals. The training modality used in this study seems to particularly benefit the older population, targeting the morphological and functional effects of sarcopenia in human muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martino V Franchi
- Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.,Sports Medicine Research Group, Department of Orthopedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Elena Monti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Physiology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Austin Carter
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan I Quinlan
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | - Philip J J Herrod
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing, University of Nottingham, Derby, United Kingdom
| | - Neil D Reeves
- School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Marco V Narici
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Physiology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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50
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Eng CM, Azizi E, Roberts TJ. Structural Determinants of Muscle Gearing During Dynamic Contractions. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 58:207-218. [PMID: 29889236 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icy054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In skeletal muscle, interactions between contractile and connective tissue elements at multiple scales result in emergent properties that determine mechanical performance. One of these phenomena is architectural gearing, which is quantified as the ratio of muscle velocity to muscle fiber velocity. Many pennate muscles operate with a gear ratio greater than one because muscles shorten through a combination of muscle fiber shortening and fiber rotation. Within a muscle, gearing is variable across contractions. During low force contractions, muscles operate at high gear while muscles operate at low gear during high force contractions. This variable gearing has a significant impact on muscle performance as muscle architectural changes favor muscle speed during fast contractions and muscle force during slow, high force contractions. We hypothesize that gearing in any given contraction is determined by the dynamic interaction of fiber-generated forces, fluid force transmission, and the elastic behavior of intramuscular connective tissues. Because muscle is isovolumetric, muscle fibers must bulge radially when they shorten. Radial bulging and fiber-generated forces off-axis from the muscle line of action exert forces that load connective tissues that ensheath fibers, fascicles, and the whole muscle. The way in which fluid pressures and fiber forces interact to load connective tissues in three-dimensions remains poorly understood because of the complex and multiscale nature of these interactions. Here we review evidence for variable gearing in pennate muscles, present a conceptual model that describes the fundamental interactions that determine gearing, and discuss where gaps remain in our understanding of the determinants and consequences of muscle shape change and variable gearing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn M Eng
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, 171 Meeting St, Box GB204, Providence, RI 02912, USA
| | - Emanuel Azizi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Irvine, 321 Steinhaus Hall, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Thomas J Roberts
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, 171 Meeting St, Box GB204, Providence, RI 02912, USA
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