Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Bee Venom in BV2 Microglial Cells: Mediation of MyD88-Dependent NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Amelioration of melittin on adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis: Integrated transcriptome and metabolome

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease lacking a definitive cure. Although conventional treatments such as dexamethasone and methotrexate are prevalent, their usage is constrained by potential adverse effects. Melittin (MLT) has emerged as a promising natural anti-rheumatic drug; however, studies focusing on the role of MLT in modulating the expression and metabolism of RA-related genes are scarce.

METHOD

Arthritis was induced in rats using Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA), followed by MLT injections for treatment. Post-treatment, the inflammatory status of each group was assessed, and the mechanistic underpinnings of MLT's ameliorative effects on RA were elucidated through transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses. Additionally, this study conducted qRT-PCR validation of key therapeutic genes and characterized the molecular docking interactions of MLT with key receptor proteins (TNF-α and IL-1β) using the AutoDock Vina software.

RESULT

MLT significantly diminished redness and swelling in affected joints, ameliorated inflammatory cell infiltration, and mitigated joint damage. Integration of transcriptomic and metabolomic data revealed that MLT predominantly regulated the transcription levels of pathways and genes related to cytokines and immune responses, and the metabolic biomarkers of Sphingomyelin, fatty acid, and flavonoid. qRT-PCR confirmed MLT's downregulation of inflammation-related genes such as Il6, Jak2, Stat3, and Ptx3. Molecular docking simulations demonstrated the stable binding of MLT to TNF-α and IL-1β.

CONCLUSION

MLT demonstrated significant efficacy in alleviating RA. This study provides a comprehensive summary of MLT's impact on gene expression and metabolic processes associated with RA.

Hive Products: Composition, Pharmacological Properties, and Therapeutic Applications

Beekeeping provides products with nutraceutical and pharmaceutical characteristics. These products are characterized by abundance of bioactive compounds. For different reasons, honey, royal jelly, propolis, venom, and pollen are beneficial to humans and animals and could be used as therapeutics. The pharmacological action of these products is related to many of their constituents. The main bioactive components of honey include oligosaccharides, methylglyoxal, royal jelly proteins (MRJPs), and phenolics compounds. Royal jelly contains jelleins, royalisin peptides, MRJPs, and derivatives of hydroxy-decenoic acid, particularly 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10-HDA), which possess antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, neuromodulatory, metabolic syndrome-preventing, and anti-aging properties. Propolis has a plethora of activities that are referable to compounds such as caffeic acid phenethyl ester. Peptides found in bee venom include phospholipase A2, apamin, and melittin. In addition to being vitamin-rich, bee pollen also includes unsaturated fatty acids, sterols, and phenolics compounds that express antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Therefore, the constituents of hive products are particular and different. All of these constituents have been investigated for their properties in numerous research studies. This review aims to provide a thorough screening of the bioactive chemicals found in honeybee products and their beneficial biological effects. The manuscript may provide impetus to the branch of unconventional medicine that goes by the name of apitherapy.

Applications of honeybee-derived products in bone tissue engineering

Nowadays, there is an increasing prevalence of bone diseases and defects caused by trauma, cancers, infections, and degenerative and inflammatory conditions. The restoration of bone tissue lost due to trauma, fractures, or surgical removal resulting from locally invasive pathologies requires bone regeneration. As an alternative to conventional treatments, sustainable materials based on natural products, such as honeybee-derived products (honey, propolis, royal jelly, bee pollen, beeswax, and bee venom), could be considered. Honeybee-derived products, particularly honey, have long been recognized for their healing properties. There are a mixture of phytochemicals that offer bone protection through their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. This review aims to summarize the current evidence regarding the effects of honeybee-derived products on bone regeneration. In conclusion, honey, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom can potentially serve as natural products for promoting bone health.

Anti-Neuroinflammatory Effect of the Ethanolic Extract of Black Ginseng through TLR4-MyD88-Regulated Inhibition of NF-κB and MAPK Signaling Pathways in LPS-Induced BV2 Microglial Cells

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) contains various ginsenosides as active ingredients, and they show diverse biological activities. Black ginseng is manufactured by repeated steaming and drying of white ginseng, which alters the polarity of ginsenosides and improves biological activities. The aim of the present investigation was to examine the anti-neuroinflammatory effects of the ethanolic extract of black ginseng (BGE) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 microglial cells. Pre-treatment with BGE inhibited the overproduction of pro-inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in LPS-induced BV2 cells. In addition, BGE reduced the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) MAPK signaling pathways induced by LPS. These anti-neuroinflammatory effects were mediated through the negative regulation of the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) signaling pathway. Among the four ginsenosides contained in BGE, ginsenosides Rd and Rg3 inhibited the production of inflammatory mediators. Taken together, this investigation suggests that BGE represents potential anti-neuroinflammatory candidates for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Antioxidant and Antineuroinflammatory Mechanisms of Kaempferol-3-O-β-d-Glucuronate on Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated BV2 Microglial Cells through the Nrf2/HO-1 Signaling Cascade and MAPK/NF-κB Pathway

Aglycone- and glycoside-derived forms of flavonoids exist broadly in plants and foods such as fruits, vegetables, and peanuts. However, most studies focus on the bioavailability of flavonoid aglycone rather than its glycosylated form. Kaempferol-3-O-β-d-glucuronate (K3G) is a natural flavonoid glycoside obtained from various plants that have several biological activities, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. However, the molecular mechanism related to the antioxidant and antineuroinflammatory activity of K3G has not yet been demonstrated. The present study was designed to demonstrate the antioxidant and antineuroinflammatory effect of K3G against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated BV2 microglial cells and to evaluate the underlying mechanism. Cell viability was determined by MTT assay. The inhibition rate of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines were measured by DCF-DA assay, Griess assay, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and western blotting. K3G inhibited the LPS-induced release of nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) as well as the expression of prostaglandin E synthase 2. Additionally, K3G reduced the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) related proteins. Mechanistic studies found that K3G downregulated phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and upregulated the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling cascade. In this study, we demonstrated the effects of K3G on antineuroinflammation by inactivating phosphorylation of MPAKs and on antioxidants by upregulating the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway through decreasing ROS in LPS-stimulated BV2 cells.

Lima B, Araújo AAS, de Albuquerque-Junior RLC, Gramacho KP, Padilha FF, da Costa LP, Severino P, Cardoso JC, Souto EB, Gomes MZ. Africanized Bee Venom (Apis mellifera Linnaeus): Neuroprotective Effects in a Parkinson's Disease Mouse Model Induced by 6-hydroxydopamine

This study evaluated the neuroprotective effects of the Africanized bee venom (BV) and its mechanisms of action after 6-hydroxydopamine-(6-OHDA)-induced lesion in a mice model. Prior to BV treatment, mice received intrastriatal microinjections of 6-OHDA (no induced dopaminergic neuronal death) or ascorbate saline (as a control). BV was administered subcutaneously at different dosages (0.01, 0.05 or 0.1 mg·Kg^-1) once every two days over a period of 3 weeks. The open field test was carried out, together with the immunohistochemical and histopathological analysis. The chemical composition of BV was also assessed, identifying the highest concentrations of apamin, phospholipase A₂ and melittin. In the behavioral evaluation, the BV (0.1 mg·Kg^-1) counteracted the 6-OHDA-induced decrease in crossings and rearing. 6-OHDA caused loss of dopaminergic cell bodies in the substantia nigra pars compacta and fibers in striatum (STR). Mice that received 0.01 mg·Kg^-1 showed significant increase in the mean survival of dopaminergic cell bodies. Increased astrocytic infiltration occurred in the STR of 6-OHDA injected mice, differently from those of the groups treated with BV. The results suggested that Africanized BV has neuroprotective activity in an animal model of Parkinson's disease.

Therapeutic Potential of Bee and Scorpion Venom Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): A Narrative Review

Venomous arthropods such as scorpions and bees form one of the important groups with an essential role in medical entomology. Their venom possesses a mixture of diverse compounds, such as peptides, some of which have toxic effects, and enzymatic peptide Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) with a pharmacological potential in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Bee and scorpion venom PLA2 group III has been used in immunotherapy, the treatment of neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. They were assessed for antinociceptive, wound healing, anti-cancer, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, and anti-angiogenesis effects. PLA2 has been identified in different species of scorpions and bees. The anti-leishmania, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-malarial activities of scorpion PLA2 still need further investigation. Many pieces of research have been stopped in the laboratory stage, and several studies need vast investigation in the clinical phase to show the pharmacological potential of PLA2. In this review, the medical significance of PLA2 from the venom of two arthropods, namely bees and scorpions, is discussed.

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Bee Venom Acupuncture Therapy on Rheumatoid Arthritis Among Patients in Saudi Arabia

Introduction

Bee venom acupuncture therapy (BVT) is an alternative therapy used worldwide by patients with different chronic diseases due to its therapeutic effects on conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Previous studies have illustrated the clinical effects of BVT on RA, but such a study has yet to be performed in Saudi Arabia (SA). It is important to evaluate BVT awareness among citizens of SA to measure the feasibility of conducting clinical trials of BVT in patients with RA in SA. This study aims to measure the knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of BVT on RA and other chronic diseases in SA. This will help determine whether patients with RA have sufficient knowledge to be enrolled in clinical trials.

Patients and Methods

A cross-sectional study of 180 patients with RA in SA was conducted using a KAP questionnaire on BVT. Individuals completed an online questionnaire using the Survey Monkey website. Data were obtained by self-completion of the online KAP questionnaire regarding BVT.

Results

A total of 180 patients with RA and other chronic diseases, with a mean age of 45 years (18–70 years), participated in the study. The results of the questionnaire showed that 55% of the participants demonstrated a good knowledge of BVT treatment; however, they also reported a poor attitude (55%) and practice (55%). Participants with RA demonstrated higher severity of disease (80%) than those with other chronic diseases. Participants with RA showed better KAP responses towards BVT than those with other chronic diseases. Participants with school education only and those who were beekeepers demonstrated significantly better KAP responses (P < 0.05) compared to participants who had received university education and those who were not beekeepers, respectively.

Conclusion

Participants with strong RA knowledge may prove that patients from SA can be enrolled in BVT clinical trials. The participants’ poor attitudes and practices may be due to BVT being expensive and unavailable in many cities in SA.

Future Directions for the Discovery of Natural Product-Derived Immunomodulating Drugs

Drug discovery from natural sources is going through a renaissance, having spent many decades in the shadow of synthetic molecule drug discovery, despite the fact that natural product-derived compounds occupy a much greater chemical space than those created through synthetic chemistry methods. With this new era comes new possibilities, not least the novel targets that have emerged in recent times and the development of state-of-the-art technologies that can be applied to drug discovery from natural sources. Although progress has been made with some immunomodulating drugs, there remains a pressing need for new agents that can be used to treat the wide variety of conditions that arise from disruption, or over-activation, of the immune system; natural products may therefore be key in filling this gap. Recognising that, at present, there is no authoritative article that details the current state-of-the-art of the immunomodulatory activity of natural products, this in-depth review has arisen from a joint effort between the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Natural Products and Immunopharmacology, with contributions from a Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation number of world-leading researchers in the field of natural product drug discovery, to provide a "position statement" on what natural products has to offer in the search for new immunomodulatory argents. To this end, we provide a historical look at previous discoveries of naturally occurring immunomodulators, present a picture of the current status of the field and provide insight into the future opportunities and challenges for the discovery of new drugs to treat immune-related diseases.

Effects of bee venom and dopamine-loaded nanoparticles on reserpine-induced Parkinson's disease rat model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive chronic neurodegenerative condition characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra. Current PD therapeutic strategies are mainly symptomatic and can lead to motor complications overtime. As a result, alternative medicine may provide an effective adjuvant treatment for PD as an addition to or as a replacement of the conventional therapies. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of Bee Venom (BV) and dopamine (DA)-loaded nanoparticles in a reserpine-induced animal model of PD. After inducing PD with reserpine injection, different groups of male rats were treated with L-Dopa, BV, DA-nanoparticles. Our findings showed that BV and DA-nanoparticles administration restored monoamines, balanced glutamate/GABA levels, halted DNA fragmentation, decreased pro-inflammatory mediators (IL-1β and TNF-α), and elevated anti-inflammatory mediators (PON1) and neurotropic factor (BDNF) levels in comparison with conventional therapy of PD. Furthermore, in a reserpine-induced PD rat model, the ameliorative effects of BV were significantly superior to that of DA-nanoparticles. These findings imply that BV and DA-nanoparticles could be useful as adjuvant treatments for PD.

Bee Venom: From Venom to Drug

Insects of the order Hymenoptera have a defensive substance that contains many biologically active compounds. Specifically, venom from honeybees (Apis mellifera) contains many enzymes and peptides that are effective against various diseases. Different research papers stated the possibility of using bee venom (a direct bee sting or in an injectable form) in treating several complications; either in vivo or in vitro. Other reports used the active fractions of bee venom clinically or at labratory scale. Many reports and publications have stated that bee venom and its constituents have multiple biological activities including anti-microbial, anti-protozoan, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, and anti-arthritic properties. The present review aims to refer to the use of bee venom itself or its fractions in treating several diseases and counteracting drug toxicities as an alternative protocol of therapy. The updated molecular mechanisms of actions of bee venom and its components are discussed in light of the previous updated publications. The review also summarizes the potential of venom loaded on nanoparticles as a drug delivery vehicle and its molecular mechanisms. Finally, the products of bee venom available in markets are also demonstrated.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Wasp Venom in BV-2 Microglial Cells in Comparison with Bee Venom

Simple Summary

As the population of the yellow-legged hornet (Vespa velutina) spreads, this study investigated ways to utilize this resource of abundant invasive wasp species. Hymenoptera venoms, including bee venom and wasp venom, have therapeutic potential. Although the venoms are toxic to humans, the elucidation of their composition and working mechanisms has led to discoveries about their potential applications in treatment modalities for a variety of disorders. Therefore, we examined the anti-inflammatory effect of wasp venom from V. velutina in comparison with that of bee venom from honey bee on BV-2 murine microglial cells. Treatment with wasp venom reduced the secretion of nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha, from BV-2 cells activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Western blot analysis revealed that wasp venom and bee venom decreased the expression levels of inflammation markers, including inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2. In addition, wasp venom decreased the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), which is a key transcription factor in the regulation of cellular inflammatory response. Overall, the findings demonstrated that wasp venom inhibited LPS-induced inflammation in microglial cells by suppressing the NF-κB-mediated signaling pathway, which warrants further studies to confirm its therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare the anti-inflammatory effect of wasp venom (WV) from the yellow-legged hornet (Vespa velutina) with that of bee venom (BV) on BV-2 murine microglial cells. WV was collected from the venom sac, freeze-dried, and used for in vitro examinations. WV and BV were non-toxic to BV-2 cells at concentrations of 160 and 12 µg/mL or lower, respectively. Treatment with WV reduced the secretion of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha, from BV-2 cells activated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Western blot analysis revealed that WV and BV decreased the expression levels of inflammation markers, including inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2. In addition, WV decreased the nuclear translocation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB), which is a key transcription factor in the regulation of cellular inflammatory response. Cumulatively, the results demonstrated that WV inhibited LPS-induced neuroinflammation in microglial cells by suppressing the NF-κB-mediated signaling pathway, which warrants further studies to confirm its therapeutic potential for neurodegenerative diseases.

Effect of natural extract eye drops in dry eye disease rats

AIM

To investigate the therapeutic effect of natural extract eye drops containing bee venom, musk, and deer antlers in dry eye disease (DED) animal models.

METHODS

Scopolamine-injected DED rats and lacrimal gland-excised rats were allocated into control, saline, and natural extract groups respectively and a normal group (lacrimal gland excision was not performed) in lacrimal gland-excised rats. After eye drop instillation 4 times a day for 5d, corneal fluorescein staining (CFS) scores, tear MUC5AC levels, and tear lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were measured.

RESULTS

In scopolamine-injected rats, the natural extract-treated group had significantly lower CFS scores (1.7±0.5, 4.7±1.4, 3.8±1.9, P=0.006) and tear LDH levels (0.10±0.01, 0.19±0.01, 0.16±0.08 OD, P=0.014) but higher tear MUC5AC levels (12.9±3.7, 7.9±2.0, 9.7±3.6 ng/mL, P=0.041) compared with the control and saline-treated groups. There were no significant differences between the control and saline-treated groups. In lacrimal gland-excised rats, the natural extract-treated group also had lower CFS scores (4.3±1.2, 11.5±2.3, 9.0±1.9, P<0.001, P=0.001) and tear LDH levels (0.30±0.08, 0.48±0.12, 0.39±0.05 OD, P<0.05) but higher tear volume (4.3±0.9, 1.9±0.7, 2.8±1.1 mm, P=0.005, P=0.124) and tear MUC5AC levels (8.2±2.0, 2.9±1.2, 5.4±2.2 ng/mL, P<0.001, P=0.047) compared with the control and saline-treated groups. There were no significant differences in the CFS scores, tear MUC5AC level, and tear LDH level between the normal and natural extract-treated groups.

CONCLUSION

The natural extract consisting of bee venom, musk, and deer antlers may have effectiveness in DED treatment by restoring the damaged ocular surface, increasing tear volume, and recovering the tear mucin layer in DED rats.

Animal venoms: therapeutic tools for tackling Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative pathology of the central nervous system, mainly involving the selective and progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra, resulting in motor and non-motor symptoms. PD remains an incurable ailment; thus, treatments are limited to symptom alleviation. With long-term use, conventional treatments can become inefficient, often triggering possible side effects. Considering these drawbacks, drug discovery constantly turns to nature as a source of efficient therapeutics. Thus, this review explores animal venoms as a rich source of bioactive compounds with potent neuropharmacological profiles for the development of effective adjuvant treatments with fewer side effects, ultimately aiming for the neuroprotection of dopaminergic neurons and the symptomatic relief of PD.

Dihydromyricetin Attenuates Inflammation through TLR4/NF-kappaB Pathway

Microglia plays a complex role in neuroinflammation, which has been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. This study aims to explore the effect and mechanism of Dihydromyricetin (DHM) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation in microglial BV-2 cells. Cell viability was measured by 3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. The pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines including interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α); inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS); and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and/or quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). The expression of p-p65, p-IκBα, toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), and myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) were analyzed by western blot. The present study showed that DHM treatment alleviated LPS-induced viability reduction, suppressed the mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α, inhibited the mRNA and protein expression of iNOS and COX-2, and attenuated the activation of NF-кB and TLR4 signaling in a concentration-dependent manner. In conclusion, DHM exerts an anti-inflammatory effect on LPS-induced BV-2 microglial cells, possibly through TRL4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

The Ameliorative Effects of the Ethyl Acetate Extract of Salicornia europaea L. and Its Bioactive Candidate, Irilin B, on LPS-Induced Microglial Inflammation and MPTP-Intoxicated PD-Like Mouse Model

Hyperactivation of microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the central nervous system, exacerbates various neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Parkinson's disease is generally characterized by a severe loss of dopaminergic neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway, with substantial neuroinflammation and motor deficits. This was experimentally replicated in animal models, using neurotoxins, i.e., LPS (lipopolysaccharides) and MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine). Salicornia europaea L. (SE) has been used as a dietary supplement in Korea and Europe for several years, due to its nutritional and therapeutic value. In this study, we intend to investigate the antineuroinflammatory and anti-PD-like effects of the bioactive fraction/candidate of the SE extract. Initially, we screened various fractions of SE extract using an in vitro antioxidant assay. The optimal fraction was investigated for its in vitro antineuroinflammatory potential in LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells and in vivo anti-PD-like potential in MPTP-intoxicated mice. Subsequently, to identify the potential candidate responsible for the elite therapeutic potential of the optimal fraction, we conducted antioxidant activity-guided isolation and purification; the bioactive candidate was structurally characterized using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and chromatographic techniques and further investigated for its in vitro antioxidative and antineuroinflammatory potential. The results of our study indicate that SE-EA and its bioactive candidate, Irilin B, effectively alleviate the deleterious effect of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and promote antioxidative effects. Thus, they exhibit potential as therapeutic candidates against neuroinflammatory and oxidative stress-mediated PD-like neurodegenerative complications.

Involvement of the anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and anti-secretory activity of bee venom in its therapeutic effects on acetylsalicylic acid-induced gastric ulceration in rats

Acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) is the most highly consumed pharmaceutical product worldwide. Importantly, gastrointestinal ulceration due to ASA is a major complication. Hence, the present work aimed to examine, for the first time, the healing properties of bee venom (BV) in acute gastric ulceration induced by ASA. Forty adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into four groups that received distilled water only, ASA (500 mg/kg BW) twice daily for 3 days, ASA for 3 days followed by BV (2 mg/kg BW) for 7 days, or ASA for 3 days followed by ranitidine hydrochloride (50 mg/kg BW) for 7 days. Haematological analysis, haemostatic evaluation, and inflammatory marker estimation were performed. Rat stomachs were collected for ulcer scoring, gene expression analysis, oxidative stress assays, histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations, and tissue eosinophil scoring. The results revealed that BV markedly decreased the ulcer index, pro-inflammatory cytokine levels, malondialdehyde levels, BAX distribution, caspase-3 expression, and tissue eosinophil levels. Additionally, significant increases in antioxidant enzymes and heat shock protein 70 localization in gastric tissue were evident following BV treatment after ASA exposure. Also, BV has been found to attenuate the haematological, haemostatic, and histopathological alterations induced by ASA. Our findings collectively indicate that the gastroprotective effect of BV against ASA-induced ulceration in rats is mediated by its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and anti-secretory properties.

Chemical Constituents and an Antineuroinflammatory Lignan, Savinin from the Roots of Acanthopanax henryi

The phytochemical investigation on the roots of Acanthopanax henryi (Araliaceae) resulted in the discovery of twenty compounds whose chemical structures were elucidated by the analysis of 1D-, 2D-NMR, mass spectrometry data, other physicochemical properties, and a comparison of the spectral data with the literature. They were identified as (-)-sesamin (1), helioxanthin (2), savinin (3), taiwanin C (4), 6-methoxy-7-hydroxycoumarin (5), behenic acid (6), 3-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid (7), 5-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid (8), 1,3-di-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid (9), 1,4-di-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid (10), 1,5-di-O-caffeoyl-quinic acid (11), (+)-threo-(7R,8R)-guaiacylglycerol-β-coniferyl aldehyde ether (12), (+)-erythro-(7S,8R)-guaiacylglycerol-β-coniferyl aldehyde ether (13), ferulic acid (14), caffeic acid (15), stigmasterol (16), β-sitosterol (17), adenosine (18), syringin (19), and trans-coniferin (20). Among these isolates, compound 3 showed inhibitory activity against lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) induced nitric oxide (NO) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production with IC50 values of 2.22 ± 0.11 and 2.28 ± 0.23 μM, respectively. The effects of compound 3 were associated with the suppression of LPS-induced expression of the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein. Furthermore, compound 3 negatively regulated the production of interleukin- (IL-) 1β and tumor-necrosis factor- (TNF-) α at the transcriptional level in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglial cells. These antineuroinflammatory effects of compound 3 were mediated by p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK).

Antiinflammatory peptides: current knowledge and promising prospects

BACKGROUND

Inflammation is part of the regular host reaction to injury or infection caused by toxic factors, pathogens, damaged cells, irritants, and allergens. Antiinflammatory peptides (AIPs) are present in all living organisms, and many peptides from herbal, mammalian, bacterial, and marine origins have been shown to have antimicrobial and/or antiinflammatory properties.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated the effects of antiinflammatory peptides on inflammation, and highlighted the underlying mechanisms responsible for these effects.

RESULTS

In multicellular organisms, including humans, AIPs constitute an essential part of their immune system. In addition, numerous natural and synthetic AIPs are effective immunomodulators and can interfere with signal transduction pathways involved in inflammatory cytokine expression. Among them, some peptides such as antiflammin, N-acetyl-seryl-aspartyl-lysyl-proline (Ac-SDKP), and those derived from velvet antler proteins, bee venom, horse fly salivary gland, and bovine β-casein have received considerable attention over the past few years.

CONCLUSION

This article presents an overview on the major properties and mechanisms of action associated with AIPs as immunomodulatory, chemotactic, antioxidant, and antimicrobial agents. In addition, the results of various studies dealing with effects of AIPs on numerous classical models of inflammation are reviewed and discussed.

The roles of the TLR/NF‑κB signaling pathway in the mutual interactions between the lung and the large intestine

The 'exterior-interior relationship between the lung and the large intestine' is a classical basic theory in Traditional Chinese Medicine. The present study aimed to investigate the roles of the toll like receptor/nuclear factor‑κB (TLR/NF‑κB) signaling pathway in the mutual interactions between the lung and the large intestine. A rat model of allergic asthma complicated with intestinal flora disorder was established by oral administration of Candida albicans and intraperitoneal injection with ovalbumin. The number of inflammatory cells and expression levels immunoglobulin (Ig)E, secretory IgA, interleukin (IL)‑4 and interferon‑γ in serum and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid were subsequently measured. Bacterial colonies and expression of 16S ribosomal DNA were studied in feces samples and pathological alterations of lung tissues were identified. Furthermore, the expression levels of genes associated with the TLR/NF‑κB signaling pathway in the lung and intestinal tissues were determined by reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The results of the present study indicated that, in the rat model of allergic asthma complicated with intestinal flora disorder, the expression levels of IL‑4 and IgE, and the numbers of inflammatory cells and C. albicans increased, and marked inflammatory cell infiltration was observed in lung tissues, suggesting that the animal model was successfully established. Furthermore, the present results revealed the mRNA expression levels of genes associated with the TLR/NF‑κB signaling (including myeloid differentiation primary response 88, TNF receptor associated factor 6 and β‑arrestin) were upregulated in both of the lung and intestinal tissues of the model group rats. Collectively, the results demonstrated that the TLR/NF‑κB signaling may serve roles in the mutual interactions between the lung and the large intestine, and TLR and NF‑κB may be potential targets for the treatment of lung diseases complicated with intestinal disorders.

Antioxidant activity and irritation property of venoms from Apis species

Pharmacological effects of bee venom has been reported, however, it has been restricted to the bee venom collected from European honey bee (Apis mellifera). The aim of the present study was to compare the antioxidant activities and irritation properties of venoms collected from four different Apis species in Thailand, which includes Apis cerena (Asian cavity nesting honeybee), Apis florea (dwarf honeybee), Apis dorsata (giant honeybee), and A. mellifera. Melittin content of each bee venom extracts was investigated by using high-performance liquid chromatography. Ferric reducing antioxidant power, 2, 2'-azinobis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), and 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl assay were used to determine the antioxidant activity, whereas, hen's egg test chorioallantoic membrane assay was used to determine the irritation property of each bee venom extracts. Melittin was the major constituent in all bee venom extracts. The melittin content in A. dorsata, A. mellifera, A. florea, and A. cerena were 95.8 ± 3.2%, 76.5 ± 1.9%, 66.3 ± 8.6%, and 56.8 ± 1.8%, respectively. Bee venom extract from A. dorsata possessed the highest antioxidant activity with the inhibition of 41.1 ± 2.2% against DPPH, Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity of 10.21 ± 0.74 mM Trolox/mg and equivalent concentration (EC₁) of 0.35 ± 0.02 mM FeSO₄/mg. Bee venom extract from A. mellifera exhibited the highest irritation, followed by A. cerena, A. dorsata, and A. florea, respectively. Melittin was the compound responsible for the irritation property of bee venom extracts since it could induce severe irritation (irritation score was 13.7 ± 0.5, at the concentration of 2 mg/ml). The extract from A. dorsata which possessed the highest antioxidant activity showed no irritation up to the concentration of 0.1 mg/ml. Therefore, bee venom extract from A. dorsata at the concentration not more than 0.1 mg/ml would be suggested for using as cosmetic ingredients since it possessed the highest antioxidant activity with no irritation. This study is the first report to compare the bee venom extracts from different Apis species and display their potential application of bee venom extracts in cosmetic products.

Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Crude Venom Isolated from Parasitoid Wasp, Bracon hebetor Say

Pest control in the agricultural fields, a major concern globally, is currently achieved through chemical or biological methods. Chemical methods, which leave toxic residue in the produce, are less preferred than biological methods. Venoms injected by stings of various wasps that kill the pest is considered as the examples of the biological method. Although several studies have investigated the biological control of pests through these venoms, very few studies have reported the effects of these venoms on mammalian cells. Bracon hebetor, an ectoparasitoid of the order Hymenoptera, is having a paramount importance in parasitizing various lepidopterous larvae including Plodia interpunctella also called as Indianmeal moth (IMM). Since it is biologically controlled by B. hebetor venom, therefore in our study, herein for the first time, we report the anti-inflammatory activities of the venom from B. hebetor (BHV). We developed a septic shock mice model for in vivo anti-inflammatory studies and RAW 264.7 cells for in vitro studies. Our results clearly demonstrate that BHV can dose dependently abrogate the nitric oxide (NO) production and suppress the levels of proinflammatory mediators and cytokines without posing any cytotoxicity via the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways.