1
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Yutani R, Venketaraman V, Sheren N. Treatment of Acute and Long-COVID, Diabetes, Myocardial Infarction, and Alzheimer's Disease: The Potential Role of a Novel Nano-Compound-The Transdermal Glutathione-Cyclodextrin Complex. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:1106. [PMID: 39334765 PMCID: PMC11429141 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13091106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2024] [Revised: 08/21/2024] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress (OS) occurs from excessive reactive oxygen species or a deficiency of antioxidants-primarily endogenous glutathione (GSH). There are many illnesses, from acute and post-COVID-19, diabetes, myocardial infarction to Alzheimer's disease, that are associated with OS. These dissimilar illnesses are, in order, viral infections, metabolic disorders, ischemic events, and neurodegenerative disorders. Evidence is presented that in many illnesses, (1) OS is an early initiator and significant promotor of their progressive pathophysiologic processes, (2) early reduction of OS may prevent later serious and irreversible complications, (3) GSH deficiency is associated with OS, (4) GSH can likely reduce OS and restore adaptive physiology, (5) effective administration of GSH can be accomplished with a novel nano-product, the GSH/cyclodextrin (GC) complex. OS is an overlooked pathological process of many illnesses. Significantly, with the GSH/cyclodextrin (GC) complex, therapeutic administration of GSH is now available to reduce OS. Finally, rigorous prospective studies are needed to confirm the efficacy of this therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Yutani
- Department of Family Medicine, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
| | - Vishwanath Venketaraman
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
| | - Nisar Sheren
- College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacific, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, CA 91766, USA
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2
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Percio A, Cicchinelli M, Masci D, Summo M, Urbani A, Greco V. Oxidative Cysteine Post Translational Modifications Drive the Redox Code Underlying Neurodegeneration and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:883. [PMID: 39199129 PMCID: PMC11351139 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13080883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 09/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Redox dysregulation, an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants, is crucial in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases. Within this context, the "redoxome" encompasses the network of redox molecules collaborating to maintain cellular redox balance and signaling. Among these, cysteine-sensitive proteins are fundamental for this homeostasis. Due to their reactive thiol groups, cysteine (Cys) residues are particularly susceptible to oxidative post-translational modifications (PTMs) induced by free radicals (reactive oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur species) which profoundly affect protein functions. Cys-PTMs, forming what is referred to as "cysteinet" in the redox proteome, are essential for redox signaling in both physiological and pathological conditions, including neurodegeneration. Such modifications significantly influence protein misfolding and aggregation, key hallmarks of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and notably, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This review aims to explore the complex landscape of cysteine PTMs in the cellular redox environment, elucidating their impact on neurodegeneration at protein level. By investigating specific cysteine-sensitive proteins and the regulatory networks involved, particular emphasis is placed on the link between redox dysregulation and ALS, highlighting this pathology as a prime example of a neurodegenerative disease wherein such redox dysregulation is a distinct hallmark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Percio
- Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensivological and Perioperative Clinics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (A.P.); (M.C.); (D.M.); (M.S.); (A.U.)
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Infectious Diseases, Unity of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli-IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Michela Cicchinelli
- Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensivological and Perioperative Clinics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (A.P.); (M.C.); (D.M.); (M.S.); (A.U.)
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Infectious Diseases, Unity of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli-IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Domiziana Masci
- Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensivological and Perioperative Clinics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (A.P.); (M.C.); (D.M.); (M.S.); (A.U.)
| | - Mariagrazia Summo
- Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensivological and Perioperative Clinics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (A.P.); (M.C.); (D.M.); (M.S.); (A.U.)
| | - Andrea Urbani
- Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensivological and Perioperative Clinics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (A.P.); (M.C.); (D.M.); (M.S.); (A.U.)
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Infectious Diseases, Unity of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli-IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Viviana Greco
- Department of Basic Biotechnological Sciences, Intensivological and Perioperative Clinics, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (A.P.); (M.C.); (D.M.); (M.S.); (A.U.)
- Department of Laboratory Diagnostic and Infectious Diseases, Unity of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Clinical Molecular Biology, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli-IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
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3
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Manav N, Jit BP, Kataria B, Sharma A. Cellular and epigenetic perspective of protein stability and its implications in the biological system. Epigenomics 2024; 16:879-900. [PMID: 38884355 PMCID: PMC11370918 DOI: 10.1080/17501911.2024.2351788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Protein stability is a fundamental prerequisite in both experimental and therapeutic applications. Current advancements in high throughput experimental techniques and functional ontology approaches have elucidated that impairment in the structure and stability of proteins is intricately associated with the cause and cure of several diseases. Therefore, it is paramount to deeply understand the physical and molecular confounding factors governing the stability of proteins. In this review article, we comprehensively investigated the evolution of protein stability, examining its emergence over time, its relationship with organizational aspects and the experimental methods used to understand it. Furthermore, we have also emphasized the role of Epigenetics and its interplay with post-translational modifications (PTMs) in regulating the stability of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Manav
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi, Ansari Nagar, 110029, India
| | - Bimal Prasad Jit
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi, Ansari Nagar, 110029, India
| | - Babita Kataria
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Institute, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jhajjar, 124105, India
| | - Ashok Sharma
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences New Delhi, Ansari Nagar, 110029, India
- Department of Biochemistry, National Cancer Institute, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jhajjar, 124105, India
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4
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Aranda-Rivera AK, Cruz-Gregorio A, Amador-Martínez I, Medina-Campos ON, Garcia-Garcia M, Bernabe-Yepes B, León-Contreras JC, Hernández-Pando R, Aparicio-Trejo OE, Sánchez-Lozada LG, Tapia E, Pedraza-Chaverri J. Sulforaphane protects from kidney damage during the release of unilateral ureteral obstruction (RUUO) by activating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2): Role of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic mechanisms. Free Radic Biol Med 2024; 212:49-64. [PMID: 38141891 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2023.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
Releasing unilateral ureteral obstruction (RUUO) is the gold standard for decreasing renal damage induced during unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO); however, the complete recovery after RUUO depends on factors such as the time and severity of obstruction and kidney contralateral compensatory mechanisms. Interestingly, previous studies have shown that kidney damage markers such as oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis are present and even increase after removal obstruction. To date, previous therapeutic strategies have been used to potentiate the recovery of renal function after RUUO; however, the mechanisms involving renal damage reduction are poorly described and sometimes focus on the recovery of renal functionality. Furthermore, using natural antioxidants has not been completely studied in the RUUO model. In this study, we selected sulforaphane (SFN) because it activates the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a transcription factor that induces an antioxidant response, decreasing oxidative stress and inflammation, preventing apoptosis. Thus, we pre-administrated SFN on the second day after UUO until day five, where we released the obstruction on the three days after UUO. Then, we assessed oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis markers. Interestingly, we found that SFN administration in the RUUO model activated Nrf2, inducing its translocation to the nucleus to activate its target proteins. Thus, the Nrf2 activation upregulated glutathione (GSH) content and the antioxidant enzymes catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GR), which reduced the oxidative stress markers. Moreover, the improvement of antioxidant response by SFN restored S-glutathionylation in the mitochondrial fraction. Activated Nrf2 also reduced inflammation by lessening the nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 and interleukin 1β (IL-1β) production. Reducing oxidative stress and inflammation prevented apoptosis by avoiding caspase 3 cleavage and increasing B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) levels. Taken together, the obtained results in our study showed that the upregulation of Nrf2 by SFN decreases oxidative stress, preventing inflammation and apoptosis cell death during the release of UUO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Karina Aranda-Rivera
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico; Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico.
| | - Alfredo Cruz-Gregorio
- Departamento de Fisiología, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología "Ignacio Chavez", Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Isabel Amador-Martínez
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico; Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Omar Noel Medina-Campos
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico
| | - Misael Garcia-Garcia
- Departamento de Fisiopatología Cardio-Renal, Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia "Ignacio Chávez", Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Bismarck Bernabe-Yepes
- Departamento de Fisiopatología Cardio-Renal, Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia "Ignacio Chávez", Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Juan Carlos León-Contreras
- Departamento de Patología, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Rogelio Hernández-Pando
- Departamento de Patología, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Omar Emiliano Aparicio-Trejo
- Departamento de Fisiopatología Cardio-Renal, Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia "Ignacio Chávez", Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Laura Gabriela Sánchez-Lozada
- Departamento de Fisiopatología Cardio-Renal, Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia "Ignacio Chávez", Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - Edilia Tapia
- Departamento de Fisiopatología Cardio-Renal, Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia "Ignacio Chávez", Mexico City, 14080, Mexico
| | - José Pedraza-Chaverri
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, 04510, Mexico.
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5
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Scirè A, Casari G, Romaldi B, de Bari L, Antognelli C, Armeni T. Glutathionyl Hemoglobin and Its Emerging Role as a Clinical Biomarker of Chronic Oxidative Stress. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1976. [PMID: 38001829 PMCID: PMC10669486 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12111976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemoglobin is one of the proteins that are more susceptible to S-glutathionylation and the levels of its modified form, glutathionyl hemoglobin (HbSSG), increase in several human pathological conditions. The scope of the present review is to provide knowledge about how hemoglobin is subjected to S-glutathionylation and how this modification affects its functionality. The different diseases that showed increased levels of HbSSG and the methods used for its quantification in clinical investigations will be also outlined. Since there is a growing need for precise and reliable methods for markers of oxidative stress in human blood, this review highlights how HbSSG is emerging more and more as a good indicator of severe oxidative stress but also as a key pathogenic factor in several diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Scirè
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences (Di.S.V.A.), Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Giulia Casari
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
| | - Brenda Romaldi
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
| | - Lidia de Bari
- Institute of Biomembranes, Bioenergetics and Molecular Biotechnologies (IBIOM), National Research Council (CNR), 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Cinzia Antognelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Degli Studi di Perugia, 06129 Perugia, Italy;
| | - Tatiana Armeni
- Department of Odontostomatologic and Specialized Clinical Sciences, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy; (G.C.); (B.R.); (T.A.)
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6
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Lv N, Huang C, Huang H, Dong Z, Chen X, Lu C, Zhang Y. Overexpression of Glutathione S-Transferases in Human Diseases: Drug Targets and Therapeutic Implications. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1970. [PMID: 38001822 PMCID: PMC10668987 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12111970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a major class of phase II metabolic enzymes. Besides their essential role in detoxification, GSTs also exert diverse biological activities in the occurrence and development of various diseases. In the past few decades, much research interest has been paid to exploring the mechanisms of GST overexpression in tumor drug resistance. Correspondingly, many GST inhibitors have been developed and applied, solely or in combination with chemotherapeutic drugs, for the treatment of multi-drug resistant tumors. Moreover, novel roles of GSTs in other diseases, such as pulmonary fibrosis and neurodegenerative diseases, have been recognized in recent years, although the exact regulatory mechanisms remain to be elucidated. This review, firstly summarizes the roles of GSTs and their overexpression in the above-mentioned diseases with emphasis on the modulation of cell signaling pathways and protein functions. Secondly, specific GST inhibitors currently in pre-clinical development and in clinical stages are inventoried. Lastly, applications of GST inhibitors in targeting cell signaling pathways and intracellular biological processes are discussed, and the potential for disease treatment is prospected. Taken together, this review is expected to provide new insights into the interconnection between GST overexpression and human diseases, which may assist future drug discovery targeting GSTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Lv
- Clinical Pharmacology Research Center, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China; (N.L.); (H.H.)
| | - Chunyan Huang
- Clinical Pharmacology Research Center, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China; (N.L.); (H.H.)
| | - Haoyan Huang
- Clinical Pharmacology Research Center, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China; (N.L.); (H.H.)
| | - Zhiqiang Dong
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211100, China;
| | - Xijing Chen
- Clinical Pharmacology Research Center, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China; (N.L.); (H.H.)
| | - Chengcan Lu
- Department of Pharmacy, The Affiliated Jiangning Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211100, China;
- Jiangning Clinical Medical College, Jiangsu University, Nanjing 211100, China
| | - Yongjie Zhang
- Clinical Pharmacology Research Center, School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 211198, China; (N.L.); (H.H.)
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7
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Oppong D, Schiff W, Shivamadhu MC, Ahn YH. Chemistry and biology of enzymes in protein glutathionylation. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2023; 75:102326. [PMID: 37245422 PMCID: PMC10524987 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.102326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation is emerging as a central oxidation that regulates redox signaling and biological processes linked to diseases. In recent years, the field of protein S-glutathionylation has expanded by developing biochemical tools for the identification and functional analyses of S-glutathionylation, investigating knockout mouse models, and developing and evaluating chemical inhibitors for enzymes involved in glutathionylation. This review will highlight recent studies of two enzymes, glutathione transferase omega 1 (GSTO1) and glutaredoxin 1 (Grx1), especially introducing their glutathionylation substrates associated with inflammation, cancer, and neurodegeneration and showcasing the advancement of their chemical inhibitors. Lastly, we will feature protein substrates and chemical inducers of LanC-like protein (LanCL), the first enzyme in protein C-glutathionylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Oppong
- Department of Chemistry, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - William Schiff
- Department of Chemistry, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | | | - Young-Hoon Ahn
- Department of Chemistry, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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8
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Moiseenok AG, Kanunnikova NP. Brain CoA and Acetyl CoA Metabolism in Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2023; 88:466-480. [PMID: 37080933 DOI: 10.1134/s000629792304003x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/22/2023]
Abstract
The processes of biotransformation of pantothenic acid (Pan) in the biosynthesis and hydrolysis of CoA, key role of pantothenate kinase (PANK) and CoA synthetase (CoASY) in the formation of the priority mitochondrial pool of CoA, with a high metabolic turnover of the coenzyme and limited transport of Pan across the blood-brain barrier are considered. The system of acetyl-CoA, a secondary messenger, which is the main substrate of acetylation processes including formation of N-acetyl aspartate and acetylcholine, post-translational modification of histones, predetermines protection of the neurons against degenerative signals and cholinergic neurotransmission. Biochemical mechanisms of neurodegenerative syndromes in the cases of PANK and CoASY defects, and the possibility of correcting of CoA biosynthesis in the models with knockouts of these enzymes have been described. The data of a post-mortem study of the brains from the patients with Huntington's and Alzheimer's diseases are presented, proving Pan deficiency in the CNS, which is especially pronounced in the pathognomonic neurostructures. In the frontal cortex of the patients with Parkinson's disease, combined immunofluorescence of anti-CoA- and anti-tau protein was detected, reflecting CoAlation during dimerization of the tau protein and its redox sensitivity. Redox activity and antioxidant properties of the precursors of CoA biosynthesis were confirmed in vitro with synaptosomal membranes and mitochondria during modeling of aluminum neurotoxicity accompanied by the decrease in the level of CoA in CNS. The ability of CoA biosynthesis precursors to stabilize glutathione pool in neurostructures, in particular, in the hippocampus, is considered as a pathogenetic protection mechanism during exposure to neurotoxins, development of neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, and justifies the combined use of Pan derivatives (for example, D-panthenol) and glutathione precursors (N-acetylcysteine). Taking into account the discovery of new functions of CoA (redox-dependent processes of CoAlation of proteins, possible association of oxidative stress and deficiency of Pan (CoA) in neurodegenerative pathology), it seems promising to study bioavailability and biotransformation of Pan derivatives, in particular of D-panthenol, 4'-phospho-pantetheine, its acylated derivatives, and compositions with redox pharmacological compounds, are promising for their potential use as etiopathogenetic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrey G Moiseenok
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Grodno, 230023, Belarus.
| | - Nina P Kanunnikova
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Grodno, 230023, Belarus
- Yanka Kupala's Grodno State University, Grodno, 230023, Belarus
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9
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Vázquez-Meza H, Vilchis-Landeros MM, Vázquez-Carrada M, Uribe-Ramírez D, Matuz-Mares D. Cellular Compartmentalization, Glutathione Transport and Its Relevance in Some Pathologies. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12040834. [PMID: 37107209 PMCID: PMC10135322 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12040834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Reduced glutathione (GSH) is the most abundant non-protein endogenous thiol. It is a ubiquitous molecule produced in most organs, but its synthesis is predominantly in the liver, the tissue in charge of storing and distributing it. GSH is involved in the detoxification of free radicals, peroxides and xenobiotics (drugs, pollutants, carcinogens, etc.), protects biological membranes from lipid peroxidation, and is an important regulator of cell homeostasis, since it participates in signaling redox, regulation of the synthesis and degradation of proteins (S-glutathionylation), signal transduction, various apoptotic processes, gene expression, cell proliferation, DNA and RNA synthesis, etc. GSH transport is a vital step in cellular homeostasis supported by the liver through providing extrahepatic organs (such as the kidney, lung, intestine, and brain, among others) with the said antioxidant. The wide range of functions within the cell in which glutathione is involved shows that glutathione’s role in cellular homeostasis goes beyond being a simple antioxidant agent; therefore, the importance of this tripeptide needs to be reassessed from a broader metabolic perspective.
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10
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Richardson RB, Mailloux RJ. Mitochondria Need Their Sleep: Redox, Bioenergetics, and Temperature Regulation of Circadian Rhythms and the Role of Cysteine-Mediated Redox Signaling, Uncoupling Proteins, and Substrate Cycles. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12030674. [PMID: 36978924 PMCID: PMC10045244 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12030674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2023] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Although circadian biorhythms of mitochondria and cells are highly conserved and crucial for the well-being of complex animals, there is a paucity of studies on the reciprocal interactions between oxidative stress, redox modifications, metabolism, thermoregulation, and other major oscillatory physiological processes. To address this limitation, we hypothesize that circadian/ultradian interaction of the redoxome, bioenergetics, and temperature signaling strongly determine the differential activities of the sleep–wake cycling of mammalians and birds. Posttranslational modifications of proteins by reversible cysteine oxoforms, S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation are shown to play a major role in regulating mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production, protein activity, respiration, and metabolomics. Nuclear DNA repair and cellular protein synthesis are maximized during the wake phase, whereas the redoxome is restored and mitochondrial remodeling is maximized during sleep. Hence, our analysis reveals that wakefulness is more protective and restorative to the nucleus (nucleorestorative), whereas sleep is more protective and restorative to mitochondria (mitorestorative). The “redox–bioenergetics–temperature and differential mitochondrial–nuclear regulatory hypothesis” adds to the understanding of mitochondrial respiratory uncoupling, substrate cycling control and hibernation. Similarly, this hypothesis explains how the oscillatory redox–bioenergetics–temperature–regulated sleep–wake states, when perturbed by mitochondrial interactome disturbances, influence the pathogenesis of aging, cancer, spaceflight health effects, sudden infant death syndrome, and diseases of the metabolism and nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B. Richardson
- Radiobiology and Health, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL), Chalk River, ON K0J 1J0, Canada
- McGill Medical Physics Unit, Cedars Cancer Centre—Glen Site, McGill University, Montreal, QC H4A 3J1, Canada
- Correspondence: or
| | - Ryan J. Mailloux
- School of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada;
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11
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Sirko C, Novello MJ, Stathopulos PB. An S-glutathiomimetic Provides Structural Insights into Stromal Interaction Molecule-1 Regulation. J Mol Biol 2022; 434:167874. [PMID: 36332662 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2022.167874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1) is an endo/sarcoplasmic reticulum (ER/SR) calcium (Ca2+) sensing protein that regulates store-operated calcium entry (SOCE). In SOCE, STIM1 activates Orai1-composed Ca2+ channels in the plasma membrane (PM) after ER stored Ca2+ depletion. S-Glutathionylation of STIM1 at Cys56 evokes constitutive SOCE in DT40 cells; however, the structural and biophysical mechanisms underlying the regulation of STIM1 by this modification are poorly defined. By establishing a protocol for site-specific STIM1 S-glutathionylation using reduced glutathione and diamide, we have revealed that modification of STIM1 at either Cys49 or Cys56 induces thermodynamic destabilization and conformational changes that result in increased solvent-exposed hydrophobicity. Further, S-glutathionylation or point-mutation of Cys56 reduces Ca2+ binding affinity, as measured by intrinsic fluorescence and far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopies. Solution NMR showed S-glutathionylated-induced perturbations in STIM1 are localized to the α1 helix of the canonical EF-hand, the α3 and α4 helices of the non-canonical EF-hand and α6 and α8 helices of the SAM domain. Finally, we designed an S-glutathiomimetic mutation that strongly recapitulates the structural, biophysical and functional effects within the STIM1 luminal domain and we envision to be another tool for understanding the effects of protein S-glutathionylation in vitro, in cellulo and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Sirko
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A5C1, Canada
| | - Matthew J Novello
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A5C1, Canada
| | - Peter B Stathopulos
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A5C1, Canada.
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12
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Vrettou S, Wirth B. S-Glutathionylation and S-Nitrosylation in Mitochondria: Focus on Homeostasis and Neurodegenerative Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:15849. [PMID: 36555492 PMCID: PMC9779533 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Redox post-translational modifications are derived from fluctuations in the redox potential and modulate protein function, localization, activity and structure. Amongst the oxidative reversible modifications, the S-glutathionylation of proteins was the first to be characterized as a post-translational modification, which primarily protects proteins from irreversible oxidation. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that S-glutathionylation plays a key role in core cell processes, particularly in mitochondria, which are the main source of reactive oxygen species. S-nitrosylation, another post-translational modification, was identified >150 years ago, but it was re-introduced as a prototype cell-signaling mechanism only recently, one that tightly regulates core processes within the cell’s sub-compartments, especially in mitochondria. S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation are modulated by fluctuations in reactive oxygen and nitrogen species and, in turn, orchestrate mitochondrial bioenergetics machinery, morphology, nutrients metabolism and apoptosis. In many neurodegenerative disorders, mitochondria dysfunction and oxidative/nitrosative stresses trigger or exacerbate their pathologies. Despite the substantial amount of research for most of these disorders, there are no successful treatments, while antioxidant supplementation failed in the majority of clinical trials. Herein, we discuss how S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation interfere in mitochondrial homeostasis and how the deregulation of these modifications is associated with Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Friedreich’s ataxia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Vrettou
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
| | - Brunhilde Wirth
- Institute of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Molecular Medicine Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
- Institute for Genetics, University of Cologne, 50674 Cologne, Germany
- Center for Rare Diseases, University Hospital of Cologne, University of Cologne, 50931 Cologne, Germany
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13
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Richardson RB, Mailloux RJ. WITHDRAWN: Mitochondria need their sleep: Sleep-wake cycling and the role of redox, bioenergetics, and temperature regulation, involving cysteine-mediated redox signaling, uncoupling proteins, and substrate cycles. Free Radic Biol Med 2022:S0891-5849(22)01013-9. [PMID: 36462628 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
This article has been withdrawn at the request of the author(s) and/or editor. The Publisher apologizes for any inconvenience this may cause. The full Elsevier Policy on Article Withdrawal can be found at https://www.elsevier.com/about/our-business/policies/article-withdrawal
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard B Richardson
- Radiobiology and Health, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL), Chalk River Laboratories, Chalk River, Ontario, K0J 1J0, Canada; McGill Medical Physics Unit, McGill University, Cedars Cancer Centre - Glen Site, Montreal, Quebec QC, H4A 3J1, Canada.
| | - Ryan J Mailloux
- School of Human Nutrition, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, H9X 3V9, Canada
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14
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Li X, Zhang T, Day NJ, Feng S, Gaffrey MJ, Qian WJ. Defining the S-Glutathionylation Proteome by Biochemical and Mass Spectrometric Approaches. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:2272. [PMID: 36421458 PMCID: PMC9687251 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11112272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation (SSG) is a reversible post-translational modification (PTM) featuring the conjugation of glutathione to a protein cysteine thiol. SSG can alter protein structure, activity, subcellular localization, and interaction with small molecules and other proteins. Thus, it plays a critical role in redox signaling and regulation in various physiological activities and pathological events. In this review, we summarize current biochemical and analytical approaches for characterizing SSG at both the proteome level and at individual protein levels. To illustrate the mechanism underlying SSG-mediated redox regulation, we highlight recent examples of functional and structural consequences of SSG modifications. Finally, we discuss the analytical challenges in characterizing SSG and the thiol PTM landscape, future directions for understanding of the role of SSG in redox signaling and regulation and its interplay with other PTMs, and the potential role of computational approaches to accelerate functional discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Wei-Jun Qian
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA
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15
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Jayaraman A, Reynolds R. Diverse pathways to neuronal necroptosis in Alzheimer's disease. Eur J Neurosci 2022; 56:5428-5441. [PMID: 35377966 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Necroptosis, or programmed necrosis, involves the kinase activity of receptor interacting kinases 1 and 3, the activation of the pseudokinase mixed lineage kinase domain-like and formation of a complex called the necrosome. It is one of the non-apoptotic cell death pathways that has gained interest in the recent years, especially as a neuronal cell death pathway occurring in Alzheimer's disease. In this review, we focus our discussion on the various molecular mechanisms that could trigger neuronal death through necroptosis and have been shown to play a role in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis and neuroinflammation. We describe how each of these pathways, such as tumour necrosis factor signalling, reactive oxygen species, endosomal sorting complex, post-translational modifications and certain individual molecules, is dysregulated or activated in Alzheimer's disease, and how this dysregulation/activation could trigger necroptosis. At the cellular level, many of these molecular mechanisms and pathways may act in parallel to synergize with each other or inhibit one another, and changes in the balance between them may determine different cellular vulnerabilities at different disease stages. However, from a therapeutic standpoint, it remains unclear how best to target one or more of these pathways, given that such diverse pathways could all contribute to necroptotic cell death in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anusha Jayaraman
- Centre for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Richard Reynolds
- Centre for Molecular Neuropathology, Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Division of Neuroscience, Department of Brain Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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16
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Carecho R, Figueira I, Terrasso AP, Godinho‐Pereira J, de Oliveira Sequeira C, Pereira SA, Milenkovic D, Leist M, Brito C, Nunes dos Santos C. Circulating (Poly)phenol Metabolites: Neuroprotection in a 3D Cell Model of Parkinson's Disease. Mol Nutr Food Res 2022; 66:e2100959. [PMID: 34964254 PMCID: PMC9788306 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.202100959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Diets rich in (poly)phenols have been associated with positive effects on neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson's disease (PD). Several low-molecular weight (poly)phenol metabolites (LMWPM) are found in the plasma after consumption of (poly)phenol-rich food. It is expected that LMWPM, upon reaching the brain, may have beneficial effects against both oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, and possibly attenuate cell death mechanisms relate to the loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD. METHODS AND RESULTS This study investigates the neuroprotective potential of two blood-brain barrier permeant LMWPM, catechol-O-sulfate (cat-sulf), and pyrogallol-O-sulfate (pyr-sulf), in a human 3D cell model of PD. Neurospheroids were generated from LUHMES neuronal precursor cells and challenged by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+ ) to induce neuronal stress. LMWPM pretreatments were differently neuroprotective towards MPP+ insult, presenting distinct effects on the neuronal transcriptome. Particularly, cat-sulf pretreatment appeared to boost counter-regulatory defense mechanisms (preconditioning). When MPP+ is applied, both LMWPM positively modulated glutathione metabolism and heat-shock response, as also favorably shifting the balance of pro/anti-apoptotic proteins. CONCLUSIONS Our findings point to the potential of LMWPM to trigger molecular mechanisms that help dopaminergic neurons to cope with a subsequent toxic insult. They are promising molecules to be further explored in the context of preventing and attenuating parkinsonian neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Carecho
- CEDOCNOVA Medical SchoolFaculdade de Ciências MédicasUniversidade NOVA de Lisboa1150‐082LisboaPortugal
- ITQBInstituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António XavierUniversidade Nova de Lisboa2780‐157OeirasPortugal
| | - Inês Figueira
- CEDOCNOVA Medical SchoolFaculdade de Ciências MédicasUniversidade NOVA de Lisboa1150‐082LisboaPortugal
| | - Ana Paula Terrasso
- ITQBInstituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António XavierUniversidade Nova de Lisboa2780‐157OeirasPortugal
- iBETInstituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica2781–901OeirasPortugal
| | - Joana Godinho‐Pereira
- ITQBInstituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António XavierUniversidade Nova de Lisboa2780‐157OeirasPortugal
- iBETInstituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica2781–901OeirasPortugal
| | | | - Sofia Azeredo Pereira
- CEDOCNOVA Medical SchoolFaculdade de Ciências MédicasUniversidade NOVA de Lisboa1150‐082LisboaPortugal
| | - Dragan Milenkovic
- INRAEUNHUniversité Clermont Auvergne63122St Genes ChampanelleFrance
- Department of NutritionUniversity of California Davis95616DavisCAUSA
| | - Marcel Leist
- In‐vitro Toxicology and BiomedicineUniversity of Konstanz78457ConstanceGermany
| | - Catarina Brito
- ITQBInstituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António XavierUniversidade Nova de Lisboa2780‐157OeirasPortugal
- iBETInstituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica2781–901OeirasPortugal
| | - Cláudia Nunes dos Santos
- CEDOCNOVA Medical SchoolFaculdade de Ciências MédicasUniversidade NOVA de Lisboa1150‐082LisboaPortugal
- ITQBInstituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António XavierUniversidade Nova de Lisboa2780‐157OeirasPortugal
- iBETInstituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica2781–901OeirasPortugal
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17
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Scirè A, Cianfruglia L, Minnelli C, Romaldi B, Laudadio E, Galeazzi R, Antognelli C, Armeni T. Glyoxalase 2: Towards a Broader View of the Second Player of the Glyoxalase System. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:2131. [PMID: 36358501 PMCID: PMC9686547 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11112131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Glyoxalase 2 is a mitochondrial and cytoplasmic protein belonging to the metallo-β-lactamase family encoded by the hydroxyacylglutathione hydrolase (HAGH) gene. This enzyme is the second enzyme of the glyoxalase system that is responsible for detoxification of the α-ketothaldehyde methylglyoxal in cells. The two enzymes glyoxalase 1 (Glo1) and glyoxalase 2 (Glo2) form the complete glyoxalase pathway, which utilizes glutathione as cofactor in eukaryotic cells. The importance of Glo2 is highlighted by its ubiquitous distribution in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Its function in the system has been well defined, but in recent years, additional roles are emerging, especially those related to oxidative stress. This review focuses on Glo2 by considering its genetics, molecular and structural properties, its involvement in post-translational modifications and its interaction with specific metabolic pathways. The purpose of this review is to focus attention on an enzyme that, from the most recent studies, appears to play a role in multiple regulatory pathways that may be important in certain diseases such as cancer or oxidative stress-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Scirè
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Laura Cianfruglia
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Cristina Minnelli
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Brenda Romaldi
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Emiliano Laudadio
- Department of Science and Engineering of Materials, Environment and Urban Planning, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Roberta Galeazzi
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60131 Ancona, Italy
| | - Cinzia Antognelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Perugia, 06132 Perugia, Italy
| | - Tatiana Armeni
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Polytechnic University of Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
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18
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Chakraborty S, Sircar E, Bhattacharyya C, Choudhuri A, Mishra A, Dutta S, Bhatta S, Sachin K, Sengupta R. S-Denitrosylation: A Crosstalk between Glutathione and Redoxin Systems. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:1921. [PMID: 36290644 PMCID: PMC9598160 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11101921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2022] [Revised: 09/19/2022] [Accepted: 09/20/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
S-nitrosylation of proteins occurs as a consequence of the derivatization of cysteine thiols with nitric oxide (NO) and is often associated with diseases and protein malfunction. Aberrant S-nitrosylation, in addition to other genetic and epigenetic factors, has gained rapid importance as a prime cause of various metabolic, respiratory, and cardiac disorders, with a major emphasis on cancer and neurodegeneration. The S-nitrosoproteome, a term used to collectively refer to the diverse and dynamic repertoire of S-nitrosylated proteins, is relatively less explored in the field of redox biochemistry, in contrast to other covalently modified versions of the same set of proteins. Advancing research is gradually unveiling the enormous clinical importance of S-nitrosylation in the etiology of diseases and is opening up new avenues of prompt diagnosis that harness this phenomenon. Ever since the discovery of the two robust and highly conserved S-nitrosoglutathione reductase and thioredoxin systems as candidate denitrosylases, years of rampant speculation centered around the identification of specific substrates and other candidate denitrosylases, subcellular localization of both substrates and denitrosylases, the position of susceptible thiols, mechanisms of S-denitrosylation under basal and stimulus-dependent conditions, impact on protein conformation and function, and extrapolating these findings towards the understanding of diseases, aging and the development of novel therapeutic strategies. However, newer insights in the ever-expanding field of redox biology reveal distinct gaps in exploring the crucial crosstalk between the redoxins/major denitrosylase systems. Clarifying the importance of the functional overlap of the glutaredoxin, glutathione, and thioredoxin systems and examining their complementary functions as denitrosylases and antioxidant enzymatic defense systems are essential prerequisites for devising a rationale that could aid in predicting the extent of cell survival under high oxidative/nitrosative stress while taking into account the existence of the alternative and compensatory regulatory mechanisms. This review thus attempts to highlight major gaps in our understanding of the robust cellular redox regulation system, which is upheld by the concerted efforts of various denitrosylases and antioxidants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Surupa Chakraborty
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
| | - Esha Sircar
- Department of Biological Sciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Camelia Bhattacharyya
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
| | - Ankita Choudhuri
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
| | - Akansha Mishra
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
| | - Sreejita Dutta
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
| | - Sneha Bhatta
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
| | - Kumar Sachin
- Department of Biosciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Jolly Grant, Dehradun 248016, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Rajib Sengupta
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Kolkata, Amity University Kolkata, Action Area II, Rajarhat, Newtown, Kolkata 700135, West Bengal, India
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19
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Ma Y, Zhu S, Yi M, Zhang W, Xue Y, Liu X, Deng H. Profiling Glutathionylome in CD38-Mediated Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition. J Proteome Res 2022; 21:1240-1250. [PMID: 35420434 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.1c00893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Protein S-glutathionylation is an important posttranslational modification that regulates various cellular processes. However, changes in glutathionylome in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), a crucial cellular process for embryonic development, wound healing, and carcinoma progression and metastasis, have not been fully characterized. Our previous study revealed that CD38 overexpression decreased cellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) levels and caused cells to undergo EMT. In the present study, we engineered a cell system in which the glutathione synthetase (GS) mutant was expressed that catalyzed the formation of a glutathione analogue from azido-alanine to profile changes of glutathionylome in CD38-overexpressing cells. We identified 1298 glutathionylated proteins and revealed that proteins with changed glutathionylation levels involved in EMT associated pathways including epithelial adherens junction, actin cytoskeleton, and integrin signaling. Moreover, the glutathionylation level of 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (15-PGDH) was increased in CD38-overexpressing cells. We further demonstrated that glutathionylation of Cys63 residue in 15-PGDH led to decreased enzymatic activity that could promote EMT by increasing prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Taken together, these results indicate that the clickable glutathione is an effective probe for glutathionylome profiling, and glutathionylation of 15-PGDH on Cys63 inhibits its enzymatic activity to promote EMT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Ma
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Songbiao Zhu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Meiqi Yi
- BeiGene (Beijing) Co., Ltd., Beijing 100084, China
| | - Wenhao Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xue
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Xiaohui Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Haiteng Deng
- MOE Key Laboratory of Bioinformatics, Center for Synthetic and Systematic Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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20
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Argaev-Frenkel L, Rosenzweig T. Complexity of NAC Action as an Antidiabetic Agent: Opposing Effects of Oxidative and Reductive Stress on Insulin Secretion and Insulin Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23062965. [PMID: 35328386 PMCID: PMC8950759 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23062965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysregulated redox balance is involved in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. While the benefit of antioxidants in neutralizing oxidative stress is well characterized, the potential harm of antioxidant-induced reductive stress is unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the dose-dependent effects of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on various tissues involved in the regulation of blood glucose and the mechanisms underlying its functions. H2O2 was used as an oxidizing agent in order to compare the outcomes of oxidative and reductive stress on cellular function. Cellular death in pancreatic islets and diminished insulin secretion were facilitated by H2O2-induced oxidative stress but not by NAC. On the other hand, myotubes and adipocytes were negatively affected by NAC-induced reductive stress, as demonstrated by the impaired transmission of insulin signaling and glucose transport, as opposed to H2O2-stimulatory action. This was accompanied by redox balance alteration and thiol modifications of proteins. The NAC-induced deterioration of insulin signaling was also observed in healthy mice, while both insulin secretion and insulin signaling were improved in diabetic mice. This study establishes the tissue-specific effects of NAC and the importance of the delicate maintenance of redox balance, emphasizing the challenge of implementing antioxidant therapy in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tovit Rosenzweig
- Department of Molecular Biology, Ariel University, Ariel 4070000, Israel;
- Department of Nutritional Studies, Ariel University, Ariel 4070000, Israel
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-3937-1433
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21
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Oxidative stress-induced FABP5 S-glutathionylation protects against acute lung injury by suppressing inflammation in macrophages. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7094. [PMID: 34876574 PMCID: PMC8651733 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27428-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress contributes to the pathogenesis of acute lung injury. Protein S-glutathionylation plays an important role in cellular antioxidant defense. Here we report that the expression of deglutathionylation enzyme Grx1 is decreased in the lungs of acute lung injury mice. The acute lung injury induced by hyperoxia or LPS is significantly relieved in Grx1 KO and Grx1fl/flLysMcre mice, confirming the protective role of Grx1-regulated S-glutathionylation in macrophages. Using a quantitative redox proteomics approach, we show that FABP5 is susceptible to S-glutathionylation under oxidative conditions. S-glutathionylation of Cys127 in FABP5 promotes its fatty acid binding ability and nuclear translocation. Further results indicate S-glutathionylation promotes the interaction of FABP5 and PPARβ/δ, activates PPARβ/δ target genes and suppresses the LPS-induced inflammation in macrophages. Our study reveals a molecular mechanism through which FABP5 S-glutathionylation regulates macrophage inflammation in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury. Redox-dependent regulation plays a key role in the pathogenesis of acute lung injury, but its mechanism is unclear. Here the authors show Grx1-regulated S-glutathionylation of FABP5 controls macrophage inflammation and alleviates acute lung injury.
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22
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Semenovich DS, Plotnikov EY, Titko OV, Lukiyenko EP, Kanunnikova NP. Effects of Panthenol and N-Acetylcysteine on Changes in the Redox State of Brain Mitochondria under Oxidative Stress In Vitro. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10111699. [PMID: 34829571 PMCID: PMC8614675 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10111699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2021] [Revised: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 10/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The glutathione system in the mitochondria of the brain plays an important role in maintaining the redox balance and thiol–disulfide homeostasis, whose violations are the important component of the biochemical shifts in neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondrial dysfunction is known to be accompanied by the activation of free radical processes, changes in energy metabolism, and is involved in the induction of apoptotic signals. The formation of disulfide bonds is a leading factor in the folding and maintenance of the three-dimensional conformation of many specific proteins that selectively accumulate in brain structures during neurodegenerative pathology. In this study, we estimated brain mitochondria redox status and functioning during induction of oxidative damage in vitro. We have shown that the development of oxidative stress in vitro is accompanied by inhibition of energy metabolism in the brain mitochondria, a shift in the redox potential of the glutathione system to the oxidized side, and activation of S-glutathionylation of proteins. Moreover, we studied the effects of pantothenic acid derivatives—precursors of coenzyme A (CoA), primarily D-panthenol, that exhibit high neuroprotective activity in experimental models of neurodegeneration. Panthenol contributes to the significant restoration of the activity of enzymes of mitochondrial energy metabolism, normalization of the redox potential of the glutathione system, and a decrease in the level of S-glutathionylated proteins in brain mitochondria. The addition of succinate and glutathione precursor N-acetylcysteine enhances the protective effects of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry S. Semenovich
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-(925)-465-78-52
| | - Egor Yu. Plotnikov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Moscow State University, 119992 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Oksana V. Titko
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
| | - Elena P. Lukiyenko
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
| | - Nina P. Kanunnikova
- Institute of Biochemistry of Biologically Active Substances, NAS of Belarus, 230030 Grodno, Belarus; (O.V.T.); (E.P.L.); (N.P.K.)
- Department of Technology, Physiology and Food Hygiene, State University of Grodno, 230030 Grodno, Belarus
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23
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Raj Rai S, Bhattacharyya C, Sarkar A, Chakraborty S, Sircar E, Dutta S, Sengupta R. Glutathione: Role in Oxidative/Nitrosative Stress, Antioxidant Defense, and Treatments. ChemistrySelect 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202100773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sristi Raj Rai
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Amity University Kolkata 700135, W.B. India
| | | | - Anwita Sarkar
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Amity University Kolkata 700135, W.B. India
| | - Surupa Chakraborty
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Amity University Kolkata 700135, W.B. India
| | - Esha Sircar
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Amity University Kolkata 700135, W.B. India
| | - Sreejita Dutta
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Amity University Kolkata 700135, W.B. India
| | - Rajib Sengupta
- Amity Institute of Biotechnology Amity University Kolkata 700135, W.B. India
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Role of protein S-Glutathionylation in cancer progression and development of resistance to anti-cancer drugs. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 704:108890. [PMID: 33894196 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The survival, functioning and proliferation of mammalian cells are highly dependent on the cellular response and adaptation to changes in their redox environment. Cancer cells often live in an altered redox environment due to aberrant neo-vasculature, metabolic reprogramming and dysregulated proliferation. Thus, redox adaptations are critical for their survival. Glutathione plays an essential role in maintaining redox homeostasis inside the cells by binding to redox-sensitive cysteine residues in proteins by a process called S-glutathionylation. S-Glutathionylation not only protects the labile cysteine residues from oxidation, but also serves as a sensor of redox status, and acts as a signal for stimulation of downstream processes and adaptive responses to ensure redox equilibrium. The present review aims to provide an updated overview of the role of the unique redox adaptations during carcinogenesis and cancer progression, focusing on their dependence on S-glutathionylation of specific redox-sensitive proteins involved in a wide range of processes including signalling, transcription, structural maintenance, mitochondrial functions, apoptosis and protein recycling. We also provide insights into the role of S-glutathionylation in the development of resistance to chemotherapy. Finally, we provide a strong rationale for the development of redox targeting drugs for treatment of refractory/resistant cancers.
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Seidel K, Wan X, Zhang M, Zhou Y, Zang M, Han J. Alcohol Binge Drinking Selectively Stimulates Protein S-Glutathionylation in Aorta and Liver of ApoE -/- Mice. Front Cardiovasc Med 2021; 8:649813. [PMID: 33796575 PMCID: PMC8007763 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2021.649813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Binge drinking has become the most common and deadly pattern of excessive alcohol use in the United States, especially among younger adults. It is closely related to the increased risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress as a result of ethanol metabolism is the primary pathogenic factor for alcohol-induced end organ injury, but the role of protein S-glutathionylation-a reversible oxidative modification of protein cysteine thiol groups that mediates cellular actions by oxidants-in binge drinking-associated cardiovascular disease has not been explored. The present study defines the effect of alcohol binge drinking on the formation of protein S-glutathionylation in a mouse model of atherosclerosis. Methods and Results: To mimic the weekend binge drinking pattern in humans, ApoE deficient (ApoE -/-) mice on the Lieber-DeCarli liquid diet received ethanol or isocaloric maltose (as a control) gavages (5 g/kg/day, 2 consecutive days/week) for 6 weeks. The primary alcohol-targeted organs (liver, brain), and cardiovascular system (heart, aorta, lung) of these two groups of the mice were determined by measuring the protein S-glutathionylation levels and its regulatory enzymes including [Glutaredoxin1(Grx1), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione-S-transferase Pi (GST-π)], as well as by assessing aortic endothelial function and liver lipid levels. Our results showed that binge drinking selectively stimulated protein S-glutathionylation in aorta, liver, and brain, which coincided with altered glutathionylation regulatory enzyme expression that is downregulated Grx1 and upregulated GST-π in aorta, massive upregulation of GST-π in liver, and no changes in Grx1 and GST-π in brain. Functionally, binge drinking induced aortic endothelial cell function, as reflected by increased aortic permeability and reduced flow-mediated vasodilation. Conclusions: This study is the first to provide in vivo evidence for differential effects of binge drinking on formation of protein S-glutathionylation and its enzymatic regulation system in major alcohol-target organs and cardiovascular system. The selective induction of protein S-glutathionylation in aorta and liver is associated with aortic endothelial dysfunction and fatty liver, which may be a potential redox mechanism for the increased risk of vascular disease in human binge-drinkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin Seidel
- Vascular Biology Section, Evans Department of Medicine, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Xueping Wan
- Vascular Biology Section, Evans Department of Medicine, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mo Zhang
- Vascular Biology Section, Evans Department of Medicine, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Yuxiang Zhou
- Vascular Biology Section, Evans Department of Medicine, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Mengwei Zang
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Barshop Institute for Longevity and Aging Studies, Center for Healthy Aging, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, United States
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX, United States
| | - Jingyan Han
- Vascular Biology Section, Evans Department of Medicine, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
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Khadzieva KI, Chernikova IV, Milyutina NP, Plotnikov AA. [Clinical and biochemical heterogeneity of Parkinson's disease]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2021; 120:80-85. [PMID: 33459545 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro202012012180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To study correlations between oxidative stress (OS) and clinical changes in patients with neurodegenerative Parkinson's and to identify clinical/biochemical subtypes of the disease. MATERIAL AND METHODS One hundred and nine people were studied, including 91 patients with neurodegenerative Parkinson's (72 patients with Parkinson's disease (PD); 10 with multiple system atrophy (MSA); 9 with corticobasal degeneration (CBD), average age 61.1±7.2 years), and 18 clinically healthy people (average age 55.1±9.2). OS indexes were detected for scoring of redox state in peripheral blood of patients with PD and healthy people (control group). Detection of biochemical indexes was performed in erythrocytes and mononuclear fraction and blood. The activity of glutathione reductase (GR), myeloperoxidase (MPO) and content of reduced glutathione (GSH) was estimated. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS OS is a universal mechanism and is observed in many neurodegenerative diseases. However it is possible to identify quite typical changes of redox state with group selection and their correlations with definite subtypes and PD progress, it gives opportunity, in particular, to make the differential diagnosis with atypical Parkinsonism.
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Che L, Yang CL, Chen Y, Wu ZL, Du ZB, Wu JS, Gan CL, Yan SP, Huang J, Guo NJ, Lin YC, Lin ZN. Mitochondrial redox-driven mitofusin 2 S-glutathionylation promotes neuronal necroptosis via disrupting ER-mitochondria crosstalk in cadmium-induced neurotoxicity. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 262:127878. [PMID: 33182097 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are known to affect the structural and functional damage in the neural system. Cadmium (Cd) is an environmental contaminant that is widely found in numerous environmental matrices and exhibits potential neurotoxic risk. However, it remains unclear how mitochondrial redox status induces, and whether Cd destabilizes, the ER-mitochondria crosstalk to have a toxic effect on the nervous system. Herein, in our present study, bioinformatics analysis revealed an important role of protein interaction and mitochondrial machinery in brain samples from Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. Furthermore, we established a neurotoxicity model in vivo and in vitro induced by cadmium chloride (CdCl2). We demonstrated that CdCl2 exposure disrupts the balance in mitochondrial redox represented by enhanced mitochondrial ROS (mitoROS) levels, which enhance mitofusin 2 (Mfn2) S-glutathionylation and interrupt the mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAMs) for crosstalk between the ER and mitochondria to induce neuronal necroptosis. Mechanistically, it was shown that CdCl2 exposure significantly enhances the mitochondria-associated degradation (MAD) of Mfn2 via S-glutathionylation, which inhibits Mfn2 localization to the MAMs and subsequently leads to the formation of the RIPK1-RIPK3-p-MLKL complex (a key component of the necrosome) at MAMs, to promote neuronal necroptosis. Furthermore, the glutaredoxin 1 (Grx1) catalyzed and Mfn2 overexpression restored S-glu-Mfn2, MAMs perturbation, necrosome formation, and necroptosis in neurons induced by CdCl2 exposure in vitro. Moreover, the intervention with antioxidants to reduce mitochondrial redox, such as N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) and mitochondria-targeted antioxidant Mito-TEMPO, reduced the S-glutathionylation of Mfn2 involved in the antagonism of CdCl2-induced necroptosis and neurotoxicity in vivo and in vitro. Taken together, our results are the first time to demonstrate that S-glutathionylation of Mfn2 promotes neuronal necroptosis via disruption of ER-mitochondria crosstalk in CdCl2-induced neurotoxicity, providing the novel mechanistic insight into how hazardous chemical-induced adverse effects in various organs and tissues could be interpreted by intraorganellar pathways under the control of MAMs components in neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Che
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Chuan-Li Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yu Chen
- School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Zi-Li Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Ze-Bang Du
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Jia-Shen Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Cong-Ling Gan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Si-Ping Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Jing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Ni-Jun Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yu-Chun Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China.
| | - Zhong-Ning Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China.
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Oxidative Stress Orchestrates MAPK and Nitric-Oxide Synthase Signal. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21228750. [PMID: 33228180 PMCID: PMC7699490 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21228750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are not only harmful to cell survival but also essential to cell signaling through cysteine-based redox switches. In fact, ROS triggers the potential activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs). The 90 kDa ribosomal S6 kinase 1 (RSK1), one of the downstream mediators of the MAPK pathway, is implicated in various cellular processes through phosphorylating different substrates. As such, RSK1 associates with and phosphorylates neuronal nitric oxide (NO) synthase (nNOS) at Ser847, leading to a decrease in NO generation. In addition, the RSK1 activity is sensitive to inhibition by reversible cysteine-based redox modification of its Cys223 during oxidative stress. Aside from oxidative stress, nitrosative stress also contributes to cysteine-based redox modification. Thus, the protein kinases such as Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM)-dependent protein kinase I (CaMKI) and II (CaMKII) that phosphorylate nNOS could be potentially regulated by cysteine-based redox modification. In this review, we focus on the role of post-translational modifications in regulating nNOS and nNOS-phosphorylating protein kinases and communication among themselves.
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29
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Musaogullari A, Chai YC. Redox Regulation by Protein S-Glutathionylation: From Molecular Mechanisms to Implications in Health and Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21218113. [PMID: 33143095 PMCID: PMC7663550 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21218113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
S-glutathionylation, the post-translational modification forming mixed disulfides between protein reactive thiols and glutathione, regulates redox-based signaling events in the cell and serves as a protective mechanism against oxidative damage. S-glutathionylation alters protein function, interactions, and localization across physiological processes, and its aberrant function is implicated in various human diseases. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms of S-glutathionylation and describe the changing levels of expression of S-glutathionylation in the context of aging, cancer, cardiovascular, and liver diseases.
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Rashdan NA, Shrestha B, Pattillo CB. S-glutathionylation, friend or foe in cardiovascular health and disease. Redox Biol 2020; 37:101693. [PMID: 32912836 PMCID: PMC7767732 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione is a low molecular weight thiol that is present at high levels in the cell. The high levels of glutathione in the cell make it one of the most abundant antioxidants contributing to cellular redox homeostasis. As a general rule, throughout cardiovascular disease and progression there is an imbalance in redox homeostasis characterized by reactive oxygen species overproduction and glutathione underproduction. As research into these imbalances continues, glutathione concentrations are increasingly being observed to drive various physiological and pathological signaling responses. Interestingly in addition to acting directly as an antioxidant, glutathione is capable of post translational modifications (S-glutathionylation) of proteins through both chemical interactions and enzyme mediated events. This review will discuss both the chemical and enzyme-based S-glutathionylation of proteins involved in cardiovascular pathologies and angiogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- N A Rashdan
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Louisiana State Health Science Center, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - B Shrestha
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Louisiana State Health Science Center, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - C B Pattillo
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Louisiana State Health Science Center, Shreveport, LA, USA.
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31
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Finelli MJ. Redox Post-translational Modifications of Protein Thiols in Brain Aging and Neurodegenerative Conditions-Focus on S-Nitrosation. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:254. [PMID: 33088270 PMCID: PMC7497228 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species (RONS) are by-products of aerobic metabolism. RONS trigger a signaling cascade that can be transduced through oxidation-reduction (redox)-based post-translational modifications (redox PTMs) of protein thiols. This redox signaling is essential for normal cellular physiology and coordinately regulates the function of redox-sensitive proteins. It plays a particularly important role in the brain, which is a major producer of RONS. Aberrant redox PTMs of protein thiols can impair protein function and are associated with several diseases. This mini review article aims to evaluate the role of redox PTMs of protein thiols, in particular S-nitrosation, in brain aging, and in neurodegenerative diseases. It also discusses the potential of using redox-based therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattéa J Finelli
- School of Medicine, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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32
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Ilyasov I, Beloborodov V, Antonov D, Dubrovskaya A, Terekhov R, Zhevlakova A, Saydasheva A, Evteev V, Selivanova I. Flavonoids with Glutathione Antioxidant Synergy: Influence of Free Radicals Inflow. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:antiox9080695. [PMID: 32756351 PMCID: PMC7465956 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9080695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This report explores the antioxidant interaction of combinations of flavonoid–glutathione with different ratios. Two different 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical (ABTS•+)-based approaches were applied for the elucidation of the antioxidant capacity of the combinations. Despite using the same radical, the two approaches employ different free radical inflow systems: An instant, great excess of radicals in the end-point decolorization assay, and a steady inflow of radicals in the lag-time assay. As expected, the flavonoid–glutathione pairs showed contrasting results in these two approaches. All the examined combinations showed additive or light subadditive antioxidant capacity effects in the decolorization assay. This effect showed slight dilution dependence and did not change when the initial ABTS•+ concentration was two times as high or low. However, in the lag-time assay, different types of interaction were detected, from subadditivity to considerable synergy. Taxifolin–glutathione combinations demonstrated the greatest synergy, at up to 112%; quercetin and rutin, in combination with glutathione, revealed moderate synergy in the 30–70% range; while morin–glutathione appeared to be additive or subadditive. In general, this study demonstrated that, on the one hand, the effect of flavonoid–glutathione combinations depends both on the flavonoid structure and molar ratio; on the other hand, the manifestation of the synergy of the combination strongly depends on the mode of inflow of the free radicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Igor Ilyasov
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +7-985-764-0744
| | - Vladimir Beloborodov
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Daniil Antonov
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Anna Dubrovskaya
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Roman Terekhov
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Anastasiya Zhevlakova
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Asiya Saydasheva
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Vladimir Evteev
- Federal State Budgetary Institution “Scientific Centre for Expert Evaluation of Medicinal Products” of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Petrovsky blvd. 8/2, 127051 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Irina Selivanova
- Department of Chemistry, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Trubetskaya Str. 8/2, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (V.B.); (D.A.); (A.D.); (R.T.); (A.Z.); (A.S.); (I.S.)
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Ganoderma lucidum Ameliorates Neurobehavioral Changes and Oxidative Stress Induced by Ethanol Binge Drinking. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:2497845. [PMID: 32802260 PMCID: PMC7415090 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2497845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Ganoderma lucidum, mushroom used for centuries by Asian peoples as food supplement, has been shown interesting biological activities, including over the Central Nervous System. Besides, these mushroom bioactive compounds present antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. On the side, binge drinking paradigm consists of ethanol exposure that reflects the usual consumption of adolescents, which elicits deleterious effects, determined by high ethanol consumption, in a short period. In this study, we investigated whether the Aqueous Extract of G. lucidum (AEGl) reduces the behavioral disorders induced by alcohol. Male (n = 30) and female Wistar rats (n = 40), seventy-two days old, were used for behavioral/biochemical and oral toxicity test, respectively. Animals were exposed to 5 binges (beginning at 35 days old) of ethanol (3 g/kg/day) or distilled water. Twenty-four hours after the last binge administration, animals received AEGl (100 mg/kg/day) or distilled water for three consecutive days. After treatment protocol, open field, elevated plus maze, forced swim, and step-down inhibitory avoidance tests were performed. Oxidative stress parameters were measured to evaluate the REDOX balance. Our results demonstrated that AEGl elicited the recovery of spontaneous horizontal exploration capacity, anxiogenic- and depressive-profile, as well as short-term memory damage induced by binge-ethanol exposure. The behavioral effects of the extract were associated to the reequilibrium of the animals' REDOX balance. Thus, AEGl, a medicinal mushroom, ameliorates behavioral alteration on a model of motor, cognitive and psychiatric-like disorders induced by binge drinking paradigm and emerges as a useful tool as a food supplement in the management of disorders of alcoholic origin.
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Zhang Y, Wu G, Zhang Y, Wang X, Jin Q, Zhang H. Advances in exogenous docosahexaenoic acid-containing phospholipids: Sources, positional isomerism, biological activities, and advantages. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:1420-1448. [PMID: 33337094 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, docosahexaenoic acid-containing phospholipids (DHA-PLs) have attracted much attention because of theirs unique health benefits. Compared with other forms of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), DHA-PLs possess superior biological effects (e.g., anticancer, lipid metabolism regulation, visual development, and brain and nervous system biochemical reactions), more intricate metabolism mechanisms, and a stronger attraction to consumer. The production of DHA-PLs is hampered by several challenges associated with the limited content of DHA-PLs in natural sources, incomplete utilization of by-products, few microorganisms for DHA-PLs production, high cost, and complex process of artificial preparation of DHA-PLs. In this article, the sources, biological activities, and commercial applications of DHA-PLs were summarized, with intensive discussions on advantages of DHA-PLs over DHA, isomerism of DHA in phospholipids (PLs), and brain health. The excellent biological characteristics of DHA-PLs are primarily concerned with DHA and PLs. The metabolic fate of different DHA-PLs varies from the position of DHA in PLs to polar groups in DHA-PLs. Overall, well understanding of DHA-PLs about their sources and characteristics is critical to accelerate the production of DHA-PLs, economically enhance the value of DHA-PLs, and improve the applicability of DHA-PLs and the acceptance of consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Gangcheng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Yanjie Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xingguo Wang
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Qingzhe Jin
- School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control in Jiangsu Province, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China.,National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, China
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35
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Cha SJ, Do HA, Choi HJ, Lee M, Kim K. The Drosophila Model: Exploring Novel Therapeutic Compounds against Neurodegenerative Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2019; 8:antiox8120623. [PMID: 31817611 PMCID: PMC6943723 DOI: 10.3390/antiox8120623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyphenols are secondary metabolites of plants, fruits, and vegetables. They act as antioxidants against free radicals from UV light, pathogens, parasites, and oxidative stress. In Drosophila models, feeding with various polyphenols results in increased antioxidant capacity and prolonged lifespan. Therefore, dietary polyphenols have several health advantages for preventing many human diseases, including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. However, the exact role of polyphenols in neurodegenerative diseases is still yet to be completely defined. This review focuses on the most recent studies related to the therapeutic effect of polyphenols in neurodegenerative disease management and provides an overview of novel drug discovery from various polyphenols using the Drosophila model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sun Joo Cha
- Soonchunhyang Institute of Medi-bio Science, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan 31151, Korea; (S.J.C.); (H.-J.C.); (M.L.)
| | - Hyeon-Ah Do
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea;
| | - Hyun-Jun Choi
- Soonchunhyang Institute of Medi-bio Science, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan 31151, Korea; (S.J.C.); (H.-J.C.); (M.L.)
| | - Mihye Lee
- Soonchunhyang Institute of Medi-bio Science, Soonchunhyang University, Cheonan 31151, Korea; (S.J.C.); (H.-J.C.); (M.L.)
| | - Kiyoung Kim
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, Soonchunhyang University, Asan 31538, Korea;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-41-413-5024; Fax: +82-41-413-5006
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36
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Scheuermann MJ, Forbes CR, Zondlo NJ. Redox-Responsive Protein Design: Design of a Small Protein Motif Dependent on Glutathionylation. Biochemistry 2018; 57:6956-6963. [PMID: 30511831 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cysteine S-glutathionylation is a protein post-translational modification that promotes cellular responses to changes in oxidative conditions. The design of protein motifs that directly depend on defined changes to protein side chains provides new methods for probing diverse protein post-translational modifications. A canonical, 12-residue EF-hand motif was redesigned to be responsive to cysteine glutathionylation. The key design principle was the replacement of the metal-binding Glu12 carboxylate of an EF-hand with a motif capable of metal binding via a free carboxylate in the glutathione-conjugated peptide. In the optimized peptide (DKDADGWCG), metal binding and terbium luminescence were dependent on glutathionylation, with weaker metal binding in the presence of reduced cysteine but increased metal affinity and a 3.5-fold increase in terbium luminescence at 544 nm when cysteine was glutathionylated. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy indicated that the structure at all residues of the glutathionylated peptide changed in the presence of metal, with chemical shift changes consistent with the adoption of an EF-hand-like structure in the metal-bound glutathionylated peptide. This small protein motif consists of canonical amino acids and is thus genetically encodable, for its potential use as a localized tag to probe protein glutathionylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Scheuermann
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of Delaware , Newark , Delaware 19716 , United States
| | - Christina R Forbes
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of Delaware , Newark , Delaware 19716 , United States
| | - Neal J Zondlo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of Delaware , Newark , Delaware 19716 , United States
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Jeon SJ, Gonzales EL, Mabunga DFN, Valencia ST, Kim DG, Kim Y, Adil KJL, Shin D, Park D, Shin CY. Sex-specific Behavioral Features of Rodent Models of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Exp Neurobiol 2018; 27:321-343. [PMID: 30429643 PMCID: PMC6221834 DOI: 10.5607/en.2018.27.5.321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex is an important factor in understanding the clinical presentation, management, and developmental trajectory of children with neuropsychiatric disorders. While much is known about the clinical and neurobehavioral profiles of males with neuropsychiatric disorders, surprisingly little is known about females in this respect. Animal models may provide detailed mechanistic information about sex differences in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in terms of manifestation, disease progression, and development of therapeutic options. This review aims to widen our understanding of the role of sex in autism spectrum disorder, by summarizing and comparing behavioral characteristics of animal models. Our current understanding of how differences emerge in boys and girls with neuropsychiatric disorders is limited: Information derived from animal studies will stimulate future research on the role of biological maturation rates, sex hormones, sex-selective protective (or aggravating) factors and psychosocial factors, which are essential to devise sex precision medicine and to improve diagnostic accuracy. Moreover, there is a strong need of novel strategies to elucidate the major mechanisms leading to sex-specific autism features, as well as novel models or methods to examine these sex differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Se Jin Jeon
- Center for Neuroscience, Korea Institute of Science & Technology, Seoul 02792, Korea.,Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Edson Luck Gonzales
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Darine Froy N Mabunga
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Schley T Valencia
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Do Gyeong Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Yujeong Kim
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Keremkleroo Jym L Adil
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Dongpil Shin
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Donghyun Park
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Pharmacology and Advanced Translational Medicine, School of Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Center for Neuroscience Research, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea.,KU Open Innovation Center, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Korea
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