Effects of Antipsychotic Drugs on the Epigenetic Modification of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene Expression in the Hippocampi of Chronic Restraint Stress Rats

Nutrient-epigenome interactions: Implications for personalized nutrition against aging-associated diseases

Aging is a multifaceted process involving genetic and environmental interactions often resulting in epigenetic changes, potentially leading to aging-related diseases. Various strategies, like dietary interventions and calorie restrictions, have been employed to modify these epigenetic landscapes. A burgeoning field of interest focuses on the role of microbiota in human health, emphasizing system biology and computational approaches. These methods help decipher the intricate interplay between diet and gut microbiota, facilitating the creation of personalized nutrition strategies. In this review, we analysed the mechanisms related to nutritional interventions while highlighting the influence of dietary strategies, like calorie restriction and intermittent fasting, on microbial composition and function. We explore how gut microbiota affects the efficacy of interventions using tools like multi-omics data integration, network analysis, and machine learning. These tools enable us to pinpoint critical regulatory elements and generate individualized models for dietary responses. Lastly, we emphasize the need for a deeper comprehension of nutrient-epigenome interactions and the potential of personalized nutrition informed by individual genetic and epigenetic profiles. As knowledge and technology advance, dietary epigenetics stands on the cusp of reshaping our strategy against aging and related diseases.

Signaling pathways and genetics of brain Renin angiotensin system in psychiatric disorders: State of the art

Along the conventional pathways, Renin-angiotensin system (RAS) plays a key role in the physiology of the CNS and pathogenesis of psychiatric diseases. RAS is a complex regulatory pathway which is composed of several peptides and receptors and comprises two counter-regulatory axes. The classical (ACE1/AngII/AT1 receptor) axis and the contemporary (ACE2/Ang (1-7)/Mas receptor) axis. The genes coding for elements of both axes have been broadly studied. Numerous functional polymorphisms on components of RAS have been identified to serve as informative disease and treatment markers. This review summarizes the role of each peptide and receptor in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders (depression, bipolar disorders and schizophrenia), followed by a concise look at the role of genetic polymorphism of the RAS in the pathophysiology of these disorders.

Mu opioid receptor expressing neurons in the rostral ventromedial medulla are the source of mechanical hypersensitivity induced by repeated restraint stress

Repeated exposure to psychophysical stress often causes an increase in sensitivity and response to pain. This phenomenon is commonly called stress-induced hyperalgesia (SIH). Although psychophysical stress is a well-known risk factor for numerous chronic pain syndromes, the neural mechanism underlying SIH has not yet been elucidated. The rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) is a key output element of the descending pain modulation system. Descending signals from the RVM have a major impact on spinal nociceptive neurotransmission. In the present study, to clarify changes in the descending pain modulatory system in rats with SIH, we examined the expression of Mu opioid receptor (MOR) mRNA, MeCP2 and global DNA methylation in the RVM after repeated restraint stress for 3 weeks. Additionally, we microinjected neurotoxin dermorphin-SAP into the RVM. The repeated restraint stress for 3 weeks induced mechanical hypersensitivity in the hind paw, a significant increase in the expression of MOR mRNA and MeCP2, and a significant decrease in global DNA methylation in the RVM. The MeCP2 binding to MOR gene promoter in the RVM was significantly decreased in rats with repeated restraint stress. Furthermore, microinjection of dermorphin-SAP into the RVM prevented the mechanical hypersensitivity induced by repeated restraint stress. Although, because of the lack of specific antibody to MOR, we could not show a quantitative analysis in the number of MOR-expressing neurons after the microinjection, these results suggest that MOR-expressing neurons in the RVM induce SIH after repeated restraint stress.

Epidrugs in the Therapy of Central Nervous System Disorders: A Way to Drive on?

The polygenic nature of neurological and psychiatric syndromes and the significant impact of environmental factors on the underlying developmental, homeostatic, and neuroplastic mechanisms suggest that an efficient therapy for these disorders should be a complex one. Pharmacological interventions with drugs selectively influencing the epigenetic landscape (epidrugs) allow one to hit multiple targets, therefore, assumably addressing a wide spectrum of genetic and environmental mechanisms of central nervous system (CNS) disorders. The aim of this review is to understand what fundamental pathological mechanisms would be optimal to target with epidrugs in the treatment of neurological or psychiatric complications. To date, the use of histone deacetylases and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors (HDACis and DNMTis) in the clinic is focused on the treatment of neoplasms (mainly of a glial origin) and is based on the cytostatic and cytotoxic actions of these compounds. Preclinical data show that besides this activity, inhibitors of histone deacetylases, DNA methyltransferases, bromodomains, and ten-eleven translocation (TET) proteins impact the expression of neuroimmune inflammation mediators (cytokines and pro-apoptotic factors), neurotrophins (brain-derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) and nerve growth factor (NGF)), ion channels, ionotropic receptors, as well as pathoproteins (β-amyloid, tau protein, and α-synuclein). Based on this profile of activities, epidrugs may be favorable as a treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. For the treatment of neurodevelopmental disorders, drug addiction, as well as anxiety disorders, depression, schizophrenia, and epilepsy, contemporary epidrugs still require further development concerning a tuning of pharmacological effects, reduction in toxicity, and development of efficient treatment protocols. A promising strategy to further clarify the potential targets of epidrugs as therapeutic means to cure neurological and psychiatric syndromes is the profiling of the epigenetic mechanisms, which have evolved upon actions of complex physiological lifestyle factors, such as diet and physical exercise, and which are effective in the management of neurodegenerative diseases and dementia.

Behavior, BDNF and epigenetic mechanisms in response to social isolation and social support in middle aged rats exposed to chronic stress

Social deprivation can be stressful for group-living mammals. On the other hand, an amazing response of these animals to stress is seeking social contact to give and receive joint protection in threatening situations. We explored the effects of social isolation and social support on epigenetic and behavioral responses to chronic stress. More specifically, we investigated the behavioral responses, corticosterone levels, BDNF gene expression, and markers of hippocampal epigenetic alterations (levels of H3K9 acetylation and methylation, H3K27 methylation, HDAC5, DNMT1, and DNMT3a gene expressions) in middle-aged adult rats maintained in different housing conditions (isolation or accompanied housing) and exposed to the chronic unpredictable stress protocol (CUS). Isolation was associated with decreased basal levels of corticosterone, impaired long-term memory, and decreased expression of the BDNF gene, besides altering the balance of H3K9 from acetylation to methylation and increasing the DNMT1 gene expression. The CUS protocol decreased H3K9 acetylation, besides increasing H3K27 methylation and DNMT1 gene expression, but had no significant effects on memory and BDNF gene expression. Interestingly, the effects of CUS on corticosterone and HDAC5 gene expression were seen only in isolated animals, whereas the effects of CUS on DNMT1 gene expression were more pronounced in isolated than accompanied animals. In conclusion, social isolation in middle age showed broader effects than chronic unpredictable stress on behavioral and epigenetic alterations potentially associated with decreased BDNF expression. Moreover, social support prevented the adverse effects of CUS on HPA axis functioning, HDAC5, and DNMT1 gene expressions.

Effects of Histone Modification in Major Depressive Disorder

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a disease associated with many factors; specifically, environmental, genetic, psychological, and biological factors play critical roles. Recent studies have demonstrated that histone modification may occur in the human brain in response to severely stressful events, resulting in transcriptional changes and the development of MDD. In this review, we discuss five different histone modifications, histone methylation, histone acetylation, histone phosphorylation, histone crotonylation and histone β-hydroxybutyrylation, and their relationships with MDD. The utility of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors (HDACis) for MDD treatment is also discussed. As a large number of MDD patients in China have been treated with traditional Chineses medicine (TCM), we also discuss some TCM therapies, such as Xiaoyaosan (XYS), and their effects on histone modification. In summary, targeting histone modification may be a new strategy for elucidating the mechanism of MDD and a new direction for MDD treatment.

Effect of Haloperidol and Olanzapine on Hippocampal Cells’ Proliferation in Animal Model of Schizophrenia

Aberrant neurogenesis in the subventricular zone (SVZ) and hippocampus (HIP) contributes to schizophrenia pathogenesis. Haloperidol (HAL) and olanzapine (OLA), commonly prescribed antipsychotics for schizophrenia treatment, affect neurogenesis too. The effect of HAL and OLA on an mHippoE-2 cell line was studied in vitro where we measured the cell number and projection length. In vivo, we studied the gene expression of DCX, Sox2, BDNF, and NeuN in the SVZ and HIP in an MK-801-induced animal schizophrenia model. Cells were incubated with HAL, OLA, and MK-801 for 24, 48, and 72 h. Animals were injected for 6 days with saline or MK801 (0.5 mg/kg), and from the 7th day with either vehicle HAL (1 mg/kg) or OLA (2 mg/kg), for the next 7 days. In vitro, HAL and OLA dose/time-dependently suppressed cells’ proliferation and shortened their projection length. HAL/OLA co-treatment with MK-801 for 24 h reversed HAL’s/OLA’s inhibitory effect. In vivo, HAL and OLA suppressed DCX and NeuN genes’ expression in the HIP and SVZ. MK-801 decreased DCX and NeuN genes’ expression in the HIP and OLA prevented this effect. The data suggest that subchronic HAL/OLA treatment can inhibit DCX and NeuN expression. In an MK-801 schizophrenia model, OLA reversed the MK-801 inhibitory effect on DCX and NeuN and HAL reversed the effect on DCX expression; however, only in the HIP.

Present and future antipsychotic drugs: a systematic review of the putative mechanisms of action for efficacy and a critical appraisal under a translational perspective

Antipsychotics represent the mainstay of schizophrenia pharmacological therapy, and their role has been expanded in the last years to mood disorders treatment. Although introduced in 1952, many years of research were required before an accurate picture of how antipsychotics work began to emerge. Despite the well-recognized characterization of antipsychotics in typical and atypical based on their liability to induce motor adverse events, their main action at dopamine D2R to elicit the "anti-psychotic" effect, as well as the multimodal action at other classes of receptors, their effects on intracellular mechanisms starting with receptor occupancy is still not completely understood. Significant lines of evidence converge on the impact of these compounds on multiple molecular signaling pathways implicated in the regulation of early genes and growth factors, dendritic spine shape, brain inflammation, and immune response, tuning overall the function and architecture of the synapse. Here we present, based on PRISMA approach, a comprehensive and systematic review of the above mechanisms under a translational perspective to disentangle those intracellular actions and signaling that may underline clinically relevant effects and represent potential targets for further innovative strategies in antipsychotic therapy.

Clozapine Long-Term Treatment Might Reduce Epigenetic Age Through Hypomethylation of Longevity Regulatory Pathways Genes

Long-term studies have shown significantly lower mortality rates in patients with continuous clozapine (CLZ) treatment than other antipsychotics. We aimed to evaluate epigenetic age and DNA methylome differences between CLZ-treated patients and those without psychopharmacological treatment. The DNA methylome was analyzed using the Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip in 31 CLZ-treated patients with psychotic disorders and 56 patients with psychiatric disorders naive to psychopharmacological treatment. Delta age (Δage) was calculated as the difference between predicted epigenetic age and chronological age. CLZ-treated patients were stratified by sex, age, and years of treatment. Differential methylation sites between both groups were determined using linear regression models. The Δage in CLZ-treated patients was on average lower compared with drug-naive patients for the three clocks analyzed; however, after data-stratification, this difference remained only in male patients. Additional differences were observed in Hannum and Horvath clocks when comparing chronological age and years of CLZ treatment. We identified 44,716 differentially methylated sites, of which 87.7% were hypomethylated in CLZ-treated patients, and enriched in the longevity pathway genes. Moreover, by protein-protein interaction, AMPK and insulin signaling pathways were found enriched. CLZ could promote a lower Δage in individuals with long-term treatment and modify the DNA methylome of the longevity-regulating pathways genes.

Prenatal Iron Deficiency and Choline Supplementation Interact to Epigenetically Regulate Jarid1b and Bdnf in the Rat Hippocampus into Adulthood

Early-life iron deficiency (ID) causes long-term neurocognitive impairments and gene dysregulation that can be partially mitigated by prenatal choline supplementation. The long-term gene dysregulation is hypothesized to underlie cognitive dysfunction. However, mechanisms by which iron and choline mediate long-term gene dysregulation remain unknown. In the present study, using a well-established rat model of fetal-neonatal ID, we demonstrated that ID downregulated hippocampal expression of the gene encoding JmjC-ARID domain-containing protein 1B (JARID1B), an iron-dependent histone H3K4 demethylase, associated with a higher histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) enrichment and a lower enrichment of acetylated histone H3K9 (H3K9ac) and phosphorylated cAMP response element-binding protein (pCREB). Likewise, ID reduced transcriptional capacity of the gene encoding brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a target of JARID1B, associated with repressive histone modifications such as lower H3K9ac and pCREB enrichments at the Bdnf promoters in the adult rat hippocampus. Prenatal choline supplementation did not prevent the ID-induced chromatin modifications at these loci but induced long-lasting repressive chromatin modifications in the iron-sufficient adult rats. Collectively, these findings demonstrated that the iron-dependent epigenetic mechanism mediated by JARID1B accounted for long-term Bdnf dysregulation by early-life ID. Choline supplementation utilized a separate mechanism to rescue the effect of ID on neural gene regulation. The negative epigenetic effects of choline supplementation in the iron-sufficient rat hippocampus necessitate additional investigations prior to its use as an adjunctive therapeutic agent.

Dose Effects of Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor Tacedinaline (CI-994) on Antipsychotic Haloperidol-Induced Motor and Memory Side Effects in Aged Mice

Background: Elderly patients treated with antipsychotic drugs often experience increased severity and frequency of side effects, yet the mechanisms are not well understood. Studies from our group indicate age-related histone modifications at drug targeted receptor gene promoters may contribute to the increased side effects, and histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors entinostat (MS-275) and valproic acid (VPA) could reverse typical antipsychotic haloperidol (HAL) induced motor-side effects. However, whether such effects could be dose dependent and whether HDAC inhibitors could improve memory function in aged mice is unknown. Methods: We co-treated selective class 1 HDAC inhibitor tacedinaline (CI-994) at different doses (10, 20, and 30 mg/kg) with HAL (0.05 mg/kg) in young (3 months) and aged (21 months) mice for 14 consecutive days, then motor and memory behavioral tests were conducted, followed by biochemical measurements. Results: CI-994 at doses of 10 and 20 mg/kg could decrease HAL-induced cataleptic episodes but only 20 mg/kg was sufficient to improve motor coordination in aged mice. Additionally, CI-994 at 10 and 20 mg/kg mitigate HAL-induced memory impairment in aged mice. Biochemical analyses showed increased acetylation of histone marks H3K27ac and H3K18ac at the dopamine 2 receptor (D2R) gene (Drd2) promoter and increased expression of the Drd2 mRNA and D2R protein in the striatum of aged mice after administration of CI-994 at 20 mg/kg. Conclusions: Our results suggest CI-994 can reduce HAL-induced motor and memory side effects in aged mice. These effects may act through an increase of acetylation at the Drd2 promoter, thereby restoring D2R expression and improving antipsychotic drug action.

Susceptibility to chronic immobilization stress-induced depressive-like behaviour in middle-aged female mice and accompanying changes in dopamine D1 and GABAA receptors in related brain regions

Background

Middle-aged females, especially perimenopausal females, are vulnerable to depression, but the potential mechanism remains unclear. Dopaminergic and GABAergic system dysfunction is involved in the pathophysiology of depression. In the current study, we used 2-month-old and 11-month-old C57BL/6 mice as young and middle-aged mice, respectively. Chronic immobilization stress (CIS) was used to induce depressive-like behaviour, and the sucrose preference test (SPT), tail suspension test (TST) and forced swim test (FST) were used to assess these behaviours. We then measured the mRNA levels of dopamine receptor D1 (DRD1) and the GABA_A receptors GABRA1, GABRB2 and GABRG2 in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and prefrontal cortex (PFC).

Results

We found that immobility time in the FST was significantly increased in the middle-aged mice compared with the middle-aged control mice and the young mice. In addition, the preference for sucrose water was reduced in the middle-aged mice compared with the middle-aged control mice. However, CIS did not induce obvious changes in the performance of the young mice in our behavioural tests. Moreover, the middle-aged mice exhibited equal immobility times as the young mice in the absence of stress. Decreases in the mRNA levels of DRD1, GABRA1, and GABRB2 but not GABRG2 were found in the NAc and PFC in the middle-aged mice in the absence of stress. Further decreases in the mRNA levels of DRD1 in the NAc and GABRG2 in the NAc and PFC were found in the middle-aged mice subjected to CIS.

Conclusions

Our results suggested that ageing could not directly induce depression in the absence of stress. However, ageing could induce susceptibility to depression in middle-aged mice in the presence of stress. CIS-induced decreases in DRD1 and GABRG2 levels might be involved in the increase in susceptibility to depression in this context.

Angiotensin (1-7) through modulation of the NMDAR-nNOS-NO pathway and serotonergic metabolism exerts an anxiolytic-like effect in rats

Although recent studies have shown that angiotensin (1-7) (Ang [1-7]) exerts anti-stress and anxiolytic-like effects, the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. The ventral hippocampus (VH) is proposed to be a critical brain region for mood and stress management through the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) signaling pathway. However, the role of VH NMDAR signaling in the effects of Ang (1-7) remains unclear. In the present study, Ang (1-7) was injected into the bilateral VH of stressed rats, or in combination with a Fyn kinase inhibitor, NMDAR antagonist, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitor, or nitric oxide (NO) scavenger. Anxiety-like behaviors were assessed using the open field test and elevated plus maze test, while alterations in NMDAR-nNOS-NO signaling and serotonergic metabolism were examined in the VH. After 21 days of chronic restraint stress, anxiety-like behaviors were evident. Levels of phosphorylated NR2B (a key NMDAR subunit), its upstream kinase Fyn, as well as activity of nNOS and monoamine oxidase (MAO) were markedly reduced. In contrast, levels of serotonin were increased. Bilateral VH infusion of Ang (1-7) recovered NMDAR-nNOS-NO signaling and MAO-mediated serotonin metabolism, as well as reducing anxiety-like behaviors in stressed rats. These effects were diminished by blockade of MasR (Ang [1-7]-specific receptor), Fyn kinase, NMDAR, nNOS, or NO production. Altogether, these findings indicate that Ang (1-7) exerts anxiolytic effects through modulation of the NMDAR-nNOS-NO pathway and serotonergic metabolism. Future translational research should focus on the relationship between Ang (1-7), glutamatergic neurotransmission, and serotonergic neurotransmission in the VH.

Overdispersed gene expression in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a severe, highly heterogeneous psychiatric disorder with varied clinical presentations. The polygenic genetic architecture of SCZ makes identification of causal variants a daunting task. Gene expression analyses hold the promise of revealing connections between dysregulated transcription and underlying variants in SCZ. However, the most commonly used differential expression analysis often assumes grouped samples are from homogeneous populations and thus cannot be used to detect expression variance differences between samples. Here, we applied the test for equality of variances to normalized expression data, generated by the CommonMind Consortium (CMC), from brains of 212 SCZ and 214 unaffected control (CTL) samples. We identified 87 genes, including VEGFA (vascular endothelial growth factor) and BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), that showed a significantly higher expression variance among SCZ samples than CTL samples. In contrast, only one gene showed the opposite pattern. To extend our analysis to gene sets, we proposed a Mahalanobis distance-based test for multivariate homogeneity of group dispersions, with which we identified 110 gene sets with a significantly higher expression variability in SCZ, including sets of genes encoding phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) complex and several others involved in cerebellar cortex morphogenesis, neuromuscular junction development, and cerebellar Purkinje cell layer development. Taken together, our results suggest that SCZ brains are characterized by overdispersed gene expression-overall gene expression variability among SCZ samples is significantly higher than that among CTL samples. Our study showcases the application of variability-centric analyses in SCZ research.

The Relationships Between Stress, Mental Disorders, and Epigenetic Regulation of BDNF

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a critical member of the neurotrophic family, plays an important role in multiple stress-related mental disorders. Although alterations in BDNF in multiple brain regions of individuals experiencing stress have been demonstrated in previous studies, it appears that a set of elements are involved in the complex regulation. In this review, we summarize the specific brain regions with altered BDNF expression during stress exposure. How various environmental factors, including both physical and psychological stress, affect the expression of BDNF in specific brain regions are further summarized. Moreover, epigenetic regulation of BDNF, including DNA methylation, histone modification, and noncoding RNA, in response to diverse types of stress, as well as sex differences in the sensitivity of BDNF to the stress response, is also summarized. Clarification of the underlying role of BDNF in the stress process will promote our understanding of the pathology of stress-linked mental disorders and provide a potent target for the future treatment of stress-related illness.

Skeletal muscle DNA methylation modifications and psychopharmacologic treatment in bipolar disorder

Both severe mental illness and atypical antipsychotics have been independently associated with insulin resistance and weight gain. Altered regulation of skeletal muscle DNA methylation may play a role. We aimed to evaluate DNA methylation modifications in human skeletal muscle samples to further understand its potential role in the metabolic burden observed in psychiatric patients and psychopharmacologic treatment. Subjects were included in our study if they had a bipolar diagnosis and were currently treated with a mood stabilizer or atypical antipsychotic. A healthy control group free of psychiatric or physical disease was also included for comparisons. Anthropometric, BMI and hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C%) were measured. Fasting skeletal muscle biopsies were obtained and methylation levels of 5-methycytosine (5-mC), 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5-hmC) and 5-formylcytosine (5-fC) were measured. Skeletal muscle global methylation of 5-mC and 5-fC were significantly higher in bipolar subjects compared to healthy controls. 5-mC was significantly higher in the AAP group compared to the mood stabilizer group. Significant correlations were observed between 5-fC methylation and HbA1C%. Our findings suggest that psychiatric disease and treatment may influence some methylation measures in the skeletal muscle of patients with bipolar disorder, which may be further influenced by medication treatment.

Social isolation and social support at adulthood affect epigenetic mechanisms, brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels and behavior of chronically stressed rats

Epigenetic modulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) provides one possible explanation for the dysfunctions induced by stress, such as psychiatric disorders and cognitive decline. Interestingly, social support can be protective against some of these effects, but the mechanisms of social buffering are poorly understood. Conversely, early isolation exacerbates the responses to stressors, although its effects in adulthood remain unclear. This study investigated the effects of social isolation and social buffering on hippocampal epigenetic mechanisms, BDNF levels and behavioral responses of chronically stressed young adult rats. Male Wistar rats (3 months) were assigned to accompanied (paired) or isolated housing. After one-month half of each group was submitted to a chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) protocol for 18 days. Among accompanied animals, only one was exposed to stress. Behavioral analysis encompassed the Open field, plus maze and inhibitory avoidance tasks. Hippocampal H3K9 and H4K12 acetylation, HDAC5 expression and BDNF levels were evaluated. Isolated housing increased HDAC5 expression, decreased H3K9 and H4K12 acetylation, reduced BDNF levels, and impaired long-term memory. Stress affected weight gain, induced anxiety-like behavior and decreased AcK9H3 levels. Interactions between housing conditions and social stress were seen only for HDAC5 expression, which showed a further increase in the isolated + CUS group but remained constant in accompanied animals. In conclusion, social isolation at adulthood induced epigenetic alterations and exacerbated the effects of chronic stress on HDAC5. Notwithstanding, social support counteracted the adverse effects of stress on HDAC5 expression.