Prevalence of Staphylococcus Species Colonization in Healthy and Sick Cats

Antimicrobial resistance and virulence profiling of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius isolated from cats, Bangladesh

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a significant bacterial pathogen that frequently colonizes different body sites and mucous membranes of pets. The objectives of the cross-sectional study were to estimate the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance pattern, and detection of diverse resistance as well as virulence genes of S. pseudintermedius in cats. A standard bacteriological method, species-specific gene and different antimicrobial resistance as well as virulence genes were confirmed by PCR assay. A total of 233 swab samples were collected from different body sites of 102 cats, among them 146 swabs from 73 healthy cats, and 87 from 29 diseased cats. Overall, prevalence of S. pseudintermedius in cats was 12.01%, while dermatitis and otitis affected cats were 26.08% and 33.33%, respectively. The highest antimicrobial resistance was observed against penicillin (96.42%) followed by streptomycin (85.71%) and erythromycin (78.57%). Moreover, 89.28% of S. pseudintermedius isolates exhibit multi-drug resistance (MDR) (≥ 3 classes' antimicrobial resistant). In addition, 17.86% isolates harbored the mecA gene; thus, were classified as methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius (MRSP). Furthermore, the erythromycin resistance genes ermA and ermB were harbored by 25% and 10.71% of isolates, while 42.86% and 17.86% of isolates carried tetK and tetL (tetracycline resistance) genes, respectively. In virulence profiling, 32.14% (sea) and 10.71% (seb) of isolates were found positive for enterotoxin genes, whereas, the toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (tst-1) gene and the Panton-Valentine leukocidin gene (pvl) were detected in 25% and 14.29% of isolates, respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first report of cats in Bangladesh for MDR S. pseudintermedius, MRSP, and their virulence profiling.

Not just in man's best friend: A review of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius host range and human zoonosis

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is one species in the commensal staphylococcal population in dogs. While it is commonly carried on healthy companion dogs it is also an opportunistic pathogen associated with a range of skin, ear, wound and other infections. While adapted to dogs, it is not restricted to them, and we have reviewed its host range, including increasing reports of human colonisation and infections. Despite its association with pet dogs, S. pseudintermedius is found widely in animals, covering companion, livestock and free-living species of birds and mammals. Human infections, typically in immunocompromised individuals, are increasingly being recognised, in part due to improved diagnosis. Colonisation, infection, and antimicrobial resistance, including frequent multidrug resistance, among S. pseudintermedius isolates represent important One Health challenges.

Staphylococcus haemolyticus: An updated review on nosocomial infections, antimicrobial resistance, virulence, genetic traits, and strategies for combating this emerging opportunistic pathogen

Staphylococcus haemolyticus, a key species of the Staphylococcus genus, holds significant importance in healthcare-associated infections, due to its notable resistance to antimicrobials, like methicillin, and proficient biofilms-forming capabilities. This coagulase-negative bacterium poses a substantial challenge in the battle against nosocomial infections. Recent research has shed light on Staph. haemolyticus genomic plasticity, unveiling genetic elements responsible for antibiotic resistance and their widespread dissemination within the genus. This review presents an updated and comprehensive overview of the clinical significance and prevalence of Staph. haemolyticus, underscores its zoonotic potential and relevance in the one health framework, explores crucial virulence factors, and examines genetics features contributing to its success in causing emergent and challenging infections. Additionally, we scrutinize ongoing studies aimed at controlling spread and alternative approaches for combating it.

Characterization of the skin microbiome in normal and cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma affected cats and dogs

Human cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) and actinic keratoses (AK) display microbial dysbiosis with an enrichment of staphylococcal species, which have been implicated in AK and SCC progression. SCCs are common in both felines and canines and are often diagnosed at late stages leading to high disease morbidity and mortality rates. Although recent studies support the involvement of the skin microbiome in AK and SCC progression in humans, there is no knowledge of this in companion animals. Here, we provide microbiome data for SCC in cats and dogs using culture-independent molecular profiling and show a significant decrease in microbial alpha diversity on SCC lesions compared to normal skin (P ≤ 0.05). Similar to human skin cancer, SCC samples had an elevated abundance of staphylococci relative to normal skin-50% (6/12) had >50% staphylococci, as did 16% (4/25) of perilesional samples. Analysis of Staphylococcus at the species level revealed an enrichment of the pathogenic species Staphylococcus felis in cat SCC samples, a higher prevalence of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in dogs, and a higher abundance of Staphylococcus aureus compared to normal skin in both companion animals. Additionally, a comparison of previously published human SCC and perilesional samples against the present pet samples revealed that Staphylococcus was the most prevalent genera across human and companion animals for both sample types. Similarities between the microbial profile of human and cat/dog SCC lesions should facilitate future skin cancer research.

IMPORTANCE

The progression of precancerous actinic keratosis lesions (AK) to cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is poorly understood in humans and companion animals, despite causing a significant burden of disease. Recent studies have revealed that the microbiota may play a significant role in disease progression. Staphylococcus aureus has been found in high abundance on AK and SCC lesions, where it secretes DNA-damaging toxins, which could potentiate tumorigenesis. Currently, a suitable animal model to investigate this relationship is lacking. Thus, we examined the microbiome of cutaneous SCC in pets, revealing similarities to humans, with increased staphylococci and reduced commensals on SCC lesions and peri-lesional skin compared to normal skin. Two genera that were in abundance in SCC samples have also been found in human oral SCC lesions. These findings suggest the potential suitability of pets as a model for studying microbiome-related skin cancer progression.

The Home Environment Is a Reservoir for Methicillin-Resistant Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci and Mammaliicocci

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) and mammaliicocci are opportunistic human and animal pathogens, often resistant to multiple antimicrobials, including methicillin. Methicillin-resistant CoNS (MRCoNS) have traditionally been linked to hospitals and healthcare facilities, where they are significant contributors to nosocomial infections. However, screenings of non-hospital environments have linked MRCoNS and methicillin-resistant mammaliicocci (MRM) to other ecological niches. The aim of this study was to explore the home environment as a reservoir for MRCoNS and MRM. A total of 33 households, including households with a dog with a methicillin-resistant staphylococcal infection, households with healthy dogs or cats and households without pets, were screened for MRCoNS and MRM by sampling one human, one pet (if present) and the environment. Samples were analyzed by a selective culture-based method, and bacterial species were identified by MALDI-TOF MS and tested for antibiotic susceptibility by the agar disk diffusion method. Following whole-genome sequencing, a large diversity of SCCmec elements and sequence types was revealed, which did not indicate any clonal dissemination of specific strains. Virulome and mobilome analyses indicated a high degree of species specificity. Altogether, this study documents that the home environment is a reservoir for a variety of MRCoNS and MRM regardless of the type of household.

Multidrug-Resistant Commensal and Infection-Causing Staphylococcus spp. Isolated from Companion Animals in the Valencia Region

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and multidrug resistance (MDR) among microorganisms to commonly used antibiotics is a growing concern in both human and veterinary medicine. Companion animals play a significant role in the epidemiology of AMR, as their population is continuously increasing, posing a risk of disseminating AMR, particularly to strains of public health importance, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus strains. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence of AMR and MDR in commensal and infection-causing Staphylococcus spp. in dogs and cats in Valencia region. For this purpose, 271 samples were taken from veterinary centers to assess antimicrobial susceptibility against 20 antibiotics, including some of the most important antibiotics for the treatment of Staphylococcus infections, including the five last resort antibiotics in this list. Of all the samples, 187 Staphylococcus spp. strains were recovered from asymptomatic and skin-diseased dogs and cats, of which S. pseudintermedius (≈60%) was more prevalent in dogs, while S. felis (≈50%) was more prevalent in cats. In the overall analysis of the isolates, AMR was observed for all antibiotics tested, including those crucial in human medicine. Furthermore, over 70% and 30% of the strains in dogs and cats, respectively, exhibited MDR. This study highlights the significance of monitoring the trends in AMR and MDR among companion animals. The potential contribution of these animals to the dissemination of AMR and its resistance genes to humans, other animals, and their shared environment underscores the necessity for adopting a One Health approach.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococci in canine pyoderma in Thailand

Background and Aims

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococci (MRS) seriously threatens animal and human health. Repeated antibiotic use allows the bacteria to develop resistance to several antibiotic classes and become multidrug-resistant (MDR). Canine pyoderma, a common skin condition in dogs, is mainly caused by Staphylococci, including MRS. Detecting this infection in all canine populations is crucial to develop a proper preventive plan. This study estimated the prevalence, antibiogram, and risk factors of MRS in canine patients at a referral animal hospital in Khon Kaen, Thailand.

Materials and Methods

Skin swabs and relevant information were collected from 56 client-owned dogs that visited the hospital from September 2019 to September 2020. Staphylococci colonies were subjected to molecular identification and antibiotic susceptibility tests using an automated system (VITEK® 2). These colonies were also genetically identified using multiplex-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. The mecA gene, encoding methicillin resistance, was detected using simplex-PCR. The risk factors of MRS infection and their association with MRS infection were analyzed using logistic regression and the Chi-square test, respectively.

Results

The prevalence of MRS was found to be 35.7% (20/56 dogs). By species, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius was found in 24 of 104 isolates (23.1%), and all samples were MDR. Receiving systemic antibiotics in the past 6 months was a major risk factor associated with MRS infection (p < 0.05; odds ratio (OR) > 1). In addition to the MRS isolates, the mecA gene was also detected in methicillin-susceptible Staphylococci isolates. This might be because of the high expression of blaI, and mutations in c-di-AMP cyclase DacA, RelA, and Fem proteins.

Conclusion

A high prevalence of MRS and MDR was observed in the studied population, which might be potentially due to improper antibiotic use by the owners and horizontal transfer of drug-resistance genes.

ANTIMICROBIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY OF STAPHYLOCOCCUS SPP. ISOLATED FROM FELIDS AND CANIDS IN BELO HORIZONTE ZOO, BRAZIL

The epidemiology of Staphylococcus spp. has become a major concern among humans and animals due to increasing antimicrobial resistance and frequent reports of infection. Despite the importance of animals as reservoirs for staphylococci, little is known about the epidemiology of Staphylococcus spp. in most nondomestic species, including canids and felids. This study evaluated the frequency, distribution, and patterns of antimicrobial resistance of staphylococcal species isolated from captive felids and canids from Belo Horizonte Zoo, Brazil. Rectal, oral, and nasal swabs from apparently healthy maned wolves (Chrysocyon brachyurus, n= 7), a lion (Panthera leo, n = 1), jaguars (Panthera onca, n = 3), and one swab of a cougar (Puma concolor) with an ear infection were streaked onto mannitol salt agar. Colonies identified by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry, polymerase chain reaction for the Staphylococcus intermedius group (SIG), and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility tests and Staphylococcus pseudintermedius strains were subjected to multilocus sequence typing. Staphylococcus species were isolated from 24 of the 34 samples (70.6%). Among the isolated strains, S. pseudintermedius and Staphylococcus felis were the most frequent species (41.7 and 25%, respectively). Five novel sequence types were identified among the S. pseudintermedius isolates. Resistance to tetracycline (7/24, 29.2%) or penicillin (6/23, 26.1%) was significantly higher than the other antimicrobial agents tested (P < 0.05). One isolate, Staphylococcus nepalensis, was positive for mecA and resistant to five antimicrobials, and was thus classified as multidrug-resistant. The present work suggests that maned wolves are natural hosts of SIG and also reports the isolation of S. felis in sick and healthy, captive, nondomestic carnivores. The isolated staphylococci were susceptible to most classes of antimicrobials tested. However, the multidrug-resistance capability of an S. nepalensis strain reinforces the hypothesis that felids and canids act as reservoirs of pathogens with antimicrobial resistance.

Virulence Mechanisms of Staphylococcal Animal Pathogens

Staphylococci are major causes of infections in mammals. Mammals are colonized by diverse staphylococcal species, often with moderate to strong host specificity, and colonization is a common source of infection. Staphylococcal infections of animals not only are of major importance for animal well-being but have considerable economic consequences, such as in the case of staphylococcal mastitis, which costs billions of dollars annually. Furthermore, pet animals can be temporary carriers of strains infectious to humans. Moreover, antimicrobial resistance is a great concern in livestock infections, as there is considerable antibiotic overuse, and resistant strains can be transferred to humans. With the number of working antibiotics continuously becoming smaller due to the concomitant spread of resistant strains, alternative approaches, such as anti-virulence, are increasingly being investigated to treat staphylococcal infections. For this, understanding the virulence mechanisms of animal staphylococcal pathogens is crucial. While many virulence factors have similar functions in humans as animals, there are increasingly frequent reports of host-specific virulence factors and mechanisms. Furthermore, we are only beginning to understand virulence mechanisms in animal-specific staphylococcal pathogens. This review gives an overview of animal infections caused by staphylococci and our knowledge about the virulence mechanisms involved.

Occurrence of antimicrobial-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a Brazilian veterinary hospital environment

Antimicrobial resistance is a threat to public health. The emergence of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus represents a priority for the implementation of preventive measures. The objective was to isolate S. aureus in humans, animals, and animal health care environment, and to characterize the genotypic and phenotypic profile of antimicrobial resistance in these isolates. We isolated S. aureus from staff, animals, and environment of a veterinary hospital, and identified their antimicrobial resistance profiles. Samples were collected from 20 humans, 13 animals, 14 surfaces, 8 mobile phones, and 7 veterinarians' stethoscopes by using sterile swabs. S. aureus was isolated by culturing on mannitol salt agar and preliminary identification was done by Gram staining and catalase test. Subsequently, a polymerase chain reaction was performed for species confirmation and investigating their antimicrobial-resistant genotypic profiles. Phenotypic profiles of resistant isolates were determined using the disk-diffusion technique. Ten S. aureus isolates were recovered from 5/20 humans (25%), it was also recovered from 2/13 animals (15.38%), including 1 dog and 1 cat, and from 1/14 of surfaces (7.14%). The oxacillin-susceptible mecA-positive Staphylococcus aureus phenotype was identified in a feline. Most of the isolates carried at least two resistance genes of different antimicrobial classes, with 90% (9/10) presenting the gene blaZ, with 10% (1/10) presenting the gene mecA, 20% (2/10) presenting tet38, 10% (1/10) presenting tetM, 90% (9/10) presenting norA, 50% (5/10) presenting norC, 10% (1/10) presenting ermA, and 60% (6/10) presenting ermB. In antibiograms, resistance to penicillin was identified in all the isolates, resistance to erythromycin was identified in 80% (8/10), and all the isolate's resistance to erythromycin presented erythromycin-induced resistance to clindamycin. Antimicrobial resistance in the veterinary hospital requires attention due to the risk of interspecies transmission, gene transfer between bacteria that colonize companion animals and humans and, can make antimicrobial therapy difficult.

Colonization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus species in healthy and sick pets: prevalence and risk factors

BACKGROUND

The characterization of staphylococcal species that colonize pets is important to maintain animal health and to minimize the risk of transmission to owners. Here, the prevalence of Staphylococcus spp. and methicillin resistance was investigated in canine and feline isolates, and risk factors of staphylococcal colonization were determined. Pets were examined and separated into four groups: (1) healthy dogs, (2) healthy cats, and (3) dogs and (4) cats with clinical signs of bacterial infections of skin, mucous membranes, or wounds. Specimens were collected by a veterinary physician from six anatomic sites (external ear canal, conjunctival sacs, nares, mouth, skin [groin], and anus). In total, 274 animals (cats n = 161, dogs n = 113) were enrolled.

RESULTS

Staphylococcus species were highly diverse (23 species; 3 coagulase-positive and 20 coagulase-negative species), with the highest variety in healthy cats (19 species). The most frequent feline isolates were S. felis and S. epidermidis, while S. pseudintermedius was the most prevalent isolate in dogs. Risk factors of staphylococcal colonization included the presence of other animals in the same household, medical treatment within the last year, and a medical profession of at least one owner. Methicillin resistance was higher in coagulase-negative (17.86%) compared to coagulase-positive (1.95%) staphylococci. The highest prevalence of methicillin-resistant CoNS colonization was observed in animals kept in homes as the most common (dogs and cats).

CONCLUSIONS

The association of methicillin-resistant CoNS colonization with animals most often chosen as pets, represents a high risk of transmission between them and owners. The importance of nosocomial transmission of CoNS was also confirmed. This information could guide clinical decisions during the treatment of veterinary bacterial infections. In conclusion, the epidemiologic characteristics of CoNS and their pathogenicity in pets and humans require further research.

The feline skin microbiome: interrelationship between health and disease

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

As with other species, the skin microbiome of cats has been assessed over the past few years utilizing modern technologies. This has resulted in the identification of many more bacterial and fungal organisms compared with what had been recorded historically on the skin in various states of health and disease using culture-based studies. This information is expanding the knowledge of how microbial communities are impacted by various changes in the skin health of cats. More specifically, how these microbial communities change in the face of health and disease, and how various therapeutic interventions affect the cutaneous microbiome, lends a greater understanding of disease pathogenesis and provides a growing area of research for correcting dysbiosis and improving feline skin health.

EVIDENCE BASE

Most studies on the feline skin microbiome thus far have been descriptive in nature. These provide a framework for the next level of investigations on how various states of health and disease impact the products produced by the cutaneous microbiome (ie, the cutaneous metabolome), as well as how targeted interventions may promote the restoration of balance.

AIMS

This review aims to summarize what is currently known about the feline cutaneous microbiome and its clinical implications. The role of the skin microbiome in health and disease, the current state of research in this area and the potential for future studies to produce targeted interventions for cats are a particular focus.

Staphylococci isolated from cats in Italy with superficial pyoderma and allergic dermatitis: Characterisation of isolates and their resistance to antimicrobials

BACKGROUND

In cats, superficial pyoderma traditionally is considered rare and few reports are available. There is a particular lack of studies concerning Staphylococcus species associated with pyoderma in subjects affected by allergic skin diseases.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

(i) To evaluate the association between Staphylococcus spp. and superficial pyoderma in allergic cats and (ii) to characterise isolated staphylococci and analyse their antimicrobial resistance patterns.

ANIMALS

Forty-one cats with allergic dermatitis and superficial pyoderma in Italy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Skin swabs were cultured for the isolation of Staphylococcus spp. Species identification was performed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionisation time of flight mass spectrometry and 16S-rRNA sequencing. Staphylococcus aureus isolates were further characterised by staphylococcal protein A gene-typing. Antimicrobial susceptibility was performed by the disk diffusion method.

RESULTS

Staphylococci were isolated from 36/41 cats sampled and 39 different isolates were identified. Uneven distribution of staphylococcal species was observed among different body locations. The 39 isolates were S. aureus (n = 15), S. felis (n = 10), S. pseudintermedius (n = 8) and other staphylococci (n = 6). Eight different S. aureus spa-types associated with human clonal complexes were identified. Antimicrobial resistance was observed to penicillin (56.4%), tetracycline (46.2%), enrofloxacin (33.3%), erythromycin (28.2%), amikacin (25.6%), clindamycin (23.1%), marbofloxacin (15.4%), gentamicin (12.8%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (10.3%), chloramphenicol (7.7%) and cefoxitin/oxacillin (5.1%). Fifteen isolates (38.4%) were multidrug-resistant while meticillin resistance was associated only with S. pseudintermedius.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These results confirm that S. aureus, S. pseudintermedius, and S. felis are frequently associated with superficial pyoderma in allergic cats. Semi-synthetic penicillins remain a suitable first-line treatment in this study, yet the high prevalence of antimicrobial resistant isolates suggests that antimicrobial susceptibility testing should be performed routinely.

Evidence of cat-to-human transmission of Staphylococcus felis

Introduction. Staphylococcus felis is a coagulase-negative staphylococcal species that is commonly isolated from healthy cats. Like other commensal staphylococci, S. felis can cause opportunistic infections, e.g. otitis externa, skin and urinary tract infections, in cats.Gap Statement. Several studies have reported within-household transmission between humans and pets and human infections caused by coagulase-positive staphylococci. However, human infections with coagulase-negative staphylococci of zoonotic origin are relatively rare.Methodology. Culture of a surgical site infection in a 58-year-old woman who underwent a laminectomy revealed dominant growth of S. felis. The three cats owned by the patient were sampled to investigate potential within-household transmission. S. felis isolates were sequenced to investigate the relatedness of the isolates and to look for virulence factors and host specific genes.Results. All cats were colonized with S. felis. Comparative genomics of the isolates showed that each cat was colonized with a distinct genotype. The patient's isolate clustered with isolates of one of the cats. Sequence analysis of the studied isolates together with 29 publicly available S. felis genomes detected putative virulence factors that can be crucial in potential interspecies transmission.Conclusion. The current case is the first reported human infection caused by S. felis and highlights the zoonotic potential of this bacterial species. Evidence of cat-to-human transmission was shown by comparative genomics of isolates from the patient with isolates of her cats.

Genetic diversity and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius associated with skin and soft-tissue infections in companion animals in Lisbon, Portugal

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is the main bacterial pathogen of skin and soft-tissue infections (SSTIs) in companion animals. Antimicrobial resistance in this species is a growing public health concern. This study aims to characterize a collection of S. pseudintermedius causing SSTIs in companion animals, establishing the main clonal lineages and antimicrobial resistance traits. The collection corresponded to all S. pseudintermedius (n = 155) causing SSTIs in companion animals (dogs, cats and one rabbit) collected between 2014 and 2018 at two laboratories in Lisbon, Portugal. Susceptibility patterns were established by disk diffusion for 28 antimicrobials (15 classes). For antimicrobials without clinical breakpoints available, a cut-off value (CO_WT) was estimated, based on the distribution of the zones of inhibition. The blaZ and mecA genes were screened for the entire collection. Other resistance genes (e.g., erm, tet, aadD, vga(C), dfrA(S1)) were searched only for those isolates showing an intermediate/resistance phenotype. For fluoroquinolone resistance, we determined the chromosomal mutations in the target genes grlA and gyrA. All the isolates were typed by PFGE following SmaI macrorestriction and isolates representative of each PFGE type were further typed by MLST. Forty-eight out of the 155  S. pseudintermedius isolates (31.0%) were methicillin-resistant (mecA ⁺, MRSP). Multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotypes were detected for 95.8% of the MRSP and 22.4% of the methicillin-susceptible (MSSP) isolates. Of particular concern, only 19 isolates (12.3%) were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested. In total, 43 different antimicrobial resistance profiles were detected, mostly associated with the carriage of blaZ, mecA, erm(B), aph3-IIIa, aacA-aphD, cat _pC221, tet(M) and dfr(G) genes. The 155 isolates were distributed within 129 PFGE clusters, grouped by MLST in 42 clonal lineages, 25 of which correspond to new sequence types (STs). While ST71 remains the most frequent S. pseudintermedius lineage, other lineages that have been replacing ST71 in other countries were detected, including ST258, described for the first time in Portugal. This study revealed a high frequency of MRSP and MDR profiles among S. pseudintermedius associated with SSTIs in companion animals in our setting. Additionally, several clonal lineages with different resistance profiles were described, evidencing the importance of a correct diagnosis and selection of the therapy.

Resistance to Critical Important Antibacterials in Staphylococcus pseudintermedius Strains of Veterinary Origin

Staphylococcal infections represent a challenge in companion animals and hospitalized patients. This study aimed to assess the resistance of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius isolates, against a broad panel of antibacterials, including exclusive to human medicine. A total of 40 S. pseudintermedius were collected from clinical specimens of dogs (n = 31) and cats (n = 5). All strains were tested for 20 antibacterials, namely 14 Critical Important and eight Highly Important Antibacterials (CIA and HIA, respectively), indicative for 18 antimicrobial classes. All strains were susceptible to seven antibiotics (daptomycin, fosfomycin, fusidic acid, linezolid, quinupristin-dalfopristin, teicoplanin/vancomycin, tigecycline). The highest resistance was against penicillin (97.5% Confidence Interval [CI]: 83.8-100.0), whereas the lowest against telavancin (2.5%, CI: 0.0-16.2). Resistance versus Highest Priority CIA was observed, namely against macrolides (70.0, CI: 52.1-84.3), quinolones (62.5, CI: 44.5-78.3), 5th generation cephalosporins (7.5, CI: 1.3-21.6), and glycopeptides (2.5%, CI: 0.0-14.2). Among High Priority CIA, strains were resistant only to aminoglycosides (65.0, CI: 47.0-80.4) and ansamycins (12.5, CI: 3.8-28.1). We observed the highest resistance against veterinary medicine antibacterials, but there was also resistance against antibacterials exclusive to human medicine, namely ceftaroline (7.5, CI: 1.0-23.8) and telavancin. S. pseudintermedius zoonotic potential and its rate of acquisition of new resistance should encourage surveillance on a broad spectrum of antibacterials.

May Sulfonamide Inhibitors of Carbonic Anhydrases from Mammaliicoccus sciuri Prevent Antimicrobial Resistance Due to Gene Transfer to Other Harmful Staphylococci?

Mammaliicoccus sciuri, previously known as Staphylococcus sciuri, is a Gram-positive bacterium involved in gene transfer phenomena that confer resistance to multiple antibiotics. These plasmid-encoded genes can be easily transferred to other pathogenic staphylococci. Because antibiotic resistance is rising, inhibiting M. sciuri proliferation may be a credible strategy for restricting antimicrobial resistance gene transfer to other pathogenic bacteria. Recently, it has been shown that blocking bacterial carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1), metalloenzymes sustaining bacterial metabolic activities, can reduce pathogen survival and fitness. Here, the recombinant M. sciuri γ-CA (MscCAγ) has been cloned and purified, utilizing the DNA recombinant technology. Its kinetic properties for the CO₂ hydration reaction, as well as the sulfonamide inhibition profile, were investigated and compared with those reported earlier for MscCAβ (previously described as SauBCA) and the two off-target human CA isoforms (hCA I and hCA II). The recombinant MscCAγ showed significant hydratase activity. Moreover, the MscCAγ sulfonamide inhibitory profile was different from that of MscCAβ, implying that a varied amino acid set typifies the catalytic pocket of the two enzymes. These differences provide additional evidence for the possibility of developing novel CA class-specific inhibitors.

Virulence Potential of Biofilm-Producing Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus coagulans Causing Skin Infections in Companion Animals

Coagulase-positive staphylococci (CoPS) account for most bacteria-related pyoderma in companion animals. Emergence of methicillin-resistant strains of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (MRSP), Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) or Staphylococcus coagulans (MRSC), often with multidrug-resistant (MDR) phenotypes, is a public health concern. The study collection comprised 237 staphylococci (S. pseudintermedius (n = 155), S. aureus (n = 55) and S. coagulans (n = 27)) collected from companion animals, previously characterized regarding resistance patterns and clonal lineages. Biofilm production was detected for 51.0% (79/155), 94.6% (52/55) and 88.9% (24/27) of the S. pseudintermedius, S. aureus and S. coagulans, respectively, and was a frequent trait of the predominant S. pseudintermedius and S. aureus clonal lineages. The production of biofilm varied with NaCl supplementation of the growth media. All S. pseudintermedius and S. aureus strains carried icaADB. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis of Galleria mellonella infected with different CoPS revealed a higher virulence potential of S. aureus when compared with other CoPS. Our study highlights a high frequency of biofilm production by prevalent antimicrobial-resistant clonal lineages of CoPS associated with animal pyoderma, potentially related with a higher virulence potential and persistent or recurrent infections.

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius: Is it a real threat to human health?

Staphylococcus Intermedius Group (SIG) staphylococci, especially Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (S. pseudintermedius), share many features with the common human Staphylococcus aureus. The similarities concern both the phenotypic characteristics and virulence of the bacteria. It is a cause of difficulties in identifying the species of isolated staphylococci. Until now, S. pseudintermedius was considered a typically animal species, of marginal importance for humans. However, it is likely that the incidence of this staphylococcus in humans is underestimated due to the misidentification of S. pseudintermedius strains as S. aureus. The cases of infections caused by S. pseudintermedius both in humans and animals described so far in the literature show that these bacteria have a similar pathogenic potential. S. pseudintermedius also produces virulence factors that favor colonization of various body regions and infections, and may affect the species composition of the natural microbiota and the host’s immune response mechanisms. Also, S. pseudintermedius may show the ability to grow in the form of a biofilm, which significantly impedes effective antibiotic therapy in clinical practice. Due to its zoonotic potential, S. pseudintermedius deserves the attention of physicians and animal owners.

Prevalence and predictors of bacteremia in dairy calves with diarrhea

Gastrointestinal disease is the most common cause of mortality in dairy calves. Septicemia is an important sequela of diarrhea, and the possibility of bacteremia is the primary justification for empirical antimicrobial therapy. Prior reports estimate that approximately one-third of diarrheic calves are bacteremic; however, those estimates may not be representative of routine cases in heifer calves on commercial dairy operations early in the course of disease. We hypothesized that the prevalence of bacteremia in calves with diarrhea and systemic signs of illness is less than prior estimates (~31%), and that clinical signs or hematological values would be associated with the presence or absence of bacteremia. Female calves less than 21 d of age with and without diarrhea were enrolled from 2 commercial dairy farms over a 10-wk period. Diarrheic calves were enrolled if they were newly diagnosed, had loose to watery stool, had either dehydration (assessed by skin tent and eye position) or depression (assessed by suckle reflex and standing ability), and had no prior antimicrobial treatments. Complete health assessments were conducted at 0, 7, and 14 d following enrollment. An aseptic jugular venous sample was collected and cultured using aerobic and anaerobic methods, and bacterial species were identified using mass spectrometry. Poisson regression models were used to identify associations with bacteremia and compute adjusted prevalence ratios. The prevalence of bacteremia in diarrheic and healthy calves was 9.26% (10/108, 95% confidence interval: 4.5-16%) and 14.8% (4/27, 95% confidence interval: 1.4-28.2%), respectively. Among calves with diarrhea, those with a fever (>39.7°C) or depression were 4.8 and 6.5 times more likely, respectively, to have bacteremia. Only 1 of 47 calves (2%) without signs of depression was bacteremic. The prevalence of bacteremia in diarrheic calves with signs of systemic illness (depression or dehydration) was significantly lower than previous estimates, and bacteremia was rare among calves without observed depression. Antimicrobial therapy targeting bacteremia is not currently justified in routine cases of diarrhea in preweaning calves without signs of depression. These results suggest a substantial opportunity for more targeted antimicrobial therapy to improve antimicrobial stewardship.

Epidemiology of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius in cats in Poland

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius is a well-known coagulase-positive staphylococcus that is mainly associated with the asymptomatic colonization of the skin of pets and mucous membranes. Little is still known about the occurrence of S. pseudintermedius in cats. The current study aimed to characterize the isolates of S. pseudintermedius from sick and healthy cats. This was achieved by examining their antibiotic resistance properties, biofilm formation, and genotype differences. Six hundred and seventy-six cats were swabbed (595 healthy and 81 sick cats). Thirty-five distinct S. pseudintermedius isolates from 27 cats were isolated. The prevalence of S. pseudintermedius in healthy and sick cats was 2.49% and 7.61%, respectively. In comparison, MRSP (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus pseudintermedius) prevalence was 0.12% and 2.98%, respectively. Cats were more frequently colonized with S. pseudintermedius when kept with dogs, regardless of their health condition, with this result being statistically significant. Multidrug resistance was detected in 50%, and 38.46% of S. pseudintermedius isolates from healthy and sick cats, respectively. In contrast, genetic multidrug resistance was detected in 59% and 46.15% cases, respectively. Seven from eight isolated MRSPs were multidrug-resistant. Multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) assigned isolates to 19 types, of which 16 types submitted for the first time to the PubMLST database. The most frequently detected STs (sequence types) were 551 and 71. ST71 and ST551 were mainly isolated from cats with clinical signs of infection. All were MRSPs, regardless of cats’ health. These isolates were characterized with the most frequent antibiotic resistance at the phenotypic and genotypic level.

Diversity and Risk Factors Associated with Multidrug and Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococci Isolated from Cats Admitted to a Veterinary Clinic in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia

Understanding the distribution, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and risk factors associated with multidrug-resistant (MDR) and methicillin-resistant staphylococci (MRS) isolated from cats admitted to veterinary clinics may decrease the risk of MDR and MRS transmission to humans and other cats. As such, the objectives of this study were to investigate the diversity in Staphylococcus spp. recovered from different anatomical locations in healthy and diseased cats and to determine the occurrence of MDR and MRS spp. as well as possible risk factors associated with colonization in these cats. Five swabs were collected from the anus, skin, ear canal, conjunctival sac, and nares of each cat (209 healthy and 191 diseased) admitted to a veterinary clinic in Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, between January and December 2018. Prior to sample collection, cat owners completed a questionnaire collecting information on cat demographics, health status, management, and antimicrobial usage. In total, 179 Staphylococcus isolates were recovered from healthy (n = 71) and diseased (n = 108) cats, including 94 (52.5%) coagulase-positive staphylococci (CoPS), and 85 (47.5%) coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS). Five Staphylococcus spp. were identified, namely, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus pseudintermedius, Staphylococcus felis, Staphylococcus capitis, and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Staphylococcus isolates were most commonly resistant to penicillin (56.4%) and ciprofloxacin (25.7%); however, no isolate was resistant to clindamycin. Thirty (16.8%) Staphylococcus spp. (24 S. aureus and 6 S. pseudintermedius) isolates were MDR, with resistance to up to six different antibiotic classes. Only 17 (9.5%) Staphylococcus spp. (15 methicillin-resistant S. aureus and 2 methicillin-resistant S. pseudintermedius) harbored the mecA gene. Risk factor analysis showed that cats with a history of antibiotic therapy, those raised mainly indoors with a child, and those who visit a veterinary clinic for treatment were at higher risk of MDR and MRS colonization. In conclusion, MDR and MRS were common in healthy and diseased cats in Saudi Arabia. Thus, an effective antimicrobial stewardship program and further studies using a One Health approach are required to investigate the role of cats as vectors for AMR transmission to humans.

Virulence Factors in Coagulase-Negative Staphylococci

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) have emerged as major pathogens in healthcare-associated facilities, being S. epidermidis, S. haemolyticus and, more recently, S. lugdunensis, the most clinically relevant species. Despite being less virulent than the well-studied pathogen S. aureus, the number of CoNS strains sequenced is constantly increasing and, with that, the number of virulence factors identified in those strains. In this regard, biofilm formation is considered the most important. Besides virulence factors, the presence of several antibiotic-resistance genes identified in CoNS is worrisome and makes treatment very challenging. In this review, we analyzed the different aspects involved in CoNS virulence and their impact on health and food.

S. pseudintermedius and S. aureus lineages with transmission ability circulate as causative agents of infections in pets for years

Background

Staphylococcus pseudintermedius (SP) and Staphylococcus aureus (SA) are common colonizers of companion animals, but they are also considered opportunistic pathogens, causing diseases of diverse severity. This study focused on the identification and characterization of 33 coagulase-positive staphylococci isolated from diseased pets (28 dogs and five cats) during 2009–2011 in a veterinary hospital in Spain in order to stablish the circulating lineages and their antimicrobial resistance profile.

Results

Twenty-eight isolates were identified as SP and five as SA. Nine methicillin-resistant (MR) isolates (27%) carrying the mecA gene were detected (eight MRSP and one MRSA). The 55% of SP and SA isolates were multidrug-resistant (MDR). MRSP strains were typed as ST71-agrIII-SCCmecII/III-(PFGE) A (n=5), ST68-agrIV-SCCmecV-B1/B2 (n=2), and ST258-agrII-SCCmecIV-C (n=1). SP isolates showed resistance to the following antimicrobials [percentage of resistant isolates/resistance genes]: penicillin [82/blaZ], oxacillin [29/mecA] erythromycin/clindamycin [43/erm(B)], aminoglycosides [18–46/aacA-aphD, aphA3, aadE], tetracycline [71/tet(M), tet(K)], ciprofloxacin [29], chloramphenicol [29/cat_pC221], and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole [50/dfrG, dfrK]. The dfrK gene was revealed as part of the radC-integrated Tn559 in two SP isolates. Virulence genes detected among SP isolates were as follow [percentage of isolates]: siet [100], se-int [100], lukS/F-I [100], sec_canine [7], and expB [7]. The single MRSA-mecA detected was typed as t011-ST398/CC398-agrI-SCCmecV and was MDR. The methicillin-susceptible SA isolates were typed as t045-ST5/CC5 (n=2), t10576-ST1660 (n=1), and t005-ST22/CC22 (n=1); the t005-ST22 feline isolate was PVL-positive and the two t045-ST45 isolates were ascribed to Immune Evasion Cluster (IEC) type F. Moreover, the t10576-ST1660 isolate, of potential equine origin, harbored the lukPQ and scneq genes. According to animal clinical history and data records, several strains seem to have been acquired from different sources of the hospital environment, while some SA strains appeared to have a human origin.

Conclusions

The frequent detection of MR and MDR isolates among clinical SP and SA strains with noticeable virulence traits is of veterinary concern, implying limited treatment options available. This is the first description of MRSA-ST398 and MRSP-ST68 in pets in Spain, as well the first report of the dfrK-carrying Tn559 in SP. This evidences that current transmissible lineages with mobilizable resistomes have been circulating as causative agents of infections among pets for years.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-020-02726-4.

Determination of phylogenetic relationships among methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus recovered from infected humans and Companion Animals

Companion animals carry different microorganism of severely public health hazard for human; the kindness relation and contact between humans and companion animals may the route in the transmission of most zoonotic bacteria, including Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Therefore, the current study investigate the companion animals mainly dogs and cat as a reservoir for MRSA and the genetic similarity between the recovered strains of MRSA from such companion animals and their owners. One hundred swabs were collected under aseptic condition from companion animals and seventy swabs were collected from nasal and soft tissue of the infected owners in contact. All samples were examined with standard microbiological techniques, antimicrobial sensitivity, molecular typing and genetic finger printing using RAPD-PCR to determine the genetic finger printing of the recovered strains from humans and companion animals. The prevalence of the MRSA was higher in dog's swabs than human swabs. Dog swabs showed a rate of (44.4%), cat's revealed (27.3%), while the owner swabs could detect (42.8%). The antibiotics profiles were 69.2% and all MRSA strains were positive for mecA gene (100%), while only 25 strains (38.5%) were positive for Panton Valentine Leukocidin (PVL gene). Phylogenetic tree revealed 4 clusters with complete genetic relatedness and higher identity between the strains recovered from humans and companion animals. Our results revealed that there is great similarity between the recovered strains, indicating that pets play an important role in colonization and transmitting MRSA to humans, and vice versa.

Detection, molecular characterization, and antibiogram of multi-drug resistant and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolated from pets and pet owners in Malaysia

BACKGROUND

The emergence of multidrug-resistant strains such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MDRSA) in animals and humans with continuous contact are a great zoonotic concern.

AIMS

This cross-sectional study was performed to investigate the carriage rate, genotypic characteristics, and to determine the antibiogram of S. aureus isolated from pets and pet owners in Malaysia.

METHODS

Nasal and oral swab samples from 40 cats, 30 dogs, and 70 pet owners were collected through convenient sampling. Presumptive colonies on mannitol salt agar were subjected to biochemical identification. S. aureus and MRSA were confirmed by PCR detection of nuc and mecA genes, respectively. Molecular profiles for antimicrobial resistance and virulence genes in S. aureus were also determined. The antibiogram was carried out via Kirby-Bauer test using 18 antibiotics.

RESULTS

17.5% of cats, 20% of dogs, and 27% of pet owners were S. aureus positive. MRSA was also detected in dogs, and pet owners. S. aureus isolates displayed high resistance against penicillin (72.7%), and amoxicillin/clavulanate (66.7%). 39.4% of S. aureus isolates showed multidrug-resistance traits, phenotypically. Molecular characterization of S. aureus revealed the presence of mecA, tetk, tetL, ermA, ermB, ermC, msrA, scn, chp, sak, sep, and sea genes.

CONCLUSION

This study showed the emergence of MRSA and MDRSA in pets and pet owners in Malaysia. The antibiogram findings showed resistance of S. aureus to multiple antibiotics. Furthermore, molecular analysis of immune evasion cluster (IEC) strongly suggests the spread of animal-adapted S. aureus lineages among pets and pet owners.

Characterization of staphylococcal communities on healthy and allergic feline skin

BACKGROUND

Various Staphylococcus species have been demonstrated to play important roles on the skin, including causing disease and protecting the host from pathogens. Although culture-based studies have isolated various Staphylococcus spp. from feline skin, very little is known regarding the species-level communities on the host.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To describe the species-level staphylococcal communities inhabiting the skin of healthy cats and cats with allergic dermatitis.

ANIMALS

Skin swabs from the ear canal and groin of 11 healthy and 10 allergic (nonlesional) cats were obtained.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

DNA was extracted from the skin swabs and used for next-generation sequencing targeting the V1-3 region of the 16S rRNA gene. Following a standard microbiota analysis of the sequencing data, species-level assignment for the staphylococcal sequences were obtained using a staphylococci-specific database.

RESULTS

Staphylococcus spp. had similar relative abundance in healthy and allergic samples. The most abundant staphylococcal species were S. epidermidis in healthy samples, and S. felis and S. capitis in allergic samples. The composition of staphylococcal communities, as well as relative abundance of Staphylococcus spp., was variable between body sites and individual cats sampled.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These results demonstrate that diverse staphylococcal communities inhabit the skin of healthy and allergic cats, and provide a starting point for further research into the importance of Staphylococcus spp. in feline allergic skin disease.

Cross-sectional study of Staphyloccus lugdunensis prevalence in cats

Staphylococcus lugdunensis is a commensal bacterium in humans and other animals that can cause serious infections. The aim of this research was to estimate the frequency of S. lugdunensis in pet cats and to characterize the S. lugdunensis isolates obtained. The prevalence of S. lugdunensis was 0.77% (4/523) in healthy cats and 1.23% (1/81) in sick cats. The isolates (N = 5), which colonized conjunctival sacs, nares, and the anus, were almost fully phenotypically sensitive to antibiotics, but harbored resistance genes to four chemotherapeutic groups. Their sequence types (STs) included ST2, ST3, ST9, and ST15. There was detected a far lower prevalence of S. lugdunensis in pet cats than is reported in the human population. Nevertheless, the phenotypic and genotypic properties of S. lugdunensis isolates found in the current study were very similar to those described previously in isolates of human origin.

Food-derived coagulase-negative Staphylococcus as starter cultures for fermented foods

Food safety is of significant concern to consumers and is a major issue for the food industry. As such, the industry is aware of the importance of safety assessments of starters used in the production of fermented foods. Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CNS) are the predominant bacteria found in fermented foods worldwide. Because of this, food-derived CNS are used as starters for cheese and meat fermentation, and have been investigated for use as starters in soybean fermentation. Although food-derived CNS are generally considered non-pathogenic, their safety remains uncertain following the isolation of CNS from skin infections in humans and animals, and because they belong to the same genus as the highly pathogenic species Staphylococcus aureus. This review explores what is known about the safety of food-derived CNS, focusing on antibiotic resistance, enterotoxin genes, and biogenic amine production, to aid in the selection of starter candidates.

Staphylococcus nepalensis, a commensal of the oral microbiota of domestic cats, is a reservoir of transferrable antimicrobial resistance

Staphylococcus nepalensis is a commensal bacterium from the oral microbiota of domestic cats, with a still obscure clinical importance. In this work, we analysed the ability of feline strains of S. nepalensis to transfer antimicrobial resistance genes to Staphylococcus aureus isolated from humans through plasmids. To this end, we first analysed all publicly available genomes from cat staphylococci using computational methods to build a pan-resistome. Genes that encode resistance to erythromycin, gentamicin, mupirocin and tetracycline, common to human and cat staphylococci and previously described to be located in mobile genetic elements, were chosen for the next analyses. We studied 15 strains of S. nepalensis, which were shown to be genetically different by GTG₅-PCR. As observed by disc diffusion, resistance to tetracycline was widespread (80 %), followed by resistance to erythromycin (40 %), gentamicin (27 %) and mupirocin (7 %). The strains were positive for several antimicrobial resistance genes and more than half of them harboured plasmids. The loss of plasmids and resistance genes in some strains were induced by stress with SDS. Through conjugation experiments, we observed that these plasmids can be transferred to S. aureus, thus increasing its potential to resist drug therapy. Our findings show that S. nepalensis, an underestimated inhabitant of the cat microbiota, can be a reservoir of antimicrobial resistance genes for S. aureus and, like many other staphylococci, be an overlooked and silent threat to their animal hosts and humans living with them.

Pathogenetic role of Staphylococcus aureus in purulent keratoconjunctivitis in cats

The research was carried out in the Department of Surgery and Obstetrics of Agricultural Animals of Dnipro State Agrarian and Economic University on clinically healthy outbred cats of different ages with purulent keratoconjunctivitis. Hematological, biochemical and immunological parameters were determined in the animals, and microbiological and virological research was conducted on them. According to the data obtained, more than half of cases of ophthalmopathology in cats were conjunctivitis and keratoconjunctivitis, and they were more often registered in the cold season. The main causes of eye diseases in the cats were mechanical injuries, coccal and chlamydial infection, allergy and development of disease against the background of primary lesions of the ears and paranasal sinuses. Among the detected microorganisms, the vast majority (81.9%) were staphylococci, including S. albus, S. aureus and S. epidermidis. All types of microorganisms except O-forms of Bacillus sp. exhibited high and medium sensitivity to antibiotics. Immunoblotting revealed polypeptides that responded to specific S. aureus antigens in samples of conjunctiva, cornea, intraocular fluid, and blood of cats suffering from purulent (staphylococcal) keratoconjunctivitis. The highest antigen concentration was detected in the cornea and conjunctiva. In the absence of expressive shifts of the investigated hematological and biochemical parameters, the dynamics of immunological markers were shown by a significant increase in the content of immunoglobulins and circulating immune complexes, as well as by a distinct activation of the complement system by the classical route. The results showed a clear gradual activation of phagocytosis, namely: the number of phagocytic neutrophils increased, reaching its maximum value by the seventh day of development of purulent keratoconjunctivitis. The phagocytic index in the first three days of observation tended to decrease, and by the seventh day it had already significantly exceeded the initial value. Despite the ambiguous dynamics of the phagocytic index, in the course of the development of the inflammatory process in the blood of sick cats, we observed a clear increase in the index of complete phagocytosis. Thus, the development of purulent keratoconjunctivitis in cats occurs against the background of clear cellular and humoral responses to the infectious agent.