Adult body size and physical activity in relation to risk of breast cancer according to tumor androgen receptor status

Genetic Insights into Breast Cancer in Northeastern Mexico: Unveiling Gene-Environment Interactions and Their Links to Obesity and Metabolic Diseases

Background: Breast cancer (BC), one of the most common cancers, has increased in Mexico during the past decade, along with other chronic and metabolic diseases. Methods: Herein, we analyzed 121 SNPs (85 SNPs related to BC and/or glucose-associated metabolic pathways and 36 SNP classified as ancestry markers) in 92 confirmed BC cases and 126 unaffected BC women from Northeastern Mexico. The relationship of these 121 SNPs with BC, considering BMI, menopause status, and age as cofactors, was explored using a gene-environment (G × E) interaction multi-locus model. Results: Twelve gene variants were significantly associated with BC: three located in exome (rs3856806 PPARG, rs12792229 MMP8, and rs5218 KCNJ11-ABCC8), and nine in non-coding regions, which are involved in accelerated decay of the mRNA transcripts, regulatory regions, and flanking regions (rs3917542 PON1; rs3750804 and rs3750805 TCF7L2; rs1121980 and rs3751812 FTO; rs12946618 RPTOR; rs2833483 SCAF4; rs11652805 AMZ2P1-GNA13; and rs1800955 SCT-DEAF1-DRD4). Conclusions: This study identified an association between BC and menopause, age (above 45), obesity, and overweight status with gene variants implicated in diabetes mellitus, obesity, insulin resistance, inflammation, and remodeling of the extracellular matrix.

Body mass index and risk of cancer in young women

It is unclear how increasing body mass index (BMI) influences risk of cancer in young women. We used data from the Medical Birth, Patient and Cause of Death registers collected between 1982 and 2014 to determine the risk of obesity-related cancer types, breast cancer, all cancer and cancer-related death in relation to BMI in 1,386,725 women, aged between 18 and 45 years, in Sweden. During a median follow-up of 16.3 years (IQR 7.7-23.5), 9808 women developed cancer. The hazard ratio (HR) of endometrial and ovarian cancer increased with higher BMI from 1.08 (95% CI 0.93-1.24) and 1.08 (95% CI 0.96-1.21) among women with BMI 22.5-< 25 to 2.33 (95% CI 1.92-2.83) and 1.48 (95% CI 1.24-1.77), respectively, among women with BMI ≥ 30. There were linear and positive associations between BMI and incident cancer in the ovary, colon, endometrium, pancreas, rectum, gallbladder, esophageal cancer and renal cell carcinoma, as well as death from obesity-related cancer forms. In conclusion, we found that elevated BMI in young women linearly associated with several obesity-related cancer forms, including death from these cancers.

Cigarettes smoking and androgen receptor-positive breast cancer

OBJECTIVES

Cigarette smoking is related to higher levels of circulating androgens, but its association with androgen receptor (AR) status is still unaddressed.

METHODS

We analysed, with a case-only approach, smoking habits according to AR status in 112 cases of invasive female breast cancer, from the Piedmont Cancer Registry. We used a multivariate logistic regression model to estimate the odds ratio (OR) and the corresponding confidence interval (CI).

RESULTS

The OR of AR-positive breast cancer (versus AR-negative) for ever smokers (versus never) was 2.85 (95% CI 1.02-7.96).

CONCLUSION

Smoking is related to AR-positive breast cancer.

Obesity and Androgen Receptor Signaling: Associations and Potential Crosstalk in Breast Cancer Cells

Obesity is an increasing health challenge and is recognized as a breast cancer risk factor. Although obesity-related breast cancer mechanisms are not fully understood, this association has been linked to impaired hormone secretion by the dysfunctional obese adipose tissue (hyperplasic and hypertrophic adipocytes). Among these hormones, altered production of androgens and adipokines is observed, and both, are independently associated with breast cancer development. In this review, we describe and comment on the relationships reported between these factors and breast cancer, focusing on the biological associations that have helped to unveil the mechanisms by which signaling from androgens and adipokines modifies the behavior of mammary epithelial cells. Furthermore, we discuss the potential crosstalk between the two most abundant adipokines produced by the adipose tissue (adiponectin and leptin) and the androgen receptor, an emerging marker in breast cancer. The identification and understanding of interactions among adipokines and the androgen receptor in cancer cells are necessary to guide the development of new therapeutic approaches in order to prevent and cure obesity and breast cancer.

Bariatric Surgery is Associated With Reduced Risk of Breast Cancer in Both Premenopausal and Postmenopausal Women

OBJECTIVE

This retrospective cohort study examined whether bariatric surgery is associated with reduced risk of breast cancer among pre- and postmenopausal women.

BACKGROUND

Obesity is associated with increased risk of breast cancer, but the impact of weight loss on breast cancer risk has been difficult to quantify.

METHODS

The cohort included obese (body mass index ≥35 kg/m) patients enrolled in an integrated health care delivery system between 2005 and 2012 (with follow-up through 2014). Female bariatric surgery patients (N = 17,998) were matched on body mass index, age, study site, and comorbidity index to 53,889 women with no bariatric surgery. Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox proportional hazards models were used to examine incident breast cancer up to 10 years after bariatric surgery. Pre- and postmenopausal women were examined separately, and further classified by estrogen receptor (ER) status.

RESULTS

The analysis included 301 premenopausal and 399 postmenopausal breast cancer cases. In multivariable adjusted models, bariatric surgery was associated with a reduced risk of both premenopausal (HR = 0.72, 95% CI, 0.54-0.94) and postmenopausal (HR = 0.55, 95% CI, 0.42-0.72) breast cancer. Among premenopausal women, the effect of bariatric surgery was more pronounced among ER-negative cases (HR = 0.36, 95% CI, 0.16-0.79). Among postmenopausal women, the effect was more pronounced in ER-positive cases (HR = 0.52, 95% CI, 0.39-0.70).

CONCLUSIONS

Bariatric surgery was associated with a reduced risk of breast cancer among severely obese women. These findings have significant public health relevance because the prevalence of obesity continues to rise, and few modifiable breast cancer risk factors have been identified, especially for premenopausal women.

World Cancer Research Fund International: Continuous Update Project-systematic literature review and meta-analysis of observational cohort studies on physical activity, sedentary behavior, adiposity, and weight change and breast cancer risk

PURPOSE

The purpose of the present study was to systematically review the complex associations between energy balance-related factors and breast cancer risk, for which previous evidence has suggested different associations in the life course of women and by hormone receptor (HR) status of the tumor.

METHODS

Relevant publications on adulthood physical activity, sedentary behavior, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumferences, waist-to-hip ratio, and weight change and pre- and postmenopausal breast cancer risk were identified in PubMed up to 30 April 2017. Random-effects meta-analyses were conducted to summarize the relative risks across studies.

RESULTS

One hundred and twenty-six observational cohort studies comprising over 22,900 premenopausal and 103,000 postmenopausal breast cancer cases were meta-analyzed. Higher physical activity was inversely associated with both pre- and postmenopausal breast cancers, whereas increased sitting time was positively associated with postmenopausal breast cancer. Although higher early adult BMI (ages 18-30 years) was inversely associated with pre- and postmenopausal breast cancers, adult weight gain and greater body adiposity increased breast cancer risk in postmenopausal women, and the increased risk was evident for HR+ but not HR- breast cancers, and among never but not current users of postmenopausal hormones. The evidence was less consistent in premenopausal women. There were no associations with adult weight gain, inverse associations with adult BMI (study baseline) and hip circumference, and non-significant associations with waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio that were reverted to positive associations on average in studies accounting for BMI. No significant associations were observed for HR-defined premenopausal breast cancers.

CONCLUSION

Better understanding on the impact of these factors on pre- and postmenopausal breast cancers and their subtypes along the life course is needed.

Physical Activity and Risk of Breast Cancer: A Meta-Analysis of 38 Cohort Studies in 45 Study Reports

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate and quantify the association between physical activity (PA) and risk of breast cancer.

METHODS

A systematic review meta-analysis was conducted. The literature was independently and manually searched by 2 reviewers through 3 English databases (PubMed, Embase, and ISI Web of Science) for data till October 2017. The quality of included studies was assessed by the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale. Fixed-effects models were used to estimate the pooled relative risk and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Dose-response analysis was chosen for quantifying the association between PA and risk of breast cancer. The Begg test and the Egger test were used to estimate potential publication bias. Heterogeneity between studies was evaluated with I² statistics.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis included 38 cohort studies published between 1994 and 2017, which included 68 416 breast cancer cases. The overall relative risk (ORR) for breast cancer was 0.87 (95% CI 0.84-0.90). The inverse association was consistent among all subgroup analyses. In subgroup analysis by menopausal status, the ORR of breast cancer was 0.83 (95% CI 0.79-0.87) for premenopausal status and 0.91 (95% CI 0.85-0.97) for postmenopausal status. In subgroup analysis by PA type, the ORR for total activity was 0.87 (95% CI 0.81-0.93), for recreational activity 0.88 (95% CI 0.85-0.91), for occupational activity 0.91 (95% CI 0.84-0.99), and for nonoccupational activity 0.87 (95% CI 0.83-0.92). The risk of breast cancer was significantly lower in people with exposure periods longer than 1 year and less than 5 years (ORR 0.62; 95% CI 0.46-0.78), followed by those with lifetime activity (ORR 0.81; 95% CI 0.69-0.93). The ORR for subjects with body mass index of less than 25 kg/m² (0.88; 95% CI 0.83-0.93) was close to that for subjects with body mass index of more than 25 kg/m² (0.87; 95% CI 0.77-0.97). A linear relationship was found between breast cancer risk and PA (recreational activity and total activity), and the ORR was reduced by 3% (95% CI 0.95-0.99) for every 10 metabolic equivalent of energy hours per week increment in recreational PA and by 2% (95% CI 0.97-0.99) for every 10 metabolic equivalent of energy hours per week increment in total PA.

CONCLUSIONS

PA is significantly associated with a decrease in the risk of breast cancer.

The Divergent Function of Androgen Receptor in Breast Cancer; Analysis of Steroid Mediators and Tumor Intracrinology

Androgen receptor (AR) is the most widely expressed steroid receptor protein in normal breast tissue and is detectable in approximately 90% of primary breast cancers and 75% of metastatic lesions. However, the role of AR in breast cancer development and progression is mired in controversy with evidence suggesting it can either inhibit or promote breast tumorigenesis. Studies have shown it to antagonize estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) DNA binding, thereby preventing pro-proliferative gene transcription; whilst others have demonstrated AR to take on the mantle of a pseudo ERα particularly in the setting of triple negative breast cancer. Evidence for a potentiating role of AR in the development of endocrine resistant breast cancer has also been mounting with reports associating high AR expression with poor response to endocrine treatment. The resurgence of interest into the function of AR in breast cancer has resulted in various emergent clinical trials evaluating anti-AR therapy and selective androgen receptor modulators in the treatment of advanced breast cancer. Trials have reported varied response rates dependent upon subtype with overall clinical benefit rates of ~19-29% for anti-androgen monotherapy, suggesting that with enhanced patient stratification AR could prove efficacious as a breast cancer therapy. Androgens and AR have been reported to facilitate tumor stemness in some cancers; a process which may be mediated through genomic or non-genomic actions of the AR, with the latter mechanism being relatively unexplored in breast cancer. Steroidogenic ligands of the AR are produced in females by the gonads and as sex-steroid precursors secreted from the adrenal glands. These androgens provide an abundant reservoir from which all estrogens are subsequently synthesized and their levels are undiminished in the event of standard hormonal therapeutic intervention in breast cancer. Steroid levels are known to be altered by lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise; understanding their potential role in dictating the function of AR in breast cancer development could therefore have wide-ranging effects in prevention and treatment of this disease. This review will outline the endogenous biochemical drivers of both genomic and non-genomic AR activation and how these may be modulated by current hormonal therapies.

Androgen receptor expression in normal breast tissue and subsequent breast cancer risk

Sex steroid hormone signaling is critical in the development of breast cancers, although the role of the androgen receptor remains unclear. This study evaluated androgen receptor (AR) expression in normal breast tissue as a potential marker of breast cancer risk. We conducted a nested case-control study of women with benign breast disease (BBD) within the Nurses' Health Studies. Epithelial AR expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry in normal tissue from the BBD biopsy and the percent of positive nuclei was estimated in ordinal categories of 10% for 78 breast cancer cases and 276 controls. Logistic regression models adjusting for the matching factors and BBD lesion type were used to calculate odds ratios (ORs) for the association between AR expression (tertiles: ≤10%, 11-30%, and >30%) and breast cancer risk. AR expression in normal breast tissue was not associated with subsequent breast cancer risk (OR_T3vsT1 = 0.9, 95% CI = 0.4-1.8, p trend = 0.68). In comparison with low AR/low ER women, ORs of 0.4 (95% CI = 0.1-1.2) for high AR/high ER women, 1.8 (95% CI = 0.4-7.8) for low AR/high ER women, and 0.7 (95% CI = 0.3-1.6) for high AR/low ER women were observed (p interaction = 0.21). Ki67 did not modify the association between AR expression and breast cancer risk (p interaction = 0.75). There was little evidence for an overall association between AR expression in normal breast tissue and breast cancer risk. These findings did not show that the AR association varied by Ki67 expression in normal breast tissue, though there was suggestive heterogeneity by ER expression.

Laparoscopically Confirmed Endometriosis and Breast Cancer in the Nurses' Health Study II

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis and the risk of breast cancer. Previous research on endometriosis and breast cancer has reported mixed results.

METHODS

Our prospective cohort study included 116,430 women from the Nurses' Health Study II cohort followed from 1989 until 2013. Our primary analysis investigated the association between self-reported laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis and the risk of breast cancer. Breast cancer diagnosis was verified through medical records. Multivariable adjusted Cox proportional hazard models were used to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Breast cancer was further classified by menopausal status at the time of diagnosis and tumor hormone receptor status verified through tissue microarrays when available and medical records.

RESULTS

At baseline, 5,389 (5%) women reported laparoscopically confirmed endometriosis. Over 24 years of follow-up, 4,979 (3%) incident breast cancer cases were diagnosed. Women with endometriosis were not at higher risk for overall (adjusted HR 0.96, 95% CI 0.88-1.06), premenopausal (adjusted HR 1.05, 95% CI 0.89-1.23), or postmenopausal breast cancer (adjusted HR 0.93, 95% CI 0.80-1.07). However, associations varied by tumor hormone receptor status (P value, test for heterogeneity: .001), although women with endometriosis were not at increased risk of estrogen- and progesterone receptor-positive (ER+/PR+) tumors (adjusted HR 1.00, 95% CI 0.87-1.14) or ER- and PR- tumors (adjusted HR 0.90, 95% CI 0.67-1.21). Women with endometriosis reported 2.87 ER+/PR- breast cancer cases per 10,000 person-years compared with women without endometriosis (1.32/10,000 person-years), which resulted in nearly a twofold increased risk of ER+/PR- breast cancers (adjusted HR 1.90, 95% CI 1.44-2.50).

CONCLUSION

Endometriosis was not found to be associated with overall risk of breast cancer in this study; however, endometriosis was significantly associated with an increased risk of ER+/PR- breast tumors, which should be interpreted cautiously.

Association between BMI and gene expression of anti-Müllerian hormone and androgen receptor in human granulosa cells in women with and without polycystic ovary syndrome

BACKGROUND

Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is one of the most reliable markers of ovarian reserve. There is evidence which suggests that BMI may be associated with gene expression of AMH, AMH type II receptor (AMHR-II) and androgen receptor (AR) in human granulosa cells (GC) in women with and without polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the association between BMI and gene expression of AMH, AMHR-II and AR in human GC in women with and without PCOS.

DESIGN, PATIENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

In a cross-sectional study, hormonal profiles were measured among 38 patients with PCOS and 38 subjects without PCOS aged 18-40. AMH, AMHR-II and AR mRNA levels were quantified in cumulus GC. Pearson correlation and multiple linear regressions were used to assess the relationships.

RESULTS

Quantitative RT-PCR demonstrated that AMH and AMHR-II expression were negatively correlated with BMI (r = -0·39, P < 0·001 for AMH and r = -0·49, P < 0·001 for AMHR-II), whereas AR expression was positively correlated with BMI (r = 0·46, P < 0·001).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a negative association between AMH, AMHR-II expression and BMI, and a positive association between AR expression and BMI in the GC of PCOS and non-PCOS women.

Body fatness throughout the life course and the incidence of premenopausal breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The role of body fatness in the aetiology of breast cancer is complex. We evaluated the independent and synergistic effects of body fatness, at different stages throughout a woman's life course, on premenopausal breast cancer risk.

METHODS

Premenopausal participants of the Nurses' Health Study II (NHSII) were followed from 1991 up to 2009. Body fatness factors including birthweight, somatotype (a 9-level pictogram with level 1 being the leanest) at ages 5 and 10 years and body mass index (BMI) at age 18 were collected at baseline. Current BMI was updated biennially. Multivariate Cox regression models were used to evaluate the association between each body fatness factor as well as cross-classification of all factors and the incidence of breast cancer.

RESULTS

Based on 1574 incident premenopausal breast cancer cases and 1 133 893 person-years of follow-up, a lower incidence was associated with lower birthweight: hazard ratio (HR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 0.74 (0.58-0.95) for <2.5kg vs 3.9+kg, P for trend < 0.001; higher somatotype at age 5: HR=0.57 (95% CI 0.44-0.73) for 5-9 vs 1, P fortrend < 0.0001]; and at age 10: HR=0.61 (95% CI 0.49-0.75) for 5-9 vs 1, P for trend < 0.0001]; and BMI at age 18: HR=0.67 (95% 0.47-0.95) for ≥ 27.5 kg/m² vs < 18.5 kg/m², P for trend = 0.009], after adjusting for age and body fatness measures earlier in life and other risk factors, respectively. No significant interaction between body fatness measures was found. Women with the lowest birthweight, the highest somatotype at ages 5 and 10 and the highest BMI at age 18 and currently had a 72% (95% CI 54%-83%) lower incidence of invasive premenopausal breast cancer than women with the opposite extreme of each body fatness indicator.

CONCLUSION

The lowest incidence of premenopausal breast cancer was associated with the lowest birthweight and the highest childhood, adolescent and early adult body fatness.

Body mass index and risk of luminal, HER2-overexpressing, and triple negative breast cancer

Triple negative (TN, tumors that do not express estrogen receptor (ER), progesterone receptor (PR), or human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)) and HER2-overexpressing (H2E, ER-/HER2+) tumors are two particularly aggressive subtypes of breast cancer. There is a lack of knowledge regarding the etiologies of these cancers and in particular how anthropometric factors are related to risk. We conducted a population-based case-case study consisting of 2659 women aged 20-69 years diagnosed with invasive breast cancer from 2004 to 2012. Four case groups defined based on joint ER/PR/HER2 status were included: TN, H2E, luminal A (ER+/HER2-), and luminal B (ER+/HER2+). Polytomous logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (ORs) and associated 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) where luminal A patients served as the reference group. Obese premenopausal women [body mass index (BMI) ≥30 kg/m(2)] had an 82 % (95 % CI 1.32-2.51) increased risk of TN breast cancer compared to women whose BMI <25 kg/m(2), and those in the highest weight quartile (quartiles were categorized based on the distribution among luminal A patients) had a 79 % (95 % CI 1.23-2.64) increased risk of TN disease compared to those in the lowest quartile. Among postmenopausal women obesity was associated with reduced risks of both TN (OR = 0.74, 95 % CI 0.54-1.00) and H2E (OR = 0.47, 95 % CI 0.32-0.69) cancers. Our results suggest obesity has divergent impacts on risk of aggressive subtypes of breast cancer in premenopausal versus postmenopausal women, which may contribute to the higher incidence rates of TN cancers observed among younger African American and Hispanic women.

Obesity and Breast Cancer

The relationship between adiposity and breast cancer risk and prognosis is complex, with associations that differ depending on when body size is assessed (e.g., pre- vs. postmenopausal obesity) and when breast cancer is diagnosed (i.e., pre- vs. postmenopausal disease). Further, the impact of obesity on risk differs by tumor hormone receptor status (e.g., estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PR) receptor) and, among postmenopausal women, use of exogenous hormones (i.e., hormone replacement therapy (HRT)). In the context of these complexities, this review focuses on associations between childhood and adolescent adiposity, general adiposity, weight changes (i.e., loss and gain), abdominal adiposity, and breast cancer risk and survival. Finally, we discuss potential mechanisms linking adiposity to breast cancer.