Expression and Localization of Chromogranin A Gene and Protein in Human Submandibular Gland

Progress in salivary glands: Endocrine glands with immune functions

The production and secretion of saliva is an essential function of the salivary glands. Saliva is a complicated liquid with different functions, including moistening, digestion, mineralization, lubrication, and mucosal protection. This review focuses on the mechanism and neural regulation of salivary secretion, and saliva is secreted in response to various stimuli, including odor, taste, vision, and mastication. The chemical and physical properties of saliva change dynamically during physiological and pathophysiological processes. Moreover, the central nervous system modulates salivary secretion and function via various neurotransmitters and neuroreceptors. Smell, vision, and taste have been investigated for the connection between salivation and brain function. The immune and endocrine functions of the salivary glands have been explored recently. Salivary glands play an essential role in innate and adaptive immunity and protection. Various immune cells such as B cells, T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, as well as immunoglobins like IgA and IgG have been found in salivary glands. Evidence supports the synthesis of corticosterone, testosterone, and melatonin in salivary glands. Saliva contains many potential biomarkers derived from epithelial cells, gingival crevicular fluid, and serum. High level of matrix metalloproteinases and cytokines are potential markers for oral carcinoma, infectious disease in the oral cavity, and systemic disease. Further research is required to monitor and predict potential salivary biomarkers for health and disease in clinical practice and precision medicine.

Salivary cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, and chromogranin A levels in patients with gingivitis and periodontitis and a novel biomarker for psychological stress

Introduction

This study aimed to investigate the neuroendocrine responses based on cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), cortisol/DHEA ratio, and chromogranin A levels, which reflect the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, according to the presence or absence of psychological stress in patients with gingivitis and periodontitis compared to that in healthy controls.

Methods

In total, 117 patients (60 women, mean age: 36.29 ± 19.03 years) participated in this case-control study, comprising 32 healthy controls, 49 patients with gingivitis, and 36 patients with periodontitis. We investigated the presence of psychological stress and salivary characteristics, and analyzed the stress-related biomarkers of cortisol, DHEA, cortisol/DHEA ratio, and chromogranin A in the stimulated saliva.

Results

Salivary cortisol and chromogranin A levels increased with the severity of periodontal disease; their levels were the highest in the periodontitis group and were significantly higher in the following descending order: periodontitis, gingivitis, and healthy control groups (all values of p < 0.001). Additionally, the DHEA levels and cortisol/DHEA ratio were higher in the periodontitis group than those in the healthy control group (all values of p < 0.001). A multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that the factors predicting above-average cortisol levels were periodontitis (odds ratio [OR] = 256.829; p < 0.001), women (OR = 6.365; p = 0.004), and psychological stress (OR = 6.036; p = 0.007); those predicting above-average cortisol/DHEA ratios were periodontitis (OR = 11.436; p < 0.001), psychological stress (OR = 3.977; p = 0.003), and women (OR = 2.890; p = 0.026). Thus, periodontitis and psychological stress were significant and strong predictors of above-average cortisol levels and cortisol/DHEA ratios. In the gingivitis group, salivary cortisol levels (r = 0.381, p = 0.007) and cortisol/DHEA ratios (r = 0.479, p < 0.001) were correlated with the presence of psychological stress. In the periodontitis group, increased cortisol/DHEA ratios (r = 0.412, p = 0.013) and lowered salivary buffer capacities (r = -0.334, p = 0.047) were correlated with the presence of psychological stress.

Conclusion

Periodontitis is a multifactorial disease resulting in inflammatory tissue destruction, which differs from gingivitis and a healthy state. Differences in stress-related neuroendocrine markers were revealed based on the severity of periodontal disease. The biomarkers that could be classified according to disease severity were salivary cortisol and chromogranin A levels. Above-average cortisol levels and cortisol/DHEA ratios are significant predictors of psychological stress in patients with gingivitis and periodontitis.

Mental health and periodontal and peri-implant diseases

Mental health disorders, particularly depression and anxiety, affect a significant number of the global population. Several pathophysiological pathways for these disorders have been identified, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, autonomic nervous system, and the immune system. In addition, life events, environmental factors, and lifestyle affect the onset, progression, and recurrence of mental health disorders. These may all overlap with periodontal and/or peri-implant disease. Mental health disorders are associated with more severe periodontal disease and, in some cases, poorer healing outcomes to nonsurgical periodontal therapy. They can result in behavior modification, such as poor oral hygiene practices, tobacco smoking, and alcohol abuse, which are also risk factors for periodontal disease and, therefore, may have a contributory effect. Stress has immunomodulatory effects regulating immune cell numbers and function, as well as proinflammatory cytokine production. Stress markers such as cortisol and catecholamines may modulate periodontal bacterial growth and the expression of virulence factors. Stress and some mental health disorders are accompanied by a low-grade chronic inflammation that may be involved in their relationship with periodontal disease and vice versa. Although the gut microbiome interacting with the central nervous system (gut-brain axis) is thought to play a significant role in mental illness, less is understood about the role of the oral microbiome. The evidence for mental health disorders on implant outcomes is lacking, but may mainly be through behaviourial changes. Through lack of compliance withoral hygiene and maintenance visits, peri-implant health can be affected. Increased smoking and risk of periodontal disease may also affect implant outcomes. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors have been linked with higher implant failure. They have an anabolic effect on bone, reducing turnover, which could account for the increased loss.

Baseline states of mind differentially affected diurnal salivary stress biomarkers: A preliminary study

The study aimed to determine how different baseline states of mind in each day (relaxed, ordinary, or stressful) affected the diurnal patterns of three commonly investigated salivary stress biomarkers: cortisol (sCort), alpha-amylase (sAA), and chromogranin A (sCgA). A total of 32 healthy volunteers collected saliva on three different mood days at six time points each day (awakening, 30 min after, 10:00, 12:00, 16:00, and 19:00 h). Pulse rates and subjective feeling of stress using a visual analog scale (VAS) were also recorded. The levels of sCort and sAA were highest on a stressful day at certain time points. The levels of sAA were lowest on a relaxing day in the afternoon. Surprisingly, sCgA levels showed an opposite pattern with the highest level seen on a relaxing day. Of note was that the majority of the participants chose a day during a meditation retreat as their relaxing day and participants practicing mindfulness manifested lower levels of sCort (p = 0.003) and sAA (p = 0.043) at 19:00 h compared with those choosing a general leisure day as their relaxing day. Different states of mind were associated with different courses of salivary stress biomarkers. sCort and sAA are the most reliable markers showing the expected trend with higher levels on a stressful day and lower levels on a relaxing day. While the current result cast doubt on the use of sCgA as a stress marker since it was the only marker that showed the opposite trend compared with those of the other two markers as well as pulse rates and VAS. Furthermore, this is the first study to demonstrate that mindfulness practice might have different effects on these biomarkers from just a general relaxed state of mind.

Modulation of magnetoencephalography alpha band activity by radiofrequency electromagnetic field depicted in sensor and source space

Several studies reported changes in spontaneous electroencephalogram alpha band activity related to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields, but findings showed both an increase and a decrease of its spectral power or no effect. Here, we studied the alpha band modulation after 900 MHz mobile phone radiofrequency exposure and localized cortical regions involved in these changes, via a magnetoencephalography (MEG) protocol with healthy volunteers in a double-blind, randomized, counterbalanced crossover design. MEG was recorded during eyes open and eyes closed resting-state before and after radiofrequency exposure. Potential confounding factors, known to affect alpha band activity, were assessed as control parameters to limit bias. Entire alpha band, lower and upper alpha sub-bands MEG power spectral densities were estimated in sensor and source space. Biochemistry assays for salivary biomarkers of stress (cortisol, chromogranin-A, alpha amylase), heart rate variability analysis and high-performance liquid chromatography for salivary caffeine concentration were realized. Results in sensor and source space showed a significant modulation of MEG alpha band activity after the radiofrequency exposure, with different involved cortical regions in relation to the eyes condition, probably because of different attention level with open or closed eyes. None of the control parameters reported a statistically significant difference between experimental sessions.

Salivary stress markers in dogs: Potential markers of acute stress

Along with the growing awareness of psychological stress in companion animals, several treatments have become available to address fear- and anxiety-related behaviors in dogs. To detect vulnerable individuals and apply effective treatments, reliable evaluations that can quantify individual stress responses are in high demand. To develop measurable variables that have clinical applications, more investigations are needed to increase our knowledge. When stress responses are activated by the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes, the immune system is also activated. Although the peripheral cortisol level is commonly used as a stress biomarker, it primarily reflects the HPA axis response and does not sufficiently reflect the complexity of the stress response. Thus, this review primarily focuses on the available salivary biomarkers that mainly reflect the acute stress response through the activity of the SAM axis and the immune system in dogs. We hope that this review will promote the validation of these biomarkers in dogs and aid in the development of future studies to evaluate stress responses in dogs.

Salivary Chromogranin A (CgA) Response to the Noradrenaline Transporter Blocker Atomoxetine in Dogs

Since salivary chromogranin A (CgA) is one of the known sympathetic adrenomedullar system (SAM) stress markers in humans and pigs, this study aimed to investigate whether salivary CgA in dogs reflects SAM activation. Our hypothesis was that salivary CgA would increase when central noradrenaline was pharmacologically induced. A selective noradrenaline transporter blocker, atomoxetine, was orally administered without causing any aversive responses in nine laboratory dogs to see if it would increase salivary CgA. Three treatment groups (i.e., atomoxetine, placebo, and pre-administration of a selective alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonist (dexmedetomidine) followed by atomoxetine) were prepared with a randomized crossover design. Saliva sample collection, heart rate measurement and behavior observation were performed at Time 0 (baseline) and at 30, 60, 90 and 150 min after each treatment administration. The results demonstrated that salivary CgA significantly increased at 90 min in the atomoxetine treatment (p < 0.05), whereas it was not observed in the other two treatments. The present study showed that salivary CgA was increased by atomoxetine-induced SAM activation. However, this increase was blocked if dexmedetomidine was pre-administered. Overall, the results indicate that salivary CgA is a potential candidate for SAM-mediated stress markers in dogs. Further study to determine the dynamics of salivary CgA will be helpful in its practical use.

Differential responses of salivary cortisol, amylase, and chromogranin A to academic stress

Salivary biomarkers have been widely used to help diagnose stress, anxiety, and/or depression. This study aimed to compare the responses of three commonly investigated salivary stress biomarkers that represent the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity (cortisol; sCort) and the sympathetic activity (alpha-amylase; sAA and chromogranin A; sCgA), using academic oral presentation as a model of stress. Twenty postgraduate dental students attended the seminar class as presenter and audience. The presenters' performances were evaluated by the instructors suggesting more stress than the audience. The saliva was collected two times: before attending class and after an academic presentation (for presenters) or during the class (for audience). The pulse rates (PR) were also recorded. The results showed that the levels of all three biomarkers, as well as PR, were significantly higher in the presenter group compared with the audience group; however, the changes were most prominent with sCort and sAA (99.56 ± 12.76% for sCort, 93.48 ± 41.29% for sAA, 16.86 ± 6.42% for sCgA, and 15.06 ± 3.41% for PR). When compared between pre-post presentation, the levels of sCgA were not different, while those of sCort and sAA were significantly increased. These results suggest more sensitive reactivity to academic stress of sCort and sAA compared with sCgA and that the response of sCgA did not necessarily follow sAA pattern even though both are claimed to reflect the sympathetic activity. More studies are needed to elucidate the roles of sCgA in stress.

The associations between anxiety/depression and plasma chromogranin A among healthy workers: Results from EHOP study

Objectives

Chromogranin A (CgA) is regarded as an indicator of sympathetic tone and adrenomedullary system activity. Catestatin is one of CgA‐derived fragments through proteolytic processing. Many studies have confirmed the correlation between anxiety/depression and the salivary CgA level. The study was to investigate the associations between anxiety/depression and plasma CgA/catestatin levels in healthy workers without cardiovascular disease.

Methods

The study included 263 healthy workers (175 men and 88 women). The symptoms of anxiety and depression were measured with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS). Plasma CgA and catestatin levels were measured by ELISA kits.

Results

In bivariate correlation analysis, anxiety and depression were positively associated with plasma CgA level, respectively (r = 0.298, P < .001; r = 0.304, P < .001), but not significantly associated with plasma catestatin level.

The anxiety group had significantly higher plasma CgA level than that in the no‐anxiety group (median 158.60 vs 70.90, P < .001). The similar results were found for depression scales. The depression group had significantly higher plasma CgA level (median 145.60 vs 82.40, P < .001).

In the multiple linear regression model, after adjusting for age, gender, and BMI, anxiety was positively correlated with plasma CgA level (β = 0.359, P < .001), while anxiety was negatively correlated with plasma catestatin level (β = −0.128, P = .044), depression was also positively correlated with plasma CgA level (β = 0.343, P < .001).

Conclusions

Plasma CgA was associated with anxiety and depression in healthy workers. It can be considered as the blood indicator for the evaluation of anxiety and depression.

Endocrinological effect of lavender aromatherapy on stressful visual stimuli

Introduction

Aromatherapy is prominent in complementary and alternative medicine. Little endocrinological evidence, however, of the effects of aromatherapy has yet been presented. We used salivary stress marker chromogranin A (CgA) to examine the effects of lavender aroma on women watching a stressful video.

Methods

Healthy female university students (n = 23) aged 20-22 years old were randomly assigned to two groups: an aroma group exposed to lavender and an unexposed control group. Both groups watched a stressful video for 10 min. During the protocol, the aroma group was exposed to lavender aroma. Samples of salivary chromogranin A (CgA) were collected immediately before and after watching the video, and at 5 and 10 min after that.

Results

In the aroma group, the levels of CgA statistically significantly decreased throughout the experimental period. In the control group, there was no such change.

Conclusion

The findings suggest that lavender aroma may reduce the stress effects of watching a stressful video.

Assessment of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in healthy young volunteers using salivary stress biomarkers

Aim:

We performed a stress assessment of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV) using the salivary biomarkers chromogranin A.

Materials & methods:

Twenty healthy volunteers were subjected to NPPV for 30 min. We collected saliva samples before and after NPPV and evaluated chromogranin A.

Results:

We collected saliva samples from 13 volunteers for enzyme measurement. Of the 13 volunteers, 11 showed elevated chromogranin A levels, which were significantly higher after NPPV than before NPPV (p < 0.01). The chromogranin A increase group displayed significantly increased leak flow and reduced respiratory rate and absolute humidity compared with the chromogranin A reduction group.

Conclusion:

The increase of leak volume might be a stress factor in patients receiving NPPV.

Salivary biomarkers are attractive as they are noninvasive and convenient. Noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NPPV), the delivery of mechanical ventilation to those with respiratory failure, can have complications resulting in stress to the patient. Here, we evaluated stress-related salivary biomarkers during NPPV in healthy individuals. Our results suggest that NPPV might increase stress levels and that humidity and leak volume affected stress.

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is related to stress and chewing in saliva and salivary glands

Chewing is one of the most important orofacial functions. During this process, food is reduced in size, while saliva moistens the food and binds it into a bolus that can be easily swallowed. Characteristics of the oral system, including the number of teeth, bite force, and salivary flow, influence the masticatory process. In addition, salivary glands produce several cell growth factors and play an important role in human health. The nerve growth factor (NGF) family consists of NGF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and neurotrophins-3 to 7. BDNF is a well-studied neurotrophin involved in the neurogenesis, differentiation, and maintenance of select peripheral and central neuronal cell populations during development and adulthood. However, there has been no detailed description of the expression of neurotrophins other than NGF in the salivary gland. We previously studied the effect of immobilization stress + chewing on BDNF secretion and its receptor, tyrosine receptor kinase B, in rat submandibular glands and found increased BDNF expression in duct cells under these conditions. In this review, we describe recent advances in understanding the role of stress and chewing-related BDNF in the saliva and salivary glands.

From Mouth to Brain: Neuroendocrine Markers Play as a Crosstalk Among Oral and Neurodegenerative Diseases

The neuroendocrine system consists of various cells distributed in non-endocrine functional structures, able to synthesize amines and peptides with both local (paracrine) and systemic (endocrine) effects. The presence of such cells, belonging to the neuroendocrine system, is highlighted by the presence of neuroendocrine markers: the most suggestive are chromogranin A, synaptophysin, S-100B protein and glial fibrillary acidic protein. The presence of neuroendocrine markers is commonly associated to the occurrence of neuroendocrine cancers, currently representing the 0.5 percent of all malignant tumors. Nevertheless, neuroendocrine markers have been found to be overexpressed in rare oral neuroendocrine tumors, but also in quite common inflammatory conditions, such as severe periodontitis. The monitoring of neuroendocrine markers is, thus, a common factor of interest among dentistry and neurology: the analysis of neuroendocrine markers in oral diseases may be predictive and prognostic about the severity of neurological diseases, such as lateral amyotrophic sclerosis and traumatic brain injuries. The aim of this mini-review is to highlight the role of neuroendocrine molecules as advantageous diagnostic and prognostic markers for both oral diseases and neurodegenerative disorders.

Inhalation of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) wood odor causes psychological relaxation after monotonous work among female participants

Essential oils have potential to mitigate stress symptoms and treat symptoms related to mental health. Few studies have investigated the effects of wood-derived aromatics on endocrinological and psychological responses in an actual space. In this study, we evaluated the effects of essential oil derived from Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) wood on the recovery state of female participants after they performed monotonous work. We determined the levels of salivary stress markers to describe the endocrinological responses. And we also used questionnaires to assess the perception of the odor of experimental rooms and psychological states. We found that olfactory stimulation with the volatile compounds of essential oil derived from Japanese cedar wood modulates mood states, and may transiently decrease sympathetic nervous activity. We suggest that olfactory stimulation with the volatile compounds of essential oil derived from Japanese cedar wood could be useful for maintaining mental health among women.

Hormonal and metabolic indicators before and after farrowing in sows affected with postpartum dysgalactia syndrome

BACKGROUND

Postpartum dysgalactia syndrome (PDS) in sows is difficult to diagnose and the pathogenesis is obscure. Hormonal changes related to the disease are often difficult to distinguish from those found in the normal transition period from gestation to lactation. The study aimed to investigate metabolic and hormonal changes related to PDS with the goal of identifying potential biomarkers in sows suffering from PDS (PDS+). Selected biomarkers were examined by comparing 38 PDS+ sows with 38 PDS negative (PDS-) sows. The sows were sampled every 24 h from 60 h ante partum (a.p.) to 36 h post partum (p.p.).

RESULTS

Compared to the baseline (60 to 36 h a.p.), cortisol in serum and saliva and fasting blood glucose concentrations increased in PDS+ as well as PDS- sows. C-peptide decreased relative to the baseline in PDS+ sows, and prolactin and 8-epi prostaglandin F2 alpha (8-epi-PGF2α) decreased in PDS- sows. Concentrations of cortisol in serum and saliva, salivary chromogranin A (CgA), fasting blood glucose, C-peptide, and 8-epi-PGF2α differed significantly between PDS+ and PDS- sows, with levels of cortisol in serum and saliva, salivary CgA, and 8-epi-PGF2α in serum being different in the two groups already before parturition. Concentrations of salivary CgA were significantly lower in PDS- sows than in PDS+ sows during the entire study period.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that salivary CgA, cortisol and serum 8-epi-PGF2α may potentially serve as early diagnostic indicators for PDS. The consistently higher salivary CgA concentration in PDS+ sows compared to PDS- sows may indicate that homeostatic disturbances are present between 36 to 60 h before parturition in sows developing PDS. The higher serum and saliva cortisol concentration in PDS+ sows compared to PDS- sows could reflect an early sign of inflammation or stress. The significantly lower C-peptide in PDS+ sows compared to PDS- sows may reflect a lower food intake. Our results contribute to the understanding of the pathogenesis of PDS, and the homeostatic disturbances detected before parturition warrants further investigation. The diagnostic potential of the markers identified in this study should be investigated further in a larger population of sows.

Pain in labor assessed from two discomfort aspects: Physical pain intensity and psychological stress state

AIM

To assess two discomfort aspects of pain in labor, physical pain intensity and psychological stress state, we analyzed the association between the two parameters.

METHODS

Twenty-nine pregnant Japanese women with a singleton in 37-40 weeks of gestation were analyzed. Physical pain intensity was examined by the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS). Psychological stress state was measured by chromogranin A (CgA) in saliva. Data were collected thrice during labor (at 4-6 cm and 10 cm of cervical dilatation and immediately after delivery) and were accumulated from 4-6 cm and 10 cm of cervical dilatation. The study was approved by the Ethics Committees of Osaka University and Tokyo Women's Medical University.

RESULTS

The median NRS score (10, IQR = 10-18) and the median CgA in saliva (8.0, IQR = 4.3-12.0) pmol/mg at 10 cm of cervical dilatation were significantly higher than those at the other two time points (P < 0.05). Although there were no correlations between NRS scores and concentrations of CgA in saliva at the three time points, there was a significant correlation between accumulated NRS and accumulated CgA in saliva (r = 0.68, P = 0.000). There was a significant difference in the accumulated NRS scores (P = 0.005) but not in the accumulated concentrations of CgA between primiparae and multiparae.

CONCLUSION

Women in labor perceived severe pain and psychological stress with similar patterns during labor. However, these parameters were independent and need to be measured to evaluate these two discomfort aspects.

Gender differences in the psychophysiological effects induced by VOCs emitted from Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica)

Background

Wood is a valuable material for interiors, and the psychophysiological relaxation effects of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from wood chips and essential oils have been reported. However, few studies have identified the odors in full-scale wooden environment, and also, differences in gender have not been clarified. In this study, we aimed to confirm the effects of VOCs emitted from interior wood walls in both human male and female participants.

Methods

We used Japanese cedar timber and analyzed VOCs in the experimental rooms with and without Japanese cedar timber by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The physiological effects were measured using neuroendocrinological and immunological parameters in saliva. A questionnaire was used to evaluate the subjective responses to each odor in the experimental rooms.

Results

The main compound emitted from Japanese cedar timber was δ-cadinene, and the total volume of VOCs in the wood condition (presence of VOCs emitted from Japanese cedar) was 282.4 (μg/m³). Significant differences between genders in salivary parameters were shown that there were decreases of α-amylase in wood condition and increases of cortisol in the control (absence of VOCs) condition in female participants compared to male participants. The results demonstrated that VOCs in the experimental room with Japanese cedar timber tend to suppress the activation of the sympathetic nervous activity and non-VOCs of Japanese cedar in the control room increase cortisol in female participants.

Conclusions

These results suggest that an indoor environment with wood interior materials has the potential to be useful for health management, especially women’s health.

Homeostatic effect of laughter on diabetic cardiovascular complications: The myth turned to fact

AIMS

Laughter has been used for centuries to alleviate pain in morbid conditions. It was not until 1976 that scientists thought about laughter as a form of therapy that can modulate hormonal and immunological parameters that affect the outcome of many serious diseases. Moreover, laughter therapy was shown to be beneficial in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) by delaying the onset of many diabetic complications. Laughter is also described to influence the cardiovascular and endothelial functions and thus may protect against diabetic cardiovascular complications. In this review, we outline the different biochemical, physiological and immunological mechanisms by which laughter may influence the overall state of wellbeing and enhance disease prognosis. We also focus on the biological link between laughter therapy and diabetic cardiovascular complications as well as the underlying mechanisms involved in T2DM.

METHODS

Reviewing all the essential databases for "laughter" and "type 2 diabetes mellitus".

RESULTS

Although laughter therapy is still poorly investigated, recent studies show that laughter may retard the onset of diabetic complications, enhance cardiovascular functions and rectify homeostatic abnormalities associated with T2DM.

CONCLUSIONS

Laughter therapy is effective in delaying diabetic complications and should be used as an adjuvant therapy.

Catestatin, vasostatin, cortisol, and visual analog scale scoring for stress assessment in healthy dogs

The neuroendocrine glycoprotein chromogranin A is a useful biomarker for stress in humans. Chromogranin A epitopes catestatin and vasostatin can be measured in dogs using radioimmunoassays. The objective of this study was to evaluate catestatin and vasostatin as canine stress biomarkers in a clinical setting. Blood and saliva were collected from 33 healthy dogs that were familiar with sampling procedures and the animal hospital environment (control group) and 30 healthy dogs that were unacquainted (stress group). During sampling, stress behavior was scored by the same observer using visual analog scale (VAS). Plasma was analyzed for catestatin and vasostatin, serum for cortisol, and saliva for catestatin. Differences between groups were analyzed using two-sample t-tests and P<0.05 was considered significant. Stress behavior VAS score in the control group was significantly lower than in the stress group during blood (P=0.002) and saliva (P=0.0009) sampling. Serum cortisol and saliva catestatin concentrations in the stress group were higher than the control group (P=0.003 and P<0.0001, respectively). Serum cortisol concentrations were correlated with those of saliva (r=0.34, P=0.04) and plasma catestatin (r=0.29, P=0.03). Plasma catestatin and vasostatin did not differ significantly between groups. In conclusion, concentrations of saliva catestatin, and serum cortisol, and stress behavior VAS scores were significantly higher in the stress group. The results indicate that saliva catestatin may be useful as a biomarker for acute psychological stress in dogs.

Salivary Gland Derived BDNF Overexpression in Mice Exerts an Anxiolytic Effect

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is abundant in the hippocampus and plays critical roles in memory and synapse formation, as well as exerting antidepressant-like effects in psychiatric disorders. We previously reported that BDNF is expressed in salivary glands and affects blood BDNF content. However, the function of salivary BDNF remains unclear. The aim of this study was to generate transgenic mice overexpressing BDNF in the salivary glands. Hence, we used the Lama construct (hemagglutinin (HA)-tagged mouse Bdnf cDNA) to specifically express BDNF in mouse salivary glands. Compared with control mice, Bdnf-HA transgenic mice showed increased blood BDNF and expressed salivary BDNF-HA. Molecular analysis revealed enhanced hippocampal BDNF levels and activation of the BDNF receptor, tyrosine kinase B (TrkB), in transgenic mice. In both the open field and elevated-plus maze tests, transgenic mice showed anxiolytic-like behavioral effects compared with control or sialoadenectomized mice. Among downstream components of the BDNF-TrkB signaling pathway, metabolic activation of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synthetic pathway was found, including higher levels of the GABA synthetic enzyme, glutamate decarboxylase 1 (GAD1). Thus, we have established a transgenic mouse expressing BDNF in the parotid gland that may be useful to examine the hippocampal effects of salivary BDNF.

Short communication: Salivary haptoglobin and chromogranin A as non-invasive markers during restraint stress in pigs

The objective of present study was to investigate changes in salivary components during restraint to identify potential markers of stress. Pigs were subjected to a nasal snare stress (Experiment 1) or an immobilization stress (Experiment 2) by being enclosed in a steel cage. Saliva was collected before, during and after the stress, respectively. Salivary cortisol, serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (HP), chromogranin A (CgA), amylase, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and lactoferrin content were detected. The results showed that in Experiment 1, HP and CgA content increased significantly at 10min during the restraint (P<0.05, P<0.05), in agreement with the significantly increased cortisol and SAA levels (P<0.01, P<0.05), while amylase, K⁺ and lactoferrin concentrations did not significantly change. In Experiment 2, salivary HP and CgA concentrations also changed significantly during the restraint (P<0.01, P<0.01), yet cortisol, SAA, amylase, K⁺ and lactoferrin levels did not show obvious change. The results confirmed that salivary HP and CgA content may be useful candidate biomarkers to monitor the physical state in pigs during stress.

Catestatin and vasostatin concentrations in healthy dogs

Background

The neuroendocrine glycoprotein chromogranin A is a useful biomarker in humans for neuroendocrine tumors and stress. Chromogranin A can be measured in both blood and saliva. The objective of this study was to investigate concentrations of and correlation between the chromogranin A epitopes catestatin and vasostatin in healthy dogs accustomed to the sample collection procedures. Blood and saliva samples were collected from 10 research Beagle dogs twice daily for 5 consecutive days, and from 33 privately-owned blood donor dogs in association with 50 different blood donation occasions. All dogs were familiar with sample collection procedures. During each sampling, stress behavior was scored by the same observer using a visual analog scale (VAS) and serum cortisol concentrations. Catestatin and vasostatin were analyzed using radioimmunoassays for dogs.

Results

The dogs showed minimal stress behavior during both saliva sampling and blood sampling as monitored by VAS scores and serum cortisol concentrations. Few and insufficient saliva volumes were obtained and therefore only catestatin could be analyzed. Catestatin concentrations differed significantly and did not correlate significantly with vasostatin concentrations (P < 0.0001). Age, gender, breed, and time of sample collection did not significantly affect concentrations of plasma catestatin, vasostatin, and saliva catestatin.

Conclusions

The normal ranges of plasma catestatin (0.53–0.98 nmol/l), vasostatin (0.11–1.30 nmol/l), and saliva catestatin (0.31–1.03 nmol/l) concentrations in healthy dogs accustomed to the sampling procedures were determined. Separate interpretation of the different chromogranin A epitopes from either saliva or plasma is recommended.

Effect of environmental enrichment and herbal compound supplementation on physiological stress indicators (chromogranin A, cortisol and tumour necrosis factor-α) in growing pigs

Stress response induces physiological, behavioural, immunological and biochemical changes that directly affect health and well-being. Provision of environmental enrichment and herbal compounds may reduce stress in current commercial pig husbandry systems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of providing different environmental enrichment materials (EE) and a herbal compound (HC) on physiological indicators of acute and chronic stress in growing pigs (salivary cortisol and chromogranin A (CgA), hair cortisol and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)). Salivary cortisol and CgA have been reported as biomarkers basically of acute stress, whereas hair cortisol and TNF-α have been more related to chronic stress. For this purpose, eight groups of seven pigs each (14 pigs/treatment, 56 pigs in total) were used: (a) two EE groups, (b) two groups supplemented with HC, (c) two groups provided both with EE and HC and (d) two control groups. Samples of hair, saliva and blood were taken to measure cortisol (in hair and saliva), CgA (in saliva) and TNF-α (in blood) at three different times: before starting the experiment (T0), and after 1 (T1) or 2 months (T2) of providing the materials and herbal compound. No differences were found at T0 in salivary or hair cortisol, CgA or TNF-α, whilst at T2, the control group showed significant increased concentrations of CgA and hair cortisol, when compared with the rest of the treatments (P<0.001). These differences were significant at T1 only for CgA (P<0.001). Furthermore, an overall correlation was reported between hair cortisol and salivary CgA (r=0.48, P<0.001). These results support that providing enrichment material or an herbal compound may reduce stress in growing pigs. Furthermore, the results support that hair cortisol and CgA may be proper non-invasive tools to detect stress, specially associated with factors of chronic exposure.

Causes, consequences and biomarkers of stress in swine: an update

BACKGROUND

In recent decades there has been a growing concern about animal stress on intensive pig farms due to the undesirable consequences that stress produces in the normal physiology of pigs and its effects on their welfare and general productive performance. This review analyses the most important types of stress (social, environmental, metabolic, immunological and due to human handling), and their biological consequences for pigs. The physio-pathological changes associated with stress are described, as well as the negative effects of stress on pig production. In addition an update of the different biomarkers used for the evaluation of stress is provided. These biomarkers can be classified into four groups according to the physiological system or axis evaluated: sympathetic nervous system, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and immune system.

CONCLUSIONS

Stress it is a process with multifactorial causes and produces an organic response that generates negative effects on animal health and production. Ideally, a panel of various biomarkers should be used to assess and evaluate the stress resulting from diverse causes and the different physiological systems involved in the stress response. We hope that this review will increase the understanding of the stress process, contribute to a better control and reduction of potential stressful stimuli in pigs and, finally, encourage future studies and developments to better monitor, detect and manage stress on pig farms.

Stress Biomarkers, Mood States, and Sleep during a Major Competition: "Success" and "Failure" Athlete's Profile of High-Level Swimmers

The aim of this study was to evaluate stress markers, mood states, and sleep indicators in high-level swimmers during a major 7-days competition according to the outcomes. Nine swimmers [six men and three women (age: 22 ± 2 and 22 ± 4 years, respectively)] were examined. Before (PRE) and after (POST) each race (series, semi-finals, and finals), salivary concentrations of cortisol, α-amylase (sAA), and chromogranin-A (CgA) were determined. Mood states were assessed by the profile of mood state (POMS) questionnaire completed before and after the 7-days, and self-reported sleep diaries were completed daily. In the “failure” group, cortisol and sAA significantly increased between PRE-POST measurements (p < 0.05), while sCgA was not changed. Significant overall decrease of cortisol (-52.6%) and increase of sAA (+68.7%) was shown in the “failure group.” In this group, fatigue, confusion and depression scores, and sleep duration before the finals increased. The results in the “success” group show tendencies for increased cortisol and sCgA concentrations in response to competition, while sAA was not changed. Cortisol levels before the semi-finals and finals and sCgA levels before the finals were positively correlated to the fatigue score in the “failure” group only (r = 0.89). sAA levels before and after the semi-finals were negatively correlated to sleep duration measured in the subsequent night (r = −0.90). In conclusion, the stress of the competition could trigger a negative mood profile and sleep disturbance which correspond to different responses of biomarkers related to the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity, cortisol, sAA, and CgA.

Salivary function impairment in type 2 Diabetes patients associated with concentration and genetic polymorphisms of chromogranin A

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) on salivary function impairments according to glycemic control status and subsequently compare the concentration of chromogranin A (CHGA) with its genetic profile.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty-six patients with controlled T2DM, 36 with poorly controlled T2DM, and 38 nondiabetic subjects underwent salivary flow rate measurements by means of unstimulated labial (ULS), unstimulated whole (UWS), and stimulated whole saliva (SWS) collections. CHGA concentrations were determined in saliva and plasma with ELISA, and two CHGA polymorphisms (T-415C and Glu264Asp) were analyzed by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism.

RESULTS

T2DM patients presented significantly lower ULS and UWS flow rates regardless of glycemic control status compared to controls (P = 0.002 and P = 0.027, respectively). The SWS flow rate in the poorly controlled T2DM was the lowest among the groups (P = 0.026). Significantly higher plasma and salivary CHGA levels were found in T2DM groups (P = 0.019 and P < 0.001, respectively). CHGA gene variants (T-415C and Glu264Asp) revealed significant differences between diabetics and control subjects when associated with lower salivary flow and higher salivary CHGA production (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

T2DM causes abnormalities in the function of salivary glands. However, poorly controlled T2DM has the most influence on SWS flow rates. Our findings indicate an association between plasma and salivary CHGA levels and T2DM patients. Furthermore, the results suggest that CGHA polymorphisms might be associated with salivary gland hypofunction and higher salivary CHGA production in T2DM patients. Nevertheless, further epidemiological studies are required to elucidate this clinical implication.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Salivary impairments and high levels of CHGA are associated with T2DM patients. In addition, CGHA polymorphisms might be associated with salivary gland hypofunction and higher salivary CHGA production in T2DM patients. This could be a significant insight to establish a role for salivary CHGA as a potential clinical biomarker to T2DM.

Impact of glycemic control on oral health status in type 2 diabetes individuals and its association with salivary and plasma levels of chromogranin A

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the effect of glycemic control status in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) individuals on clinical oral health indicators and to compare the concentrations of plasma and salivary chromogranin A (CHGA) among nondiabetic subjects and T2DM patients, exploring their associations.

DESIGN

In this cross-sectional study, 32 patients with controlled T2DM, 31 with poorly controlled T2DM and 37 nondiabetic subjects underwent a clinical and periodontal examination. CHGA concentrations were determined in saliva and plasma with ELISA.

RESULTS

Poorly controlled T2DM group exhibited significantly higher mean buffering capacity, plaque index and bleeding on probing than other groups (P<0.05). No difference was found to DMFT (decayed, missed and filled teeth) index between groups. Sites with clinical attachment loss (CAL) of 4 and 5-6mm were significantly higher in both diabetic groups compared to control group (P<0.05). Poorly controlled T2DM group had significantly higher sites with CAL ≥ 7 mm than other groups (P=0.001). Significantly higher plasma and salivary CHGA levels were found in T2DM groups (P<0.05). In both diabetic groups, probing depths 5-6mm and CAL 5-6mm were associated with higher salivary CHGA concentration (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The findings revealed that T2DM patients were more prone to periodontal tissue damage than to caries risk. The results also provide some evidence that the degree of attachment loss deteriorates significantly with poor glycemic control in T2DM (CAL ≥ 7 mm). Moreover, the results suggest that high concentrations of salivary CHGA are associated with worse periodontal parameters and T2DM, and this could be related to the pathogenesis of both diseases.

Structure of the secretory cells of male and female adult guinea pigs Harderian gland

The main objective of this study was to investigate the structure of the Harderian gland (HG) in male and female guinea pigs. A total number of sixteen animals of 4 months age were divided according to sex into two groups; eight animals each. Unfixed glands were weighed and their length and width were measured. Specimens from fixed glands were processed and examined using light, transmission electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry for the detection of the presence of chromogranin A (CgA). The gland consisted of a well-developed duct system which included both intra and extra parenchymal ducts and secretory end pieces lined by many types of cells of variable morphological features and modes of secretion. However, the holocrine mode of secretion was rare as mitotic figures were occasionally present. The interstitial cells included fibroblasts and immune cells (mast cells, lymphocyte, plasma cells and macrophages). The secretion produced by the gland included lipid, protein, neutral mucin and CgA which may be a newly identified constituent of biologically potent proteins stored in the cells of the guinea pig HG. Neutral mucin and CgA may function in photoprotection. The gland revealed sexual dimorphism in mast cells and blood capillaries number and chromogranin secretory activity.

Levels of the antimicrobial proteins lactoferrin and chromogranin in the saliva of individuals with oral dryness

STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Many individuals in an aging society experience oral dryness. Maintaining the flow of saliva and the presence of antimicrobial substances is important to maintain oral health. The inhibition of the secretion of antimicrobial substances could lead to oral dryness.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial substances lactoferrin and chromogranin A in the saliva of elderly individuals with oral dryness.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study included 25 controls and 28 participants with subjective oral dryness. The levels of lactoferrin and chromogranin A were determined in unstimulated whole saliva with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. The differences in secretion of lactoferrin and chromogranin A between the controls and the participants with oral dryness were analyzed with the Mann-Whitney U test (α=.05).

RESULTS

The flow rate of lactoferrin and chromogranin A was lower in the group of participants with oral dryness (lactoferrin, 7.43 ±7.08 ng/min; chromogranin A, 0.24 ±0.24 ng/min) than in the control group (lactoferrin, 21.52 ±7.67 ng/min; chromogranin A, 0.97 ±0.69 ng/min) (P<.01). The ratio of both antimicrobial proteins to total protein was also lower in participants with oral dryness than in the controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study indicated that the levels of lactoferrin and chromogranin A were lower in those with oral dryness. A reduction in the secretion of these antimicrobial substances may be associated with oral dryness.

Different stressors elicit different responses in the salivary biomarkers cortisol, haptoglobin, and chromogranin A in pigs

Most commonly, salivary cortisol is used in pig stress assessment, alternative salivary biomarkers are scarcely studied. Here, salivary cortisol and two alternative salivary biomarkers, haptoglobin and chromogranin A were measured in a pig stress study. Treatment pigs (n = 24) were exposed to mixing and feed deprivation, in two trials, and compared to untreated controls (n = 24). Haptoglobin differed for feed deprivation vs control. Other differences were only found within treatment. Treatment pigs had higher salivary cortisol concentrations on the mixing day (P < 0.05). Chromogranin A concentrations were increased on the day of refeeding (P < 0.05). Haptoglobin showed a similar pattern to chromogranin A. Overall correlations between the salivary biomarkers were positive. Cortisol and chromogranin A were moderately correlated (r = 0.49, P < 0.0001), correlations between other markers were weaker. The present results indicate that different types of stressors elicited different physiological stress responses in the pigs, and therefore including various salivary biomarkers in stress evaluation seems useful.

Effects of olfactory stimulation from the fragrance of the Japanese citrus fruit yuzu (Citrus junos Sieb. ex Tanaka) on mood states and salivary chromogranin A as an endocrinologic stress marker

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the soothing effects of fragrance from yuzu, a Japanese citrus fruit (Citrus junos Sieb. ex Tanaka), with salivary chromogranin A (CgA) used as an endocrinologic stress marker reflecting sympathetic nervous system activity.

METHODS

Twenty healthy women (mean age, 20.5 ± 0.1 years) participated in a randomized, controlled, crossover study. Participants were examined on two separate occasions-once using the yuzu scent and once using unscented water as a control-in the follicular phase. This experiment measured salivary CgA and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) as a psychological index before and after the aromatic stimulation.

RESULTS

Ten-minute inhalation of the yuzu scent significantly decreased salivary CgA. At 30 minutes after the inhalation period, the salivary CgA level further decreased. In addition, POMS revealed that inhalation of the aromatic yuzu oil significantly decreased total mood disturbance, a global measure of affective state, as well as four subscores of emotional symptoms (tension-anxiety, depression-dejection, anger-hostility, and confusion), as long as 30 minutes after the olfactory stimulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Yuzu's aromatic effects may alleviate negative emotional stress, which, at least in part, would contribute to the suppression of sympathetic nervous system activity.

Effect of repeated administration of lipopolysaccharide on inflammatory and stress markers in saliva of growing pigs

Although saliva could be considered to be an ideal biological sample for evaluation of biomarkers relating to stress and inflammatory responses in pigs, little is known about how these might be influenced by the presence of endotoxaemia. In the present study, the response to repeated administrations of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was investigated, using a panel of salivary stress markers such as chromogranin A (CgA) and cortisol, as well as inflammatory/immune markers such as haptoglobin (Hp), C-reactive protein (CRP) and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Sixteen growing pigs were adapted to experimental conditions for 3 weeks, after which, 10 of the pigs were selected to receive three doses of LPS at 48 h intervals. Saliva samples were taken from all pigs prior to any LPS administration (baseline) and at time points corresponding to 3 h after each injection of LPS (T1, T2 and T3). Results showed that repeated administration of LPS induced significant elevation of salivary markers of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (cortisol) and immune (Hp, CRP and IgA) activity compared to baseline levels (P < 0.05). However, rectal temperature, CRP and cortisol data suggested that the amplitude of the inflammatory response decreased with successive LPS administrations. Thus, measurement of salivary biomarkers could be a practical tool for evaluating the inflammatory response to endotoxaemia in pigs. In the case of chronic inflammatory states, salivary Hp and IgA might be more sensitive markers than CRP or cortisol.

Saliva chromogranin A in growing pigs: a study of circadian patterns during daytime and stability under different storage conditions

Salivary chromogranin A (CgA) is considered to be a biomarker of activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary system, and has recently been proposed as a useful indicator of the acute stress response in pigs. The aim of the present study was to determinate whether salivary CgA concentrations in healthy growing pigs exhibits any circadian pattern during the daytime, and to evaluate its stability under different storage conditions. A total of 80 pigs (40 in spring and another 40 in autumn) of two different ages and genders were used. To establish the circadian pattern, saliva samples were collected at 07.00, 11.00, 15.00 and 19.00 h on two consecutive days. Pooled samples were used for the stability study and were measured on the day of sampling and periodically for up to 360 days later. Samples were stored at 4 °C, -20 °C or -80 °C and the effect of repeated freezing and thawing was also evaluated. No circadian pattern was detected for salivary CgA in either season and there were no significant effects of gender or age. However, mean salivary CgA concentrations were significantly higher (P<0.0001) in the pigs sampled in autumn, compared to those sampled in the spring. Short term storage at 4 °C is recommended for up to 2 days, whereas frozen samples can be stored for 1 year at -20 °C or -80 °C, without substantial reduction in CgA values. In addition, samples can be frozen and thawed up to seven times without significant loss of the biomarker.

Biological function and clinical relevance of chromogranin A and derived peptides

Chromogranin A (CgA (CHGA)) is the major soluble protein co-stored and co-released with catecholamines and can function as a pro-hormone by giving rise to several bioactive peptides. This review summarizes the physiological functions, the pathogenic implications, and the recent use of these molecules as biomarkers in several pathological conditions. A thorough literature review of the electronic healthcare databases MEDLINE, from January 1985 to September 2013, was conducted to identify articles and studies concerned with CgA and its processing. The search strategies utilized keywords such as chromogranin A, vasostatins 1 and 2, chromofungin, chromacin, pancreastatin, catestatin, WE14, chromostatin, GE25, parastatin, and serpinin and was supplemented by the screening of references from included papers and review articles. A total of 209 English-language, peer-reviewed original articles or reviews were examined. The analysis of the retrospective literature suggested that CgA and its several bioactive fragments exert a broad spectrum of regulatory activities by influencing the endocrine, the cardiovascular, and the immune systems and by affecting the glucose or calcium homeostasis. As some peptides exert similar effects, but others elicit opposite responses, the regulation of the CgA processing is critical to maintain homeostasis, whereas an unbalanced production of peptides that exert opposing effects can have a pathogenic role in several diseases. These clinical implications entail that CgA and its derived peptides are now used as diagnostic and prognostic markers or to monitor the response to pharmacological intervention not only in endocrine tumors, but also in cardiovascular, inflammatory, and neuropsychiatric diseases.