Changes in the immune system after moderate beer consumption

Fermented foods: Harnessing their potential to modulate the microbiota-gut-brain axis for mental health

Over the past two decades, whole food supplementation strategies have been leveraged to target mental health. In addition, there has been increasing attention on the ability of gut microbes, so called psychobiotics, to positively impact behaviour though the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Fermented foods offer themselves as a combined whole food microbiota modulating intervention. Indeed, they contain potentially beneficial microbes, microbial metabolites and other bioactives, which are being harnessed to target the microbiota-gut-brain axis for positive benefits. This review highlights the diverse nature of fermented foods in terms of the raw materials used and type of fermentation employed, and summarises their potential to shape composition of the gut microbiota, the gut to brain communication pathways including the immune system and, ultimately, modulate the microbiota-gut-brain axis. Throughout, we identify knowledge gaps and challenges faced in designing human studies for investigating the mental health-promoting potential of individual fermented foods or components thereof. Importantly, we also suggest solutions that can advance understanding of the therapeutic merit of fermented foods to modulate the microbiota-gut-brain axis.

Beer-gut microbiome alliance: a discussion of beer-mediated immunomodulation via the gut microbiome

As a long-established fermented beverage, beer is rich in many essential amino acids, vitamins, trace elements, and bioactive substances that are involved in the regulation of many human physiological functions. The polyphenols in the malt and hops of beer are also important active compounds that interact in both directions with the gut microbiome. This review summarizes the mechanisms by which polyphenols, fiber, and other beneficial components of beer are fermentatively broken down by the intestinal microbiome to initiate the mucosal immune barrier and thus participate in immune regulation. Beer degradation products have anti-inflammatory, anticoagulant, antioxidant, and glucolipid metabolism-modulating potential. We have categorized and summarized reported data on changes in disease indicators and in vivo gut microbiota abundance following alcoholic and non-alcoholic beer consumption. The positive effects of bioactive substances in beer in cancer prevention, reduction of cardiovascular events, and modulation of metabolic syndrome make it one of the candidates for microecological modulators.

A comprehensive review of the benefits of drinking craft beer: Role of phenolic content in health and possible potential of the alcoholic fraction

Currently, there is greater production and consumption of craft beer due to its appreciated sensory characteristics. Unlike conventional beer, craft beers provide better health benefits due to their varied and high content of phenolic compounds (PCs) and also due to their alcohol content, but the latter is controversial. The purpose of this paper was to report on the alcoholic fraction and PCs present in craft beers and their influence on health. Despite the craft beer boom, there are few studies on the topic; there is a lot of field to explore. The countries with the most research are the United States > Italy > Brazil > United Kingdom > Spain. The type and amount of PCs in craft beers depends on the ingredients and strains used, as well as the brewing process. It was determined that it is healthier to be a moderate consumer of alcohol than to be a teetotaler or heavy drinker. Thus, studies in vitro, with animal models and clinical trials on cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, diabetes and obesity, osteoporosis and even the immune system suggest the consumption of craft beer. However, more studies with more robust designs are required to obtain more generalizable and conclusive results. Finally, some challenges in the production of craft beer were detailed and some alternative solutions were mentioned.

COVID-19 Vaccination and Alcohol Consumption: Justification of Risks

Since the beginning of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, pharmaceutical companies and research institutions have been actively working to develop vaccines, and the mass roll-out of vaccinations against COVID-19 began in January 2021. At the same time, during lockdowns, the consumption of alcoholic beverages increased. During the peak of vaccination, consumption remained at high levels around the world, despite the gradual relaxation of quarantine restrictions. Two of the popular queries on search engines were whether it is safe to drink alcohol after vaccination and whether this will affect the effectiveness of vaccines. Over the past two years, many studies have been published suggesting that excessive drinking not only worsens the course of an acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus but can also exacerbate post-COVID-19 syndrome. Despite all sorts of online speculation, there is no specific scientific data on alcohol-induced complications after vaccination in the literature. Most of the published vaccine clinical trials do not include groups of patients with a history of alcohol-use disorders. This review analyzed the well-known and new mechanisms of action of COVID-19 vaccines on the immune system and the effects of alcohol and its metabolites on these mechanisms.

Patient-reported outcome measures following surgeries in implant dentistry and associated factors: a cross-sectional study

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) of dental implant surgeries and analyse the associated indicators.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional study design was used.

SETTING

Department of Oral Implantology, Hospital of Stomatology, Wuhan University (May 2020-April 2021).

PARTICIPANTS

Participants with missing teeth in need of implant-supported rehabilitation.

INTERVENTIONS

Dental implant placement and/or bone augmentation procedures.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The primary outcome was discomfort on postoperative day 1, measured using a numerical rating scale (NRS). Secondary outcomes included pain and anxiety during surgery; discomfort on postoperative days 3, 7 and 14; and post-surgical complications.

RESULTS

A total of 366 participants were included, of which 288 (78.7%) and 328 (89.7%) reported no to mild pain and anxiety (NRS 0-3) during surgery, respectively. The proportion of patients reporting discomfort decreased from postoperative day 1 (57.7%) to day 3 (36.1%) and day 7 (17.5%). The most frequent postoperative adverse events were pain and swelling. Patient-related factors (age, sex, smoking, alcohol consumption, history of periodontitis, and pain and anxiety during surgery) and surgery-related factors (type and extent of surgical procedure) were analysed. The factors associated with the severity of discomfort after surgery included alcohol consumption, pain perception during surgery, bone augmentation procedures and age (p<0.05). Similarly, the factors associated with the duration of discomfort included alcohol consumption, pain perception during surgery and age (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

PROMs related to dental implant surgeries can be predicted using certain risk indicators. Alcohol consumption, pain during surgery and age were associated with discomfort following dental implant surgery.

Determinants and Reference Ranges of Serum Immunoglobulins in Middle-Aged and Elderly Individuals: a Population-Based Study

Purpose

In clinical practice, currently one reference range for serum immunoglobulin (Ig) A, G, and M is applied to all adults, although various factors may influence Ig serum levels. Population-based data on determinants of IgA, IgG, and IgM and recommendations for subgroup specific reference ranges are lacking. We aimed to provide an overview of determinants of IgA, IgG, and IgM in community-dwelling middle-aged and elderly individuals and explore determinants that influence Ig reference ranges.

Methods

Within the Rotterdam Study, we performed linear regression analyses for the association of demographic, lifestyle, and cardiovascular factors with serum IgA, IgG, and IgM. We furthermore calculated Ig reference ranges (based on percentiles), both overall and within relevant subgroups.

Results

We included 8768 participants (median age 62 years). IgA and IgG increased non-linearly with higher age (P < .0001 for both). Women had lower IgA (beta: − 0.24; 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: − 0.29; − 0.20) and IgG (beta: − 0.33; 95% CI: − 0.44; − 0.23), but higher IgM levels (beta: 0.08; 95% CI: 0.04;0.13) than men. Former and particularly current smoking were associated with lower IgA and IgG (betas between − 0.07 and − 1.03). Higher alcohol consumption was associated with lower IgG (beta for heavy drinking: − 0.70; 95% CI: − 0.91; − 0.48). Corticosteroid use was associated with lower IgG (beta: − 1.12; 95% CI: − 1.58; − 0.66). Associations with cardiovascular factors were heterogeneous and differed between sexes.

Conclusion

Age, sex, smoking, alcohol consumption, corticosteroid use, and cardiovascular factors are determinants that should be considered when interpreting serum Ig levels in middle-aged and elderly individuals and may require adjusted reference ranges.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10875-021-01120-5.

Redox and Anti-Inflammatory Properties from Hop Components in Beer-Related to Neuroprotection

Beer is a fermented beverage widely consumed worldwide with high nutritional and biological value due to its bioactive components. It has been described that both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beer have several nutrients derived from their ingredients including vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and antioxidants that make beer a potential functional supplement. Some of these compounds possess redox, anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic properties making the benefits of moderate beer consumption an attractive way to improve human health. Specifically, the hop cones used for beer brewing provide essential oils, bitter acids and flavonoids that are potent antioxidants and immune response modulators. This review focuses on the redox and anti-inflammatory properties of hop derivatives and summarizes the current knowledge of their neuroprotective effects.

Determinants of Serum Immunoglobulin Levels: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

An up-to-date overview of determinants of serum immunoglobulins in adults is pivotal for clinical practice and research, but currently lacking. We therefore performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to identify determinants of serum immunoglobulin levels.

Methods

Embase, Web of Science, Medline, Cochrane, and Google Scholar were searched from inception to July 11th, 2019 for articles reporting on determinants of serum immunoglobulin A, G or M (IgA, IgG or IgM) in adult humans. Random and fixed effect models were applied to obtain pooled mean differences (MDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for the association of age and sex with serum immunoglobulins.

Results

We retrieved 117 articles reporting on determinants of serum immunoglobulins, of which 28 could be meta-analyzed. Older compared to younger individuals had higher IgA (MD: 0.38; CI: 0.18 - 0.58), but lower IgM levels (MD: -0.40; 95%: -0.66 - -0.14). Men had higher IgA (MD: 0.22; CI: 0.03 - 0.42), but lower IgM levels (MD: -0.21; CI: -0.32 - -0.10) than women. Age and sex did not influence IgG. Caucasian ethnicity was associated with lower IgA, IgG, and IgM. Smoking and corticosteroid use were associated with lower IgG. Positive associations were reported of probiotics with IgG, alcohol with IgA, hypertension with IgA and IgG, and acute psychological stress with IgA, IgG, and IgM.

Conclusions

Older age and male sex are associated with higher IgA, but lower IgM, and urge investigation of age- and sex-specific reference ranges of immunoglobulins. Other identified determinants were ethnicity, diet, lifestyle and cardio-metabolic factors.

Does alcohol consumption protect against late dental implant failures?

PURPOSE

Social factors have been implicated in the development of peri-implant pathologies, including implant failure. This study aims to investigate whether alcohol consumption affects late dental implant failures.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study evaluated implants placed between 2006 and 2012 at the Philadelphia Veterans Affairs Medical Center. The primary predictor variable was alcohol consumption, measured as nonconsumption and mild, moderate, and heavy consumption. The primary outcome variable was late dental implant failure. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate statistics were applied, with P < .05 used to define statistical significance.

RESULTS

Our cohort consisted of 103 patients and 295 implants with a 5-year minimum follow-up. Most patients were male (93%) with an average age of 60 at the time of implant placement. Late implant failure was associated with 30 implants. Compared to nonconsumption, mild consumption was associated with a 75% decrease in late implant failure (P = .0494), moderate consumption was associated with a 60% decrease (P = .3826), and heavy consumption was associated with a 200% increase (P < .1782). Compared to mild consumption, heavy consumption was associated with an 847% increase in late failure (P = .0135).

CONCLUSIONS

Results from this retrospective cohort analysis suggest that mild alcohol consumption is associated with a decrease in late dental implant failures.

To beer or not to beer: A meta-analysis of the effects of beer consumption on cardiovascular health

A moderate alcohol consumption is demonstrated to exert a protective action in terms of cardiovascular risk. Although this property seems not to be beverage-specific, the various composition of alcoholic compounds could mediate peculiar effects in vivo. The aim of this study was to evaluate potential beer-mediated effects on the cardiovascular health in humans, using a meta-analytic approach (trial registration number: CRD42018118387). The literature search, comprising all English articles published until November, 30th 2019 in EMBASE, PubMed and Cochrane database included all controlled clinical trials evaluating the cardiovascular effects of beer assumption compared to alcohol-free beer, water, abstinence or placebo. Both sexes and all beer preparations were considered eligible. Outcome parameters were those entering in the cardiovascular risk charts and those related to endothelial dysfunction. Twenty-six trials were included in the analysis. Total cholesterol was significantly higher in beer drinkers compared to controls (14 studies, 3.52 mg/dL, 1.71–5.32 mg/dL). Similar increased levels were observed in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol (18 studies, 3.63 mg/dL, 2.00–5.26 mg/dL) and in apolipoprotein A1 (5 studies, 0.16 mg/dL, 0.11–0.21 mg/dL), while no differences were detected in low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (12 studies, -2.85 mg/dL, -5.96–0.26 mg/dL) and triglycerides (14 studies, 0.40 mg/dL, -5.00–5.80 mg/dL) levels. Flow mediated dilation (FMD) resulted significantly higher in beer-consumers compared to controls (4 studies, 0.65%, 0.07–1.23%), while blood pressure and other biochemical markers of inflammation did not differ. In conclusion, the specific beer effect on human cardiovascular health was meta-analysed for the first time, highlighting an improvement of the vascular elasticity, detected by the increase of FMD (after acute intake), and of the lipid profile with a significant increase of HDL and apolipoprotein A1 serum levels. Although the long-term effects of beer consumption are not still understood, a beneficial effect of beer on endothelial function should be supposed.

Effects of different alcohol concentrations on the development of apical periodontitis in rats

AIM

To investigate the effect of different alcohol concentrations on the development of apical periodontitis (AP) in rats.

METHODS

Forty Wistar rats were arranged into five groups: (C) - control rats receiving sterile water as the only liquid; (G5) - animals receiving an alcohol solution at 5%, (G10) - alcohol solution at 10%, (G15) - alcohol solution at 15%, and (G20) - alcohol solution at 20%. The alcoholic solution or water was given to the groups as the sole source of hydration throughout the 30 days of the experiment. AP was induced in the mandibular molars on the first day. In the end, the animals were euthanized for histopathological and IL-1b, RANKL, OPG, and TRAP analyses. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used for nonparametric data, and ANOVA followed by the Tukey test were performed for parametric data, p < 0.05.

RESULTS

G15 and G20 had a greater chronic inflammatory infiltrate (Score 3) and AP size bigger (1.59 ± 0.41 and 1.83 ± 0.38, respectively) than the C, G5 and G10 (p < 0.05). No significant difference was found in the IL-1b analyses. The G15 and G20 showed the highest immunolabeling pattern for RANKL and the lowest for OPG. The G20 had greater TRAP cells per mm (4.70 ± 0.99) compared to the C, G5, and G10 (p < 0.05). Furthermore, G15 presented 3.92 ± 0.64 TRAP cells/mm, higher than C (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

G5 and G10 did not exert a protective or aggravating effect on the AP development. However, G15 and G20 had a significant effect on the AP severity, exacerbating the inflammation and osteoclast markers.

Association between alcohol use and inflammatory biomarkers over time among younger adults with HIV-The Russia ARCH Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Biomarkers of monocyte activation (soluble CD14 [sCD14]), inflammation (interleukin-6 [IL-6]), and altered coagulation (D-dimer) are associated with increased mortality risk in people with HIV. The objective of the Russia Alcohol Research Collaboration on HIV/AIDS (ARCH) study was to evaluate the association between heavy alcohol use and inflammatory biomarkers over time.

METHODS

The study sought antiretroviral therapy naive participants with HIV (n = 350) and assessed them at baseline, 12 and 24 months. Linear mixed effects models were used to determine whether heavy drinking (self-report augmented by phosphatidylethanol [PEth], an alcohol biomarker) was longitudinally associated with IL-6, sCD14 and D-dimer adjusting for potential confounders (e.g., demographics, HIV factors, comorbid conditions).

RESULTS

Participants' baseline characteristics were as follows: 71% male; mean age of 34 years; 87% self-reported hepatitis C; and 86% current smokers. Mean log10 (HIV RNA) was 4.3 copies/mL. Heavy alcohol use, based on National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism risky drinking criteria and PEth (versus non-heavy alcohol use) was associated with higher sCD14 (adjusted mean difference 125 ng/mL [95% CI: 42, 209]), IL-6 (ratio of means 1.35 [95% CI: 1.17, 1.55] pg/mL), and D-dimer (ratio of means 1.20 [95% CI: 1.06, 1.37] ug/mL) across the two-year follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Among HIV+ adults, current heavy alcohol use is associated with higher sCD14, IL-6 and D-dimer over time. Since these biomarkers are associated with mortality, interventions to mitigate effects of heavy drinking on these immune processes merit consideration.

Alcohol consumption in adolescence is associated with a lower risk of multiple sclerosis in a Danish cohort

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Due to the possible existence of a vulnerable period of multiple sclerosis (MS) susceptibility in adolescence and because Danish teenagers have a high alcohol consumption, we investigated the association between alcohol consumption at ages 15-19 and the risk of developing MS.

METHODS

A total of 1717 patients with MS and 4685 healthy blood donors filled in a comprehensive environmental and lifestyle questionnaire. Data were analysed by logistic regression models and adjusted for selected confounders.

RESULTS

We found an inverse association between alcohol consumption in adolescence and risk of developing MS in both women (p < 0.001) and men (p = 0.012). Women with low alcohol consumption had an odds ratio (OR) of 0.56 (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.47-0.66) compared with non-drinking women. The ORs were similar for women with moderate (OR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.38-0.62) and high consumption (OR = 0.57, 95% CI: 0.38-0.84). Men with low alcohol consumption had an OR of 0.69 (95% CI: 0.53-0.89) compared with non-drinking men but no decreased risk was found for men with moderate and high consumption.

CONCLUSION

Alcohol consumption in adolescence was associated with lower risk of developing MS among both sexes.

Moderate alcohol consumption is associated with increased radiological progression in women, but not in men, with early rheumatoid arthritis: results from the ESPOIR cohort (Étude et Suivi des Polyarthrites Indifférenciées Récentes)

OBJECTIVE

We conducted this study to determine whether alcohol consumption influences radiological progression in early rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHOD

Patients fulfilling the European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology 2010 criteria in the early arthritis cohort ESPOIR (Étude et Suivi des Polyarthrites Indifférenciées Récentes) were included in this study. Alcohol consumption was collected at baseline and at each visit. We classified alcohol consumption into three groups: abstinent (0 g/day), moderate (≤ 20 g/day for women, ≤ 30 g/day for men), and abuse (> 20 g/day for women, > 30 g/day for men). The primary outcome was the occurrence of radiological progression, defined as an increase ≥ 5 points in the total Sharp/van der Heijde score. We investigated whether alcohol consumption is predictive of radiological progression at 1, 3, and 5 years by univariate and multivariate analysis adjusted for age, baseline erosion, rheumatoid factor, anti-citrullinated peptide antibody, smoking status, body mass index, and treatment with leflunomide or methotrexate and biologics.

RESULTS

The study included 596 patients. When considering the influence of gender on the interaction between alcohol consumption and radiological progression, we showed a deleterious effect of moderate consumption in women [odds ratio (OR) = 1.73, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.01; 2.96, p = 0.045] and a trend towards a protective effect of moderate consumption in men (OR = 0.50, 95% CI 0.21; 1.16, p = 0.106) in multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest a deleterious effect of moderate consumption of alcohol on radiological progression in women, but not in men, with early RA.

Moderate use of alcohol is associated with lower levels of C reactive protein but not with less severe joint inflammation: a cross-sectional study in early RA and healthy volunteers

Objectives

Moderate alcohol consumption is protective against rheumatoid arthritis (RA) development and associated with lower levels of systemic inflammation in RA and in the general population. We therefore hypothesised that moderate alcohol consumption is associated with less severe local inflammation in joints in RA, detected by MRI. Since asymptomatic persons can have low-grade MRI-detected inflammation, we also hypothesised that alcohol consumption is associated with the extent of MRI inflammation in asymptomatic volunteers.

Methods

188 newly presenting patients with RA and 192 asymptomatic volunteers underwent a unilateral contrast-enhanced 1.5T MRI of metacarpophalangeal, wrist and metatarsophalangeal joints. The MRIs were scored on synovitis, bone marrow oedema and tenosynovitis; the sum of these yielded the MRI inflammation score. MRI data were evaluated in relation to current alcohol consumption, categorised as non-drinkers, consuming 1–7 drinks/week, 8–14 drinks/week and >14 drinks/week. Association between C reactive protein (CRP) level and alcohol was studied in 1070 newly presenting patients with RA.

Results

Alcohol consumption was not associated with the severity of MRI-detected inflammation in hand and foot joints of patients with RA (P=0.55) and asymptomatic volunteers (P=0.33). A J-shaped curve was observed in the association between alcohol consumption and CRP level, with the lowest levels in patients consuming 1–7 drinks/week (P=0.037).

Conclusion

Despite the fact that moderate alcohol consumption has been shown protective against RA, and our data confirm a J-shaped association of alcohol consumption with CRP levels in RA, alcohol was not associated with the severity of joint inflammation. The present data suggest that the pathophysiological mechanism underlying the effect of alcohol consists of a systemic effect that might not involve the joints.

Alcohol drinking and cigarette smoking in relation to risk of active tuberculosis: prospective cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Heavy alcohol consumption increases the risk of active tuberculosis (TB). However, the relation between lower levels of alcohol intake and TB risk remains unclear. We aimed to evaluate the association between alcohol intake and risk of active TB and assess whether the associations were modified by smoking status, which is another risk factor for active TB.

METHODS

The Singapore Chinese Health Study is a prospective cohort of 63 257 adults aged 45-74 years recruited from 1993 to 1998. Information on alcohol intake and smoking history was collected at recruitment. Active TB cases were identified via linkage with National TB Notification Registry.

RESULTS

During a mean follow-up of 16.8 years, 1249 incident cases of active TB were identified. Among non-smokers, compared with total abstinence, participants who had monthly to weekly intake of alcohol had reduced TB risk (HR 0.70, 95% CI 0.55 to 0.89), but this reduction in risk with low-dose drinking was not observed among current smokers (HR 0.96, 95% CI 0.77 to 1.18; p for interaction=0.02). Comparatively, drinking 2+ drinks daily was associated with increased TB risk among current smokers (HR 1.51, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.05). This increased risk was not observed among non-smokers (HR 0.93, 95% CI 0.49 to 1.77) and the interaction between alcohol intake and smoking status was of borderline significance (p for interaction=0.08). In joint effect, compared with those who neither smoked nor drank, the risk of active TB increased from 1.82 (95% CI 1.57 to 2.10) in current smokers who were non-drinkers to 3.16 (95% CI 2.35 to 4.24) in current smokers who also drank 2+ drinks daily.

CONCLUSION

While low intake of alcohol may protect against active TB among non-smokers, drinking 2+ drinks daily could act synergistically with smoking to increase the risk of active TB in current smokers.

Opposing effects of alcohol on the immune system

Several studies have described a dose-dependent effect of alcohol on human health with light to moderate drinkers having a lower risk of all-cause mortality than abstainers, while heavy drinkers are at the highest risk. In the case of the immune system, moderate alcohol consumption is associated with reduced inflammation and improved responses to vaccination, while chronic heavy drinking is associated with a decreased frequency of lymphocytes and increased risk of both bacterial and viral infections. However, the mechanisms by which alcohol exerts a dose-dependent effect on the immune system remain poorly understood due to a lack of systematic studies that examine the effect of multiple doses and different time courses. This review will summarize our current understanding of the impact of moderate versus excessive alcohol consumption on the innate and adaptive branches of the immune system derived from both in vitro as well as in vivo studies carried out in humans and animal model studies.

Could moderate alcohol intake be recommended to improve vaccine responses?

The impact of alcohol consumption on human health is complex and modulated by several factors such as patterns and amount of drinking, genetics, the organ system studied, as well as the sex and age of the user. There is strong evidence that chronic ethanol abuse is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, immunosuppression and increased susceptibility to both bacterial and viral infections. In contrast, moderate alcohol consumption exerts positive effects including decreased mortality, and improved cardiovascular disease and insulin sensitivity. Interestingly, accumulating evidence also supports an immune-boosting effect of moderate alcohol. In this editorial, we summarize the findings that support a positive effect of moderate alcohol on host immunity. We also discuss the limitations of the previous data and emphasize the importance of additional studies to uncover mechanisms for these immune-stimulating effects in order to extend these benefits to vulnerable segments of the population who cannot consume alcohol.

High levels of melatonin generated during the brewing process

Beer is a beverage consumed worldwide. It is produced from cereals (barley or wheat) and contains a wide array of bioactive phytochemicals and nutraceutical compounds. Specifically, high melatonin concentrations have been found in beer. Beers with high alcohol content are those that present the greatest concentrations of melatonin and vice versa. In this study, gel filtration chromatography and ELISA were combined for melatonin determination. We brewed beer to determine, for the first time, the beer production steps in which melatonin appears. We conclude that the barley, which is malted and ground in the early process, and the yeast, during the second fermentation, are the largest contributors to the enrichment of the beer with melatonin.

Systemic immune modulation induced by alcoholic beverage intake in obese-diabetes (db/db) mice

Alcohol over-consumption is generally immunosuppressive. In this study, the effects of single or repetitive alcohol administration on the systemic immunity of db/db mice were observed to clarify the possible mechanisms for the increased susceptibility of obese individuals to alcohol-related immunological health problems. Alcohol (as a form of commercially available 20% distilled-alcoholic beverage) was orally administered one-time or seven times over 2 weeks to db/db mice and normal C57BL/6J mice. Immunologic alterations were analyzed by observation of body weight and animal activity, along with proportional changes of splenocytes for natural killer cells, macrophages, and T and B lymphocytes. Modulation of plasma cytokine level and immune-related genes were also ascertained by micro-bead assay and a microarray method, respectively. The immune micro-environment of db/db mice was an inflammatory state and adaptive cellular immunity was significantly suppressed. Low-dose alcohol administration reversed the immune response, decreasing inflammatory responses and the increment of adaptive immunity mainly related to CD4(+) T cells, but not CD8(+) T cells, to normal background levels. Systemic immune modulation due to alcohol administration in the obese-diabetic mouse model may be useful in the understanding of the induction mechanism, which will aid the development of therapeutics for related secondary diseases.

The sedative effects of hops (Humulus lupulus), a component of beer, on the activity/rest rhythm

The hop (Humulus lupulus), a component of beer, is a sedative plant whose pharmacological activity is due principally to its bitter resins, especially to the α-acid component 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol. The mechanism of action of the resin of hop consists of increasing the activity of the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric (GABA), inhibiting the central nervous system (CNS).

OBJECTIVES

To analyze in an experimental model of diurnal animal the sedative effect of hop, a component of beer, on the activity/rest rhythm.

METHODS

Experiments were performed with common quail (Coturnix coturnix) similar to humans in the sleep-wake rhythm, isolated in 25 × 25 × 25 cm methacrylate cages, with food and water ad libitum, in a room with artificial ventilation (22 ± 1 °C) and a lighting cycle of 12L/12D (n = 5). The doses administered, close to the content of non-alcoholic beer, were 1, 2 and 11 mg extract of hop as one capsule per day, at 18:00 h for one week. A control group received capsules only with a methylcellulose excipient and a basal group received no treatment. The chronobiological analysis of the animals' activity captured and logged by the software DAS24 was performed using the Ritme computer program (cosinor methods).

RESULTS

With the dose of 2 mg, there was a statistically significant (p < 0.05) reduction of the arithmetic mean nocturnal activity (23 ± 3.0) with respect to the basal (38.56 ± 2.79), control (38.1 ± 2.8) and other doses groups 1 mg (52.04 ± 3.65) and 11 mg (47.47 ± 5.88). This dose of 2 mg, similar to the concentration in beer, was more effective in reducing nocturnal activity than the other doses of 1 and 11 mg, as well as preserving the circadian activity/rest rhythm.

CONCLUSION

The concentration of 2 mg of hop extract effectively decreased nocturnal activity in the circadian activity rhythm. On the basis of this investigation, administration of non-alcoholic beer would be recommended due to its hop content and consequent sedative action, which would be an aid to nocturnal sleep.

The sedative effect of non-alcoholic beer in healthy female nurses

INTRODUCTION

The hop (Humulus lupulus L.), a component of beer, is a sedative plant whose pharmacological activity is principally due to its bitter resins, in particular to the α-acid degradation product 2-methyl-3-buten-2-ol. The mechanism of action of hop resin consists of raising the levels of the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), an inhibitory neurotransmitter acting in the central nervous system (CNS).

OBJECTIVES

To analyze the sedative effect of hops as a component of non-alcoholic beer on the sleep/wake rhythm in a work-stressed population.

METHODS

The experiment was conducted with healthy female nurses (n = 17) working rotating and/or night shifts. Overnight sleep and chronobiological parameters were assessed by actigraphy (Actiwatch®) after moderate ingestion of non-alcoholic beer containing hops (333 ml with 0.0% alcohol) with supper for 14 days (treatment). Data were obtained in comparison with her own control group without consumption of beer during supper.

RESULTS

Actigraphy results demonstrated improvement of night sleep quality as regards the most important parameters: Sleep Latency diminished (p≤0.05) in the Treatment group (12.01±1.19 min) when compared to the Control group (20.50±4.21 min), as also did Total Activity (p≤0.05; Treatment group = 5284.78±836.99 activity pulses vs Control = 7258.78±898.89 activity pulses). In addition, anxiety as indexed by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) decreased in the Treatment group (State Anxiety 18.09±3.8 vs Control 20.69±2.14).

CONCLUSION

The moderate consumption of non-alcoholic beer will favour night-time rest, due in particular to its hop components, in addition to its other confirmed benefits for the organism.

Potential health benefits of moderate alcohol consumption: current perspectives in research

The benefits of moderate amounts of alcohol for a better health and longer life expectancy compared with abstinence have been suggested by the findings of numerous studies. However, controversies have emerged regarding the influence of confounding factors and the systematic errors that might have been inadvertently disregarded in the early studies. This review includes a description of the findings of those research studies published in the last 5 years on the effects of moderate alcohol consumption on all-cause mortality, CVD and inflammation, the immune system, insulin sensitivity, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and cancer. Promising evidences exist from both animal studies and human clinical trials regarding intermediate end-points of CHD and insulin sensitivity, such as HDL, adiponectin or fibrinogen. However, controversies and inconsistent findings exist regarding many of these diseases and related functions and biomarkers. Further research and human randomised-controlled trials with adequate standardisation of the study conditions are necessary in order to draw a comparison between studies, establish the causal effect of moderate alcohol intake on disease protection and reach consensus on the circumstances that allow the recommendation of moderate alcohol habitual intakes as a strategy for health maintenance.

Behavioral and sociodemographic risk factors for serological and DNA evidence of HPV6, 11, 16, 18 infections

INTRODUCTION

Risk for HPV6/11/16/18 infections in young sexually active, behaviorally low-risk females is not well described and may inform public policy.

METHODS

To assess exposure risk for HPV/6/11/16/18 among 16-23 year old low-risk females, data for 2409 female clinical trial participants were evaluated. Baseline visit self-reported sexual, behavioral and demographic characteristics; and results from HPV genotyping and serology, and other clinical laboratory assays were analyzed. All subjects reported <5 lifetime male sexual partners and no prior abnormal cytology at baseline.

RESULTS

While 98% (2211/2255) were naïve to HPV16 or 18 and 99.6% (2246/2255) were naïve for 1-3 index HPVs, 27% (616/2255) showed antibody, DNA or both for ≥1 index HPV. While 18% (409/2255) tested HPV16- or -18-antibody- or -DNA-positive, only 2% (44/2255) tested positive for both types. Against this high background, other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) were uncommonly detected, suggesting low sexual risk-taking behavior. The adjusted analyses showed race, age, alcohol consumption, current Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamydia) and Trichamonas vaginalis (trichomoniasis), bacterial vaginosis (BV), number of lifetime male sex partners predicted positive index-HPV antibody test results. However, only the number of male sex partners predicted positivity for HPV6/11- and 16/18-DNA, and chlamydia infection predicted positivity for HPV6/11-DNA alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, type-specific HPV-DNA and -antibody evidence of HPV6/11/16/18 infections among behaviorally low-risk 16-23 year old females is high. Since almost all participants would have benefited by either currently available bivalent or quadrivalent vaccine strategies, delaying vaccination beyond menarche may be a missed opportunity to fully protect young females against HPV6/11/16/18 infections and related dysplasias. Early diagnosis and treatment of chlamydia and trichomonas may be important in HPV pathogenesis.

Moderate alcohol consumption alters both leucocyte gene expression profiles and circulating proteins related to immune response and lipid metabolism in men

Moderate alcohol consumption has various effects on immune and inflammatory processes, which could accumulatively modulate chronic disease risk. So far, no comprehensive, integrative profiling has been performed to investigate the effects of longer-term alcohol consumption. Therefore, we studied the effects of alcohol consumption on gene expression patterns using large-scale profiling of whole-genome transcriptomics in blood cells and on a number of proteins in blood. In a randomised, open-label, cross-over trial, twenty-four young, normal-weight men consumed 100 ml vodka (30 g alcohol) with 200 ml orange juice or only orange juice daily during dinner for 4 weeks. After each period, blood was sampled for measuring gene expression and selected proteins. Pathway analysis of 345 down-regulated and 455 up-regulated genes revealed effects of alcohol consumption on various signalling responses, immune processes and lipid metabolism. Among the signalling processes, the most prominently changed was glucocorticoid receptor signalling. A network on immune response showed a down-regulated NF-κB gene expression together with increased plasma adiponectin and decreased pro-inflammatory IL-1 receptor antagonist and IL-18, and acute-phase proteins ferritin and α1-antitrypsin concentrations (all P < 0.05) after alcohol consumption. Furthermore, a network of gene expression changes related to lipid metabolism was observed, with a central role for PPARα which was supported by increased HDL-cholesterol and several apo concentrations (all P < 0.05) after alcohol consumption. In conclusion, an integrated approach of profiling both genes and proteins in blood showed that 4 weeks of moderate alcohol consumption altered immune responses and lipid metabolism.

Effect of alcohol consumption on biological markers associated with risk of coronary heart disease: systematic review and meta-analysis of interventional studies

OBJECTIVE

To systematically review interventional studies of the effects of alcohol consumption on 21 biological markers associated with risk of coronary heart disease in adults without known cardiovascular disease.

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

Medline (1950 to October 2009) and Embase (1980 to October 2009) without limits.

STUDY SELECTION

Two reviewers independently selected studies that examined adults without known cardiovascular disease and that compared fasting levels of specific biological markers associated with coronary heart disease after alcohol use with those after a period of no alcohol use (controls). 4690 articles were screened for eligibility, the full texts of 124 studies reviewed, and 63 relevant articles selected.

RESULTS

Of 63 eligible studies, 44 on 13 biomarkers were meta-analysed in fixed or random effects models. Quality was assessed by sensitivity analysis of studies grouped by design. Analyses were stratified by type of beverage (wine, beer, spirits). Alcohol significantly increased levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (pooled mean difference 0.094 mmol/L, 95% confidence interval 0.064 to 0.123), apolipoprotein A1 (0.101 g/L, 0.073 to 0.129), and adiponectin (0.56 mg/L, 0.39 to 0.72). Alcohol showed a dose-response relation with high density lipoprotein cholesterol (test for trend P = 0.013). Alcohol decreased fibrinogen levels (-0.20 g/L, -0.29 to -0.11) but did not affect triglyceride levels. Results were similar for crossover and before and after studies, and across beverage types.

CONCLUSIONS

Favourable changes in several cardiovascular biomarkers (higher levels of high density lipoprotein cholesterol and adiponectin and lower levels of fibrinogen) provide indirect pathophysiological support for a protective effect of moderate alcohol use on coronary heart disease.

Drinking pattern and socio-cultural aspects on immune response: an overview

Social acceptance of drinking involves social and cultural roles and has important implications for public health. Since extensive evidence indicates that alcohol possesses immunomodulatory properties, scientists have recently debated the influence of alcohol consumption on the immune response, particularly in countries where drinking in a social setting is a part of cultural identity. Experimental and clinical data support the conclusion that alcohol is a potent immunomodulator. While high alcohol consumption suppresses a wide range of immune responses, leading to an increased incidence of a number of infectious diseases, moderate alcohol consumption may have a beneficial impact on the immune system, compared to alcohol abuse or abstinence, most likely due to the multiple components of polyphenol-rich alcoholic contributing to the protective effect seen for moderate alcohol consumption on CVD and the immune system. Despite this, the scientific literature appears to be concerned about the diseases associated with excessive drinking in some societies and cultures. Thus, the present review recognizes the importance to consider social and cultural aspects of drinking when examining the whole dimension of alcohol consumption (amount, beverage type, frequency and variability), in order to estimate global risk of consequences on host defence to better understand alcohol-related harm or benefit.

Melatonin present in beer contributes to increase the levels of melatonin and antioxidant capacity of the human serum

BACKGROUND & AIM

Melatonin is a molecule with antioxidative properties including direct free radical scavenging and indirect stimulatory actions on a variety of antioxidative enzymes which further promote its ability to reduce the toxicity of radicals and their associated reactants. Beer is an integral element of the diet of numerous people and is rich in antioxidants. We analyzed if melatonin is present in beer and if so, at what concentration. It further determines whether the moderate consumption of beer has an effect on the total antioxidant status (TAS) of human serum.

METHODS

We analyzed 18 brands of beer with different percentage of alcohol content in order to determine the concentration of melatonin. Serum samples were collected from 7 healthy volunteers. These samples were used to measure melatonin and TAS on basal conditions and after drinking beer.

RESULTS

Showed that all the beer analyzed did indeed contain melatonin and the more they have got, the greater was its degree of alcohol. Both melatonin and TAS in human serum increased after drinking beer.

CONCLUSIONS

Melatonin present in the beer does contribute to the total antioxidative capability of human serum and moderate beer consumption can protect organism from overall oxidative stress.

A recent perspective on alcohol, immunity, and host defense

BACKGROUND

Multiple line of clinical and experimental evidence demonstrates that both acute, moderate, and chronic, excessive alcohol use result in various abnormalities in the functions of the immune system.

METHODS

Medline and PubMed databases were used to identify published reports with particular interest in the period of 2000-2008 in the subject of alcohol use, infection, inflammation, innate, and adaptive immunity.

RESULTS

This review article summarizes recent findings relevant to acute or chronic alcohol use-induced immunomodulation and its consequences on host defense against microbial pathogens and tissue injury. Studies with in vivo and in vitro alcohol administration are both discussed. The effects of alcohol on lung infections, trauma and burn injury, liver, pancreas, and cardiovascular diseases are evaluated with respect to the role of immune cells. Specific changes in innate immune response and abnormalities in adaptive immunity caused by alcohol intake are detailed.

CONCLUSION

Altered inflammatory cell and adaptive immune responses after alcohol consumption result in increased incidence and poor outcome of infections and other organ-specific immune-mediated effects.

Moderate alcohol consumption and the immune system: A review

Increasing evidence suggests that light to moderate amounts of polyphenol-rich alcoholic beverages like wine or beer could have health benefits. Scientists have long debated the effects of alcohol on immune function, showing on the one hand, that high doses of alcohol consumption can directly suppress a wide range of immune responses, and that alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of a number of infectious diseases. On the other hand, moderate alcohol consumption seems to have a beneficial impact on the immune system compared to alcohol abuse or abstinence. Therefore, the link between alcohol consumption, immune response, as well as infectious and inflammatory processes remains not completely understood. With this in mind, it is important to realise that other factors, unrelated or indirectly related to immune function, like drinking patterns, beverage type, amount of alcohol, or gender differences, will affect the influence that alcohol consumption may have on the immune system. This review summarises published data describing the effects that light to moderate amounts of polyphenol-rich beverages like wine or beer seem to have on immunity in healthy adults.

Effects of moderate consumption of distilled and fermented alcohol on some aspects of neuroimmunomodulation

Alcoholic beverages are characterized by their fermented versus distilled origin and also by their degree of alcohol. The toxic effects of chronic alcohol consumption have been widely studied. However, there is less evidence about possible beneficial effects of moderate alcohol intake. This work was aimed at evaluating the effects of moderate alcohol consumption (beer or ethanol) on plasma hormone concentrations, blood and thymus lymphocyte phenotypes and brain neurotransmitter levels. For this purpose, 40 adult Wistar male rats were administered ethanol or beer for 4 weeks (experimental groups). Age-matched rats were administered beer without alcohol or water to be used as controls. Rats were killed by decapitation and plasma from the trunk blood was collected to measure plasma prolactin, growth hormone and ACTH concentrations by homologous specific double antibody radioimmunoassays. Thymus and blood lymphocyte subsets were measured by flow cytometry. Neurotransmitter concentrations [dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and taurine] were measured by high pressure liquid chromatography in the median eminence and the pituitary. Blood and thymus lymphocyte subsets were not significantly changed by either ethanol or beer consumption, compared to controls. Plasma prolactin levels significantly decreased in ethanol-administered groups (p < 0.05) compared to control animals drinking water, although plasma levels of growth hormone and ACTH were not modified by either alcohol used. Dopamine and GABA concentrations in the median eminence or in the adenohypophysis remained unmodified by moderate beer or ethanol consumption. However, taurine concentration was significantly increased in the pituitary (p < 0.05) in the group drinking ethanol compared to those groups drinking beer with or without alcohol. These data suggest that moderate alcohol consumption may change the regulatory mechanism of prolactin secretion. Whether these modifications have a physiological significance deserves further research.