Parental support during young adulthood: Why does assistance decline with age?

Parental warmth and young adult depression: A comparison of enduring effects and revisionist models

Guided by a novel analytic framework, this study investigates the developmental mechanism through which parental warmth is related to young adult depression. Data were from a large sample of participants followed from early adolescence to young adulthood (N = 1,988; 54% female). Using structural equation modeling, we estimated and compared competing developmental models - enduring effects vs. revisionist models - to assess whether parental warmth during adolescence had enduring or transient effects on depression in young adulthood. We also examined whether contemporaneous experiences of parental warmth in young adulthood were more salient than parental warmth in adolescence. Results supported the revisionist model: early intergenerational experiences in adolescence predicted psychopathology early in young adulthood, but their unique effects gradually diminished; whereas parental warmth in young adulthood continued to be protective of young adult depression. Effects of mother and father warmth on young adult depression were similar in pattern and magnitude. Results were held when accounting for covariates such as adolescent sex, family income status, and family structure. Young adult mental health interventions may consider targeting maintenance or improvement in parental warmth to help offset the long-term impact of adversity early in life.

Enduring Bonds: Duration and Contact in Close Relationships in Late Life

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Older adults maintain ties to long-duration social partners, some with whom have regular contact and some with whom have little contact. We asked whether these ties with little contact still offer a sense of connection and security, and buffer the effects of interpersonal stress in daily life. Helping older adults foster these ties may improve their mental health.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Participants (n = 313) aged 65+ completed a baseline interview reporting duration and contact frequency of their closest ties. Then, participants completed ecological momentary assessments every 3 hr for 5-6 days, reporting their social encounters and mood.

RESULTS

We classified ties according to duration (10+ years = long vs shorter duration) and frequency of contact (at least once a month = active vs dormant). Throughout the day, participants were more likely to have stressful encounters with long-duration active ties. Encounters with active ties were associated with more positive mood (regardless of duration) and encounters with long-duration dormant ties with more negative mood. Having more active ties buffered effects of interpersonal stress on mood, but more long-duration dormant ties exacerbated these effects.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Supporting social integration theory, ties with frequent contact were associated with positive mood. Surprisingly, long-duration ties with infrequent contact exacerbated effects of interpersonal stress on mood. Older adults who lack contact with long-duration social partners may be more sensitive to interpersonal stress. Future interventions might focus on phone or electronic media to increase contact with long-duration social partners.

Social inequality in the association between life transitions into adulthood and depressed mood: a 27-year longitudinal study

Background

Few studies have considered the life-course development of depressive symptoms in relation to life transitions in early-adulthood and whether these might affect depressive trajectories differently depending on specific indicators of parental socioeconomic status (SES). In the present work, we explore these questions using the adolescent pathway model as a guiding framework to test socially differential exposure, tracking and vulnerability of the effects of life transitions on depressed mood across different socioeconomic backgrounds.

Methods

Latent growth modeling was used to estimate the associations between indicators of parental SES (parental education and household income) and depressed mood from age 13 to 40 with life transitions (leaving the parental home, leaving the educational system, beginning cohabitation, attaining employment) as pathways between the two. Our analyses were based on a 27-year longitudinal dataset (n = 1242) of a Norwegian cohort with 10 time points in total. To make socioeconomic comparisons, three groups (low, mid, and high) were made for parental education and income respectively.

Results

Depressed mood decreased from age 13 to 40. The low and high parental education groups showed a stable difference in depressed mood during early adolescence, which decreased in young adulthood and then increased slightly in mid-adulthood. The low household income group showed higher depressed mood across young adulthood compared to the medium and higher household income groups. For life transitions, leaving the parental home and beginning cohabitation was associated with an added downturn of the trajectory of depressed mood when adjusting for other transitions. However, adolescents with high parental education showed a relatively stronger decrease in depressed mood when leaving the parental home. Similarly, adolescents with a high household income showed a relatively stronger decrease in depressed mood when leaving the educational system.

Conclusions

Depressed mood decreased over time and developed differently depending on parental education and household income. Life transitions were generally associated with reductions in depressed mood across time, but lower SES youths were not found to be more socially vulnerable these effects.

Beyond Parental Wealth: Grandparental Wealth and the Transition to Adulthood

This study considers the multigenerational consequences of wealth transmission for the transition to young adulthood. Using a wider set of outcomes than has previously been considered, and by analyzing parental and grandparental wealth simultaneously, this work underscores the salience of multiple generations of wealth as a predictor for young adult well-being. Data comes from the US Panel Study of Income Dynamics on a sample of youth followed from mid-adolescence until the age of 20. Results from linear regression models indicate that parental wealth was associated with increases in the probability of college attendance and steady employment and inversely associated with the likelihood of nonmarital birth and idleness. Grandparental wealth predicted non-educational outcomes at least as well as parental wealth did and explained more variance in young adults' outcomes when parental wealth was lower. The association between parental wealth and non-educational outcomes suggest that wealth may inform young adults' broader life course by predicting outcomes other than college attendance. Grandparental wealth may serve a compensatory function for children with low parental wealth. Results suggest that persistently low wealth across multiple generations may impede the successful transition to young adulthood.

Intergenerational solidarity of adult children with parents from emerging to established adulthood

Although researchers have focused on adult children's intergenerational solidarity with their parents following the transition to adulthood, less is known about continuity and change in the multiple dimensions of solidarity as children transition from emerging to established adulthood. Therefore, we focused on reciprocal longitudinal associations between dimensions of latent forms of solidarity (normative and affectual solidarity) and manifest forms of solidarity (associational and functional solidarity) as reported by young adults at three stages from emerging to established adulthood. Data were derived from young adult children participating in the Longitudinal Study of Generations who reported about 260 daughter-mother, 214 son-mother, 244 daughter-father, and 205 son-father relationships in 2000 (18-29 years old), 2005 (23-34 years old), and 2016 (34-45 years old). Multigroup autoregressive cross-lagged models prospectively predicted reciprocal influences among the dimensions of solidarity across four parent-child gender groups. Results showed that young adults' perceived intergenerational solidarity with parents was stable across three-time points. In addition, young adults' perceived associational solidarity with parents in emerging adulthood (2000 survey) predicted functional solidarity with parents (receiving support from parents and providing support to parents) in intermediate young adulthood (2005 survey), and in established adulthood (2016 survey). However, parents' and children's gender differences were not identified in the above associations. The study concludes that frequent contact with parents in emerging adulthood is a key factor in establishing intergenerational solidarity with parents from early-to-middle stage of adulthood regardless of parents' and children's gender. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Do discussions of financial burdens decrease long-term financial toxicity in adolescent and young adult cancer survivors?

PURPOSE

This study aims to evaluate the associations between patient-provider cost discussions with patient-reported out-of-pocket (OOP) spending and long-term financial toxicity (FT) among adolescent and young adult (AYA; 15-39 years old) cancer survivors.

METHODS

Using a cross-sectional survey, we assessed the themes and quality of patient discussions with providers about financial needs and general survivorship preparation, quantified patients' levels of FT, and evaluated patient-reported OOP spending. We determined the association between cancer treatment cost discussion and FT using multivariable analysis. In a subset of survivors (n = 18), we conducted qualitative interviews and used thematic analysis to characterize responses.

RESULTS

Two hundred forty-seven AYA survivors completed the survey at a mean of 7 years post treatment and with a median COST score of 13. 70% of AYA survivors did not recall having any cost discussion about their cancer treatment with a provider. Having any cost discussion with a provider was associated with decreased FT (β = 3.00; p = 0.02) but not associated with reduced OOP spending (χ2 = 3.77; p = 0.44). In a second adjusted model, with OOP spending included as a covariate, OOP spending was a significant predictor of FT (β =  - 1.40; p = 0.002). Key qualitative themes included survivors' frustration about the lack of communication related to financial issues throughout treatment and in survivorship, feeling unprepared, and reluctance to seek help.

CONCLUSION

AYA patients are not fully informed about the costs of cancer care and FT; the dearth of cost discussions between patients and providers may represent a missed opportunity to reduce costs.

The role of career decision self-efficacy as a mediator of peer support on students’ career adaptability

This study aims to determine the role of career decision self-efficacy (CDSE) as a mediator of the relationship between peer support and career adaptability among college students. Furthermore, students are in a realistic period of career development, but in reality, the level of adaptability is still low because the knowledge and career guidance in Indonesia only start at the college level, or at least high school. This condition makes recent graduates experience confusion in determining careers, thereby affecting their ability to adapt. One of the most influential external factors of career adaptability is peer support, where students spend more time with friends and provide information, career suggestions, emotional support, and being role models to each other. CDSE was selected as a moderator because career adaptability can be enhanced through self-efficacy sources. The participants used were final-year college students in Indonesia (N = 538). Data was then collected using convenience sampling techniques. The instruments used in this study include Career Adapt-Abilities Scale, Career-Related Peer Support, and Career Decision Self-Efficacy-Short Form. The results showed that CDSE fully mediated peer support on adaptability (c = 0.247; p < .001). Furthermore, peer support as an external factor is inadequate to enhance career adaptability. This indicates that internal factors are needed to help students adapt to changes in the working world and career choices. Students who only obtain social support from campus friends regarding career cannot adapt when they lack the confidence to make decisions with the information and knowledge provided.

The financial impact of cancer on Canadian young adults

PURPOSE

To explore the financial impact of cancer in young adults (YAs) compared to matched non-cancer peers.

METHODS

Five hundred seventy-five YAs from the Young Adults with Cancer in their Prime (YACPRIME) study reported on out-of-pocket cancer costs and missed work. YA cancer survivors were compared to matched peers without cancer on key financial indices based on current age (< 35 vs. 35 + years) and time since diagnosis (< 5 vs. 5 + years). Descriptive statistics, Chi-square tests, and prevalence ratios (PR) were used to compare groups on financial variables.

RESULTS

Almost 60% of YA survivors spent at least $100/month on cancer-related expenses, and 49% missed at least one year of work. YA survivors were more likely to have outstanding credit card ((< 35 (PR = 1.37, p = 0.001); 35 + (PR = 1.33, p = 0.001)) and line of credit (< 35 (PR = 1.42, p = 0.008); 35 + (PR = 1.27, p = 0.016)) balances. Home ownership was higher among non-cancer peers ((< 35: PR = 1.42, p < 0.001); 35 + (PR = 1.69, p < 0.001); < 5 years (PR = 1.39, p < 0.001); 5 + years (PR = 1.41, p = 0.005)). YA survivors were more likely to not own assets ((< 5 years (PR = 2.25, p < 0.001); 5 + years (PR = 2.25, p = 0.004)). Those diagnosed within 5 years had higher rates of payday loans (PR = 3.91, p = 0.021).

CONCLUSION

While exploratory, results suggest that YAs are disadvantaged compared to their peers in type and value of assets owned and debts carried.

IMPLICATIONS FOR CANCER SURVIVORS

Survivorship care plans for YA survivors should include resources to manage the financial impacts of cancer.

The relation between lifestyles and positive mental health in Portuguese higher education students

Healthy lifestyles are commonly associated with improved physical and mental health. Sleep patterns, nutrition, physical exercise, consumption of psychoactive substances, among others, can strongly influence positive mental health. The aims are: characterize lifestyles based on positive mental health clusters, considering the cross-sectional cohort sample of higher education students, and analyse the lifestyles associated with positive mental health. A cross-sectional, descriptive, correlational and multicentric study of quantitative approach was conducted. The Positive Mental Health Questionnaire was applied. Through the k-means method, four clusters were obtained based on positive mental health levels. The sample of 3647 higher education students was mostly female (78.8%), single (89.5%), with an average age of 23 years (SD = 6.68). Differences were found between clusters based on the sociodemographic characteristics and lifestyles. Findings in Cluster 1 were highlighted because they included students with a higher level of positive mental health, which was associated with greater satisfaction in affective relationships, higher recreational and sports activities, better sleep quality, a healthy diet, and lower medication and illicit drugs consumption. These key findings emphasize the promotion of healthy lifestyles and highlight the importance of positive mental health in promoting the health of higher education students.

Mothers, Fathers, Daughters, and Sons: Gender Differences in Adults' Intergenerational Ties

Women are more involved in family ties than men, but these differences may vary across generations as gender roles have shifted. We know little about gender patterns across generations in the same family, however. To address this gap, midlife men and women aged 40-60 (n = 633) from the Family Exchanges Study reported on relationships with each aging parent and each grown child. Mothers were more involved (e.g., more frequent contact, greater positive and negative relationship qualities, and more frequent support exchanges) than fathers in both generations, with parental gender differences stronger in the older generation. Offspring gender differences were generally consistent across generations, with daughters more involved by phone in emotional forms of support, and in negative relationship quality; these gender differences were stronger in the younger generation than the older ones. We discuss pervasive gender differences that favor mothers, as well as shifts in gender differences across generations.

Who Initiates the Help Older Parents Give to Midlife Children

OBJECTIVES

Older parents continue to help children after these children have been adults for decades. We utilize a typology approach to assess who initiates the help. We ask whether profiles of help initiation are associated with how often older parents help and how they evaluate their helping behaviors.

METHODS

Older parents (N = 241; Mage = 80.12) indicated the extent to which they volunteered to help children and helped per child's request. Parents reported their resources and obligation to help, child problems, frequency, and evaluation (rewards/stresses) of helping.

RESULTS

Latent profile analysis reveals four profiles representing parents who are initiators (n = 65), responders (n = 56), initiators/responders (n = 50), and uninvolved (n = 69). Resources, needs, and individual beliefs differentiate profiles. Parents offer the same amount of help regardless of who initiates such help. Parents who are initiators/responders view helping as more rewarding than parents who are initiators and more stressful than uninvolved parents.

DISCUSSION

This study reveals variation in the initiation of older parents' help and refines our understanding of family help in late life. Findings may suggest a parental expectation for children to be competent in adulthood regardless of their resources and willingness to help.

Age-Related Differences in Financial Toxicity and Unmet Resource Needs Among Adolescent and Young Adult Cancer Patients

Financial toxicity may differ by age at diagnosis between adolescents and young adults (AYAs) with cancer. We surveyed 52 AYA cancer patients about unmet needs and financial toxicity using the COmprehensive Score for financial Toxicity (COST). We compared outcomes by age at diagnosis (15-25-year olds [n = 25, 48%] vs. 26-39-year olds [n = 27, 52%]). AYAs diagnosed ages 26-39 reported that cancer negatively affected their finances more than 15-25-year olds (77.8% vs. 37.5%, p = 0.0005). Lower mean COST scores among those diagnosed ages 26-39 indicated greater financial toxicity compared to those 15-25 years (18.22 vs. 24.84, p = 0.02). Financial burden appears to be greater for older AYAs with cancer.

Sharing the Burden of the Transition to Adulthood: African American Young Adults' Transition Challenges and Their Mothers' Health Risk

For many African American youth, the joint influences of economic and racial marginalization render the transition to stable adult roles challenging. We have gained much insight into how these challenges affect future life chances, yet we lack an understanding of what these challenges mean in the context of linked lives. Drawing on a life course framework, this study examines how young African Americans' experiences across a variety of salient domains during the transition to adulthood affect their mothers' health. Results suggest that stressors experienced by African Americans during the transition to adulthood (e.g., unemployment, troubled romantic relationships, arrest) heighten their mothers' cumulative biological risk for chronic diseases, or allostatic load, and reduce subjective health. These results suggest that the toll of an increasingly tenuous and uncertain transition to adulthood extends beyond young people to their parents. Hence, increased public investments during this transition may not only reduce inequality and improve life chances for young people themselves, but may also enhance healthy aging by relieving the heavy burden on parents to help their children navigate this transition.

LIVING WITH PARENTS AND EMERGING ADULTS' DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS

Whether moving back home after a period of economic independence, or having never moved out, the share of emerging adults living with parents is increasing. Yet little is known about the associations of coresidence patterns and rationales for coresidence for emerging adult well-being. Using the Toledo Adolescent Relationships Study (n = 891), we analyzed depressive symptoms among emerging adults who (1) never left the parental home; (2) returned to the parental home; and (3) were not currently living with a parent. About one-fifth of emerging adults had boomeranged or moved back in with their parents. Among those living with parents, nearly two-fifths had boomeranged or returned to their parental home and they reported significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms. Among coresident emerging adults, both intrinsic and utilitarian motivations (i.e., enjoy living with parents and employment problems) partially mediated the association between coresidence and depressive symptoms. Returning to the parental home was associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms only among emerging adults experiencing employment problems. These findings are especially relevant because the recession hit emerging adults particularly hard. The ability to distinguish boomerang emerging adults and emerging adults who have never left home provides a more nuanced understanding of parental coresidence during this phase of the life course.

Coresident and Noncoresident Emerging Adults' Daily Experiences With Parents

Coresidence between emerging adults and parents is now common in the United States, but we know little about how coresidence influences daily experiences in these ties. Coresident (n = 62) and noncoresident (n = 97) emerging adults (aged 18-30) reported daily experiences with parents and mood for 7 days. During the study week, compared to offspring who lived apart from parents, coresident offspring were more likely to experience positive encounters, receive more support, wish parents would change, feel irritated, and report that their parents got on their nerves. Coresident offspring did not differ from noncoresident offspring with regard to stressful thoughts. Stressful thoughts about parents were associated with more negative daily mood; this effect did not differ for coresident and noncoresident offspring. Findings are discussed with regard to intergenerational ambivalence. In sum, coresident emerging adults were more involved with parents but not more affected by daily experiences with parents.

Homelessness and Aging Out of Foster Care: A National Comparison of Child Welfare-Involved Adolescents

The present study represents the first large-scale, prospective comparison to test whether aging out of foster care contributes to homelessness risk in emerging adulthood. A nationally representative sample of adolescents investigated by the child welfare system in 2008 to 2009 from the second cohort of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being Study (NSCAW II) reported experiences of housing problems at 18- and 36-month follow-ups. Latent class analyses identified subtypes of housing problems, including literal homelessness, housing instability, and stable housing. Regressions predicted subgroup membership based on aging out experiences, receipt of foster care services, and youth and county characteristics. Youth who reunified after out-of-home placement in adolescence exhibited the lowest probability of literal homelessness, while youth who aged out experienced similar rates of literal homelessness as youth investigated by child welfare but never placed out of home. No differences existed between groups on prevalence of unstable housing. Exposure to independent living services and extended foster care did not relate with homelessness prevention. Findings emphasize the developmental importance of families in promoting housing stability in the transition to adulthood, while questioning child welfare current focus on preparing foster youth to live.

PARENTAL ASSISTANCE, NEGATIVE LIFE EVENTS, AND ATTAINMENT DURING THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD

Responding to the longer and more variable transition to adulthood, parents are stepping in to help their young adult children. Little is known, however, about the extent to which parental support promotes success, and whether parental support has different effects for young adult sons and daughters. Using longitudinal data from the Youth Development Study, we find that parental scaffolding assistance for educational expenses predicts college graduation for both men and women. Negative life events experienced during the transition to adulthood are associated with lower earnings by the early 30s, although there is some variation by type of event. More frequent parental support during times of need does not predict long-term economic attainment for sons or daughters.

Parental Involvement with College Students in Germany, Hong Kong, Korea, and the United States

Rates of college attendance have increased throughout the world. This study asked whether students across nations experience high involvement with parents (frequent contact and support) and how satisfied they are with parental involvement. College students from four major Western and Asian economies participated: Germany (n = 458), Hong Kong (n = 276), Korea (n = 257), and the United States (n = 310). Consistent with solidarity theory, students across nations reported frequent contact with parents and receiving several forms of social support (e.g., practical, emotional, and advice) every month. Multilevel models revealed Asian students received more frequent parental support than German or US students, but were less satisfied with that support. Students in Hong Kong resided with parents more often and gave more support to parents than students in other cultures. Discussion focuses on cultural (i.e., filial obligation) and structural (i.e., coresidence) factors explaining parental involvement.

Racial and ethnic differences in leaving and returning to the parental home: The role of life course transitions, socioeconomic resources, and family connectivity

BACKGROUND

Although Black and Hispanic young adults in the U.S. are less likely than Whites to move out of the parental home and more likely than Whites to return, reasons for these differences have not been clearly identified.

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the ability of racial/ethnic disparities in life course transitions, socioeconomic resources, and family connectivity to account for racial/ethnic differences in leaving and returning home.

METHODS

Using data from the 2005–2011 waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics’ Transition into Adulthood study (N=1,491, age 18 to 26), we estimated discrete-time event history models predicting the timing of moving out of and back into the parental home.

RESULTS

Although no single factor completely explained racial-ethnic differences in the timing of leaving and returning to the parental home, the bulk of the Black-White differences in both home-leaving and home-returning was explained by group differences in transitions into adult roles, the ability to afford independent living, and connections to the origin family. These factors also explained most of the Mexican-White difference in home-leaving. However, only a small portion of the Hispanic-White difference in returning home was attributable to the proposed explanatory variables.

CONCLUSION

Explanations for racial and ethnic differences in the timing of leaving and returning to the parental home need to consider a broad array of life course characteristics in which Black, Hispanic, and White youth differ. The factors that explain Black-White differences in home-leaving and home-returning may differ from those that explain Hispanic-White differences in these behaviors.

Positive mental health in outpatients with affective disorders: Associations with life satisfaction and general functioning

BACKGROUND

Positive mental health (PMH) is an integral and essential component of health that encompasses emotional, psychological and social well-being. The Keyes' two continua model of mental health and illness posits that mental health status is not merely the absence of mental health problems, and it can be enhanced regardless of a diagnosis of mental illness. The present study hypothesized that mentally ill patients with higher levels of PMH would be associated with better life satisfaction and general functioning.

METHODS

218 outpatients with affective disorders at a tertiary psychiatric hospital were recruited and administered the multidimensional Positive Mental Health instrument, which was validated and developed in Singapore to measure PMH. Depression and anxiety severity were also assessed. Associations of positive mental health with life satisfaction and general functioning were investigated in linear regression models.

RESULTS

PMH scores varied largely within patients with depressive and anxiety disorders but did not differ statistically across the two diagnoses, except for emotional support. PMH was associated with both life satisfaction and general functioning with little evidence of confounding by sociodemographic and clinical status.

LIMITATIONS

The cross-sectional design of the study could not examine causal relationships. Findings may be restrictive to treatment-seeking population with specific affective disorders.

CONCLUSION

Our study provides evidence to support the notion that a good mental health state is not simply the absence of a mental disorder. Mentally ill patients can also have high levels of PMH that possibly have a moderating or mediating effect on the relationship between patients' clinical symptoms and life satisfaction or general functioning.

"I'll Give You the World": Socioeconomic Differences in Parental Support of Adult Children

Research has shown that parents with higher socioeconomic status provide more resources to their children during childhood and adolescence. The authors asked whether similar effects associated with parental socioeconomic position are extended to adult children. Middle-aged parents (N = 633) from the Family Exchanges Study reported support they provided to their grown children and coresidence with grown children (N = 1,384). Parents with higher income provided more emotional and material support to the average children. Grown children of parents with less education were more likely to coreside with them. Parental resources (e.g., being married) and demands (e.g., family size) explained these patterns. Of interest is that lower income parents provided more total support to all children (except total financial support). Lower income families may experience a double jeopardy; each grown child receives less support on average, but parents exert greater efforts providing more total support to all their children.

When children affect parents: Children's academic performance and parental investment

Sociologists have extensively documented the ways that parent resources predict children's achievement. However, less is known about whether and how children's academic performance shapes parental investment behaviors. I use data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) and longitudinal fixed effects models to examine how changes in teacher assessments are related to changes in the conferral of various parent resources. Overall, I find that the relationship between achievement and investment varies based on the directionality in children's achievement and the type of resource at hand. Children whose performance improves receive a broad range of enrichment resources, while declines in performance are met with corrective educational resources. Results are largely consistent whether language or math assessments are used to predict investment, and also among children whose achievement does not change over time. I discuss these patterns, along with implications for the use of parent resources in education and family research.

Capturing Between- and Within-Family Differences in Parental Support to Adult Children: A Typology Approach

OBJECTIVES

Families differ widely in the support they provide to adult offspring, both with regard to the overall level as well as the extent to which support is evenly distributed across offspring. This study addressed these dynamics by creating family profiles based on the average level and differentiation of support among children. We also examined demographic and psychological factors that predict typology membership.

METHOD

We utilized data from 431 middle-aged parents (aged 40-60) with at least two adult children. Parents provided separate ratings of support given to each child. Latent profile analysis was applied to two indicators of within-family support: mean level and differentiation among offspring.

RESULTS

Latent profile analysis identified four patterns of parental support: (a) high support-low differentiation (52%), (b) medium support-high differentiation (26%), (c) low support-low differentiation (17%), and (d) low support-very high differentiation (5%). These patterns reflected distinct family characteristics, such as parental resources, parental beliefs (i.e., equal treatment, obligation), and offspring characteristics.

DISCUSSION

Our findings emphasize the need to capture dynamics of support exchanges among multiple offspring at the level of family.

Intergenerational Support in a Daily Context

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Using retrospective global reports, studies have found that middle-aged adults in the United States provide intermittent support to their aging parents and more frequent support to grown children. To date, studies have not examined support middle-aged adults provide to different generations on a daily basis. Daily support may include mundane everyday exchanges that may (or may not) affect well-being.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Middle-aged adults (N = 191, mean age 55.93) completed a general interview regarding family ties, followed by interviews each day for 7 days (N = 1,261 days). Daily interviews assessed support (e.g., advice, emotional, practical help) participants provided each grown child (n = 454) and aging parent (n = 253). Participants also reported daily mood.

RESULTS

Most participants provided emotional support (80%), advice (87%), and practical help (69%) to a grown child and also provided emotional support (61%) and advice (61%) or practical help (43%) to a parent that week. Multilevel models confirmed generational differences; grown children were more likely to receive everyday support than parents. Providing support to grown children was associated with positive mood, whereas providing support to parents was associated with more negative mood.

IMPLICATIONS

Daily intergenerational support was more common than studies using global reports of support have found. Some daily support may be fleeting and not stand out in memory. The findings were consistent with the intergenerational stake hypothesis, which suggests middle-aged adults are more invested in their grown children than in their parents. Nonetheless, middle-aged adults were highly involved with aging parents.

Perceptions of Giving Support and Depressive Symptoms in Late Life

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Research shows that parents benefit psychologically from generativity--giving and caring for the next generation--but older adults' perceptions on giving support to their children are rarely if ever explored in these studies. The current study examines the association between the support that aging parents give to one of their middle-aged offspring, their perception of this support as rewarding or stressful, and their levels of depressive symptoms.

DESIGN AND METHODS

The sample draws from The Family Exchanges Study and consisted of 337 older parents (mean age: 76) who were drawn from a larger study of middle-aged adults (i.e., target participants). Older parents reported tangible and nontangible forms of support given to the target middle-aged child and the extent to which they viewed providing such support as stressful and/or rewarding.

RESULTS

We found significant interactions between tangible support and feelings of reward and between nontangible support and feelings of stress in explaining parental depressive symptoms. Parents who found giving support to be highly rewarding had lower levels of depressive symptoms when giving high amounts of tangible support. Conversely, parents who view giving support to be highly stressful had higher levels of depressive symptoms when they gave low amounts of nontangible support.

IMPLICATIONS

Findings suggest older parents' perceptions of supporting their offspring may condition how generativity affects their mental health.

Help with "strings attached": offspring perceptions that middle-aged parents offer conflicted support

OBJECTIVES

Middle-aged adults often provide beneficial support to grown children. Yet, in some relationships, grown children may feel beholden or intruded upon when they receive parental help. The purpose of this study was to examine such conflicted support in relationships between middle-aged parents and young adults.

METHODS

Middle-aged parents (aged 40-60, n = 399) and their grown children (n = 592) participated. Parents rated perceptions of providing support and relationship quality with each child. Grown children indicated whether their mothers and fathers provided conflicted support and rated their perceptions of parental support, relationship quality, and other factors.

RESULTS

Multilevel models revealed that offspring's perceptions of conflicted support were associated with (a) parents' evaluations about providing support (e.g., greater stress and beliefs that grown children should be autonomous), (b) poorer quality relationships, and (c) offspring having more problems.

DISCUSSION

Findings suggest that perceptions of conflicted support are embedded in a larger constellation of relationship problems and underlying distress for parents and children. These patterns may reflect lifelong difficulties in the tie or that arise in adulthood. Researchers might seek to understand how dyads experiencing such conflicted support differ from more normative relationships characterized by warmth and well-received support.