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Doss MK, Mallaroni P, Mason NL, Ramaekers JG. Psilocybin and 4-Bromo-2,5-Dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) at Encoding Distort Episodic Familiarity. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2024:S2451-9022(24)00166-6. [PMID: 38942147 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2024] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND As research on psychedelics (hallucinogenic 5-HT2A agonists) progresses, it is important to delineate the reliability of supposedly unique effects across this drug class. One such effect is how psychedelics impair the formation (i.e., encoding) of hippocampal-dependent recollections (retrieval of specific details) while potentially enhancing the encoding of cortical-dependent familiarity (a feeling of knowing that a stimulus has been previously experienced). METHODS In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subjects study (N = 20), we tested the acute effects of two distinct psychedelics, psilocybin and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), on the encoding of emotional episodic memories. During acute drug effects, participants viewed negative, neutral, and positive pictures. The following day (while sober), participants completed two separate memory tests for these pictures. RESULTS Using computational models of memory confidence, we found trends for psilocybin and 2C-B at encoding to impair estimates of recollection that were supported by other measures/analyses. Surprisingly, psilocybin and 2C-B at encoding impaired estimates of familiarity, but these impairments were likely due to a misattribution of heightened familiarity, as both drugs at encoding selectively increased familiarity-based false alarms, especially for negative and positive stimuli. Psilocybin and 2C-B at encoding also tended to impair estimates of metamemory (understanding one's own memory) for negative and neutral memories but enhance estimates of metamemory for positive memories, though these effects were less reliable in additional analyses. CONCLUSIONS Despite differences in their chemistry, pharmacology, and subjective effects, both psilocybin and 2C-B distort episodic familiarity, alluding to a common neurocognitive mechanism across psychedelics that may drive other phenomena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj K Doss
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Psychedelic Research & Therapy, The University of Texas at Austin Dell Medical School; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Center for Psychedelic & Consciousness Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.
| | - Pablo Mallaroni
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
| | - Natasha L Mason
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University
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Palamar JJ. Tusi: a new ketamine concoction complicating the drug landscape. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2023; 49:546-550. [PMID: 37162319 PMCID: PMC10636235 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2023.2207716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 04/22/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
A drug concoction called tusi has emerged in Latin America and in Europe and is now beginning to acquire popularity in the United States. "Tusi" is a phonetic translation of "2C," a series of psychedelic phenethylamines. The concoction is also sometimes referred to as "pink cocaine" as it typically comes in the form of pink powder. However, despite its name, the concoction rarely contains 2C series drugs. Multiple drug checking studies have found that the majority of tusi samples contain ketamine, often combined with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), methamphetamine, cocaine, opioids, and/or new psychoactive substances. The tusi phenomenon complicates the drug landscape because it has the potential to confuse both people who use it and researchers alike. People using may think the drug is 2C/2C-B, and they may also be unaware that the concoction tends to consist of ketamine and a wide variety of other drugs. Unintentional exposure to its contents can lead to increased risk of adverse effects. The tusi phenomenon also has the potential to complicate drug research as unknown exposure to drugs like ketamine and MDMA will lead to underreporting of use. A combination of self-report and toxicological testing may be needed to inform the most accurate estimates of use. Both researchers and people at risk for use need to be informed about this new concoction. Drug researchers need to be cognizant about the way they query use, and people at risk for using need to be educated about the possible contents of tusi and associated dangers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph J Palamar
- Department of Population Health, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
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3
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The Altered States Database: Psychometric data from a systematic literature review. Sci Data 2022; 9:720. [PMID: 36418335 PMCID: PMC9684144 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-022-01822-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we present the development of the Altered States Database (ASDB), an open-science project based on a systematic literature review. The ASDB contains psychometric questionnaire data on subjective experiences of altered states of consciousness (ASC) induced by pharmacological and non-pharmacological methods. The systematic review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Scientific journal articles were identified through PubMed and Web of Science. We included studies that examined ASC using the following validated questionnaires: Altered States of Consciousness Rating Scale (APZ, 5D-ASC, 11-ASC), Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI), Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS), or Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ30). The systematic review resulted in the inclusion of a total of 165 journal articles, whereof questionnaire data was extracted and is now available on the Open Science Framework (OSF) website (https://osf.io/8mbru) and on the ASDB website (http://alteredstatesdb.org), where questionnaire data can be easily retrieved and visualized. This data allows the calculation of comparable psychometric values of ASC experiences and of dose-response relationships of substances inducing ASC. Measurement(s) | Psychometric questionnaire data | Technology Type(s) | Systematic literature review (PRISMA) | Sample Characteristic - Organism | Human |
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Maghsoudi N, Tanguay J, Scarfone K, Rammohan I, Ziegler C, Werb D, Scheim AI. Drug checking services for people who use drugs: a systematic review. Addiction 2022; 117:532-544. [PMID: 34729849 PMCID: PMC9299873 DOI: 10.1111/add.15734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Drug checking services provide people who use drugs with chemical analysis results of their drug samples while simultaneously monitoring the unregulated drug market. We sought to identify and synthesize literature on the following domains: (a) the influence of drug checking services on the behaviour of people who use drugs; (b) monitoring of drug markets by drug checking services; and (c) outcomes related to models of drug checking services. METHODS Systematic review. A systematic literature search was conducted in MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science and Dissertations and Theses Global. Eligible studies were peer-reviewed articles and conference abstracts or grey literature, published in any language since 1990 and including original data on the domains. We assessed risk of bias for quantitative peer-reviewed articles reporting on behaviour or models of drug checking services using National Institutes of Health tools. RESULTS We screened 2463 titles and abstracts and 156 full texts, with 90 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Most (n = 65, 72.2%) were from Europe and used cross-sectional designs (n = 79, 87.7%). Monitoring of drug markets by drug checking services (n = 63, 70%) was the most reported domain, followed by the influence of drug checking services on behaviour (n = 31, 34.4%), including intent to use, actual use and disposal of the drug, and outcomes related to models of drug checking services (n = 17, 18.9%). The most common outcome measures were detection of unexpected substances (n = 50, 55.6%), expected substances (n = 44, 48.9%), new psychoactive substances (n = 40, 44.4%) and drugs of concern (n = 32, 36.5%) by drug checking services. CONCLUSIONS Drug checking services appear to influence behavioural intentions and the behaviour of people who use drugs, particularly when results from drug checking services are unexpected or drugs of concern. Monitoring of drug markets by drug checking services is well established in Europe, and increasingly in North America. Concerns about drug contents and negative health consequences facilitate the use of drug checking services; lack of concern; trust in drug sellers; lack of accessibility of drug checking services; and legal and privacy concerns are barriers to use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nazlee Maghsoudi
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Institute of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Justine Tanguay
- Munk School of Global Affairs and Public PolicyUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Kristy Scarfone
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Leslie Dan Faculty of PharmacyUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | - Indhu Rammohan
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Institute of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada
| | | | - Dan Werb
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Institute of Health Policy, Management and EvaluationUniversity of TorontoTorontoONCanada,Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, School of MedicineUniversity of California San DiegoLa JollaCAUSA
| | - Ayden I. Scheim
- Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation, Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt Michael's HospitalTorontoONCanada,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Dornsife School of Public HealthDrexel UniversityPhiladelphiaPAUSA
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The Clinical Toxicology of 4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B): The Severity of Poisoning After Exposure to Low to Moderate and High Doses. Ann Emerg Med 2020; 76:303-317. [PMID: 32507489 DOI: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2020.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVE We studied the severity of poisoning after exposure to low to moderate and high doses of 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B). METHODS Patients for whom the Dutch Poisons Information Centre was consulted for 2C-B exposure from 2016 to 2018 were included in a prospective cohort study. Data were collected through telephone interviews with the physician or patient. Patients were categorized according to the reported 2C-B dose: low to moderate (up to 20 mg), high (greater than 20 mg), or unknown. Presence of 2C-B was analyzed in leftover drug and biological samples with liquid/gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The severity of poisoning was graded with the Poisoning Severity Score. RESULTS We included 59 patients, of whom 32 could be followed up. Low to moderate 2C-B doses were reported by 9 patients (28%), high doses by 17 (53%), and unknown doses by 6 (19%). Poisoning was moderate in the majority of patients in both the low- to moderate-dose and high-dose groups. Frequently reported symptoms included mydriasis, agitation or aggression, hallucinations, confusion, anxiety, hypertension, and tachycardia. The presence of 2C-B was confirmed in 5 patients in urine (n=3) or drug samples (n=4). CONCLUSION In this study, most 2C-B poisonings resulted in moderate toxicity even at high reported doses up to 192 mg. No severe cases were observed. The clinical course was usually short-lived (up to 24 hours) and typically involved hallucinations in addition to mild somatic effects.
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Papaseit E, Olesti E, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Grifell M, Ventura M, Pozo OJ, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M. Acute Effects of 2C-E in Humans: An Observational Study. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:233. [PMID: 32256350 PMCID: PMC7093582 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylphenethylamine (2C-E) is psychedelic phenylethylamine, with a chemical structure similar to mescaline, used as new psychoactive substance (NPS). It inhibits norepinephrine and serotonin uptake and, more relevant, acts as a partial agonist of the serotonin 2A (5-HT2 A), 2B (5-HT2 B), and (5-HT2 C) receptors. Consumers have reported that 2C-E induces mild-moderate psychedelic effects, but its pharmacology in humans, including pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetics, have not yet studied. To assess the acute effects of 2C-E on physiological and subjective effects and evaluate its pharmacokinetics, an observational study was carried-out. Ten recreational users of psychedelics self-administered a single oral dose of 2C-E (6.5, 8, 10, 15, or 25 mg). Blood pressure and heart rate were evaluated at baseline, 2, 4, and 6 h post-administration. Three rating scales were administered to evaluate subjective effects: a set of Visual Analog Scales (VAS), the 49-item short form version of the Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), and the Evaluation of the Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential (VESSPA-SSE) at baseline, 2, 4, and 6 h after self-administration. To assess 2C-E concentrations oral fluid (saliva) was collected during 6 h. 2C-E induced primarily alterations in perceptions, hallucinations, and euphoric-mood. Saliva maximal concentrations were achieved 2 h after self-administration. Administration of oral 2C-E at recreational doses produces a group of psychedelic-like effects such to 2C-B and other serotonin-acting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol-Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eulalia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol-Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain.,Drug Addiction Program, Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Grifell
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain.,Drug Addiction Program, Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions (INAD), Barcelona, Spain.,Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Oscar J Pozo
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain.,Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Departament de Ciències Experimentals i de la Salut (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol-Institut de Recerca Germans Trias i Pujol (HUGTiP-IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Barcelona, Spain
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7
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Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Olesti E, Mateus J, Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, Fonseca F, Torrens M, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M. Mephedrone and Alcohol Interactions in Humans. Front Pharmacol 2020; 10:1588. [PMID: 32063845 PMCID: PMC6999687 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-MMC, mephedrone) is a synthetic cathinone derivative included in the class of new psychoactive substances. It is commonly used simultaneously with alcohol (ethanol). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the interactions on subjective, cardiovascular and hormone effects and pharmacokinetics between mephedrone and alcohol in humans. Eleven male volunteers participated as outpatients in four experimental sessions in a double-blind, randomized, cross-over, and placebo-controlled clinical trial. Participants received a single oral dose of 200 mg of mephedrone plus 0.8 g/kg of alcohol (combination condition); 200 mg of mephedrone plus placebo alcohol (mephedrone condition); placebo mephedrone plus 0.8 g/kg of ethanol (alcohol condition); and placebo mephedrone plus placebo alcohol (placebo condition). Outcome variables included physiological (blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, and pupil diameter), psychomotor (Maddox wing), subjective (visual analogue scales, Addiction Research Center Inventory 49 item short form, and Valoración de los Efectos Subjetivos de Sustancias con Potencial de Abuso questionnaire), and pharmacokinetic parameters (mephedrone and ethanol concentrations). The study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02294266. The mephedrone and alcohol combination produced an increase in the cardiovascular effects of mephedrone and induced a more intense feeling of euphoria and well-being in comparison to the two drugs alone. Mephedrone reduced the sedative effects produced by alcohol. These results are similar to those obtained when other psychostimulants such as amphetamines and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine are combined simultaneously with alcohol. The abuse liability of mephedrone combined with alcohol is greater than that induced by mephedrone alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | | | - Eulalia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Health and Life Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Julian Mateus
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Kim Pc Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Eef L Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions, Addiction Unit and IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions, Addiction Unit and IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jan G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Health and Life Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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Mensen VT, Vreeker A, Nordgren J, Atkinson A, de la Torre R, Farré M, Ramaekers JG, Brunt TM. Psychopathological symptoms associated with synthetic cannabinoid use: a comparison with natural cannabis. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:2677-2685. [PMID: 30968175 PMCID: PMC6695363 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05238-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a class of new psychoactive substances that have been rapidly evolving around the world throughout recent years. Many different synthetic cannabinoid analogues are on the consumer market and sold under misleading names, like "spice" or "incense." A limited number of studies have reported serious health effects associated with SC use. In this study, we compared clinical and subclinical psychopathological symptoms associated with SC use and natural cannabis (NC) use. METHODS A convenience sample of 367 NC and SC users was recruited online, including four validated psychometric questionnaires: The Drug Use Disorders Identification Test (DUDIT), Insomnia Severity Index (ISI), Altman Mania Scale (Altman), and Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). The two groups were compared with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and covariance (ANCOVA), chi2 tests, and logistic regression when appropriate. RESULTS The SC user group did not differ in age from the NC user group (27.7 years), but contained less females (21% and 30%, respectively). SC users scored higher than NC users on all used psychometric measures, indicating a higher likelihood of drug abuse, sleep problems, (hypo)manic symptoms, and the nine dimensions comprising the BSI, somatization, obsessive-compulsive behavior, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychoticism. Odds ratios (95% CI) for the SC user group vs NC user group were, respectively, drug dependence 3.56 (1.77-7.16), (severe) insomnia 5.01 (2.10-11.92), (hypo-)mania 5.18 (2.04-13.14), and BSI psychopathology 5.21 (2.96-9.17). DISCUSSION This study shows that SC use is associated with increased mental health symptomatology compared to NC use.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Annabel Vreeker
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Department of Psychiatry, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Nordgren
- Department of Social Work, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
| | - Amanda Atkinson
- Public Health Institute, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neurosciences, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magi Farré
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neurosciences, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute (IMIM), Barcelona, Spain
- Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Johannes G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Department of Developmental Psychopathology, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
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Sexton JD, Nichols CD, Hendricks PS. Population Survey Data Informing the Therapeutic Potential of Classic and Novel Phenethylamine, Tryptamine, and Lysergamide Psychedelics. Front Psychiatry 2019; 10:896. [PMID: 32116806 PMCID: PMC7026018 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The majority of contemporary psychedelic research has focused on ayahuasca, lysergic acid diethylamide, and psilocybin, though there are hundreds of novel psychedelic compounds that may have clinical utility. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the therapeutic potential of classic and novel phenethylamine, tryptamine, and lysergamide psychedelics via a large, nationally representative population-based survey. METHODS We tested the unique associations of lifetime classic and novel phenethylamine, tryptamine, and lysergamide psychedelics with past month psychological distress and past year suicidality among respondents pooled from years 2008-2017 of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (weighted N = 260,964,827). RESULTS Lifetime classic tryptamine use was associated with a decreased odds of past month psychological distress [aOR = 0.76; (0.69-0.83)] and past year suicidal thinking [aOR = 0.79; (0.72-0.87)]. Lifetime novel phenethylamine use, on the other hand, was associated with an increased odds of past year suicidal thinking [aOR = 1.44; (1.06-1.95)] and past year suicidal planning [aOR = 1.60; (1.06-2.41)]. No other significant associations were found. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS These findings, which may be driven by differences in pharmacodynamics, suggest that classic tryptamines may hold the greatest therapeutic potential of the psychedelics, whereas novel phenethylamines may pose risk for harm. The present findings thus support continued research on the clinical application of classic tryptamines. Though the current results caution against the clinical utility of novel phenethylamines, further study of these and other novel psychedelic substances is nonetheless warranted to better understand their potential application.
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Affiliation(s)
- James D Sexton
- Department of Health Behavior, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Charles D Nichols
- Department of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, LSU Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, United States
| | - Peter S Hendricks
- Department of Health Behavior, School of Public Health, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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Halberstadt AL, Chatha M, Stratford A, Grill M, Brandt SD. Comparison of the behavioral responses induced by phenylalkylamine hallucinogens and their tetrahydrobenzodifuran ("FLY") and benzodifuran ("DragonFLY") analogs. Neuropharmacology 2019; 144:368-376. [PMID: 30385253 PMCID: PMC6863604 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.10.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 10/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, rigid analogs of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens have appeared as recreational drugs. Examples include 2-(8-bromo-2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)ethan-1-amine (2C-B-FLY) and 1-(8-bromobenzo[1,2-b;4,5-b']difuran-4-yl)-2-aminopropane (Bromo-DragonFLY, DOB-DFLY). Although some rigid compounds such as DOB-DFLY reportedly have higher potency than their non-rigid counterparts, it is not clear whether the same is true for 2C-B-FLY and other tetrahydrobenzodifurans. In the present study, the head twitch response (HTR), a 5-HT2A receptor-mediated behavior induced by serotonergic hallucinogens, was used to assess the effects of 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromoamphetamine (DOB) and its α-desmethyl homologue 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B), as well as their benzodifuranyl and tetrahydrobenzodifuranyl analogs, in C57BL/6J mice. DOB (ED50 = 0.75 μmol/kg) and 2C-B (ED50 = 2.43 μmol/kg) induced the HTR. The benzodifurans DOB-DFLY (ED50 = 0.20 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-DFLY (ED50 = 1.07 μmol/kg) had significantly higher potency than DOB and 2C-B, respectively. The tetrahydrobenzodifurans DOB-FLY (ED50 = 0.67 μmol/kg) and 2C-B-FLY (ED50 = 1.79 μmol/kg), by contrast, were approximately equipotent with their non-rigid counterparts. Three novel tetrahydrobenzodifurans (2C-I-FLY, 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY) were also active in the HTR assay but had relatively low potency. In summary, the in vivo potency of 2,5-dimethoxyphenylalkylamines is enhanced when the 2- and 5-methoxy groups are incorporated into aromatic furan rings, whereas potency is not altered if the methoxy groups are incorporated into dihydrofuran rings. The potency relationships for these compounds in mice closely parallel the human hallucinogenic data. The high potency of DOB-DFLY is probably linked to the presence of two structural features (a benzodifuran nucleus and an α-methyl group) known to enhance the potency of phenylalkylamine hallucinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA; Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, 3350 La Jolla Village Dr., San Diego, CA, 92161, USA.
| | - Muhammad Chatha
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
| | | | - Matthias Grill
- Lipomed AG, Fabrikmattenweg 4, CH-4144, Arlesheim, Switzerland
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
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11
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Dos Santos RG, Bouso JC, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ, Hallak JEC. Efficacy, tolerability, and safety of serotonergic psychedelics for the management of mood, anxiety, and substance-use disorders: a systematic review of systematic reviews. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2018; 11:889-902. [PMID: 30102078 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2018.1511424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Mood, anxiety, and substance-use disorders are among the most prevalent psychiatric disorders in the population. Although several pharmacological treatments are available, they are not effective for a significant proportion of patients and are associated with several adverse reactions. Therefore, new treatments should be explored. Recent studies suggest that serotonergic hallucinogens/psychedelics including ayahuasca, psilocybin, and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) have anxiolytic, antidepressive, and antiaddictive effects. Areas Covered: A systematic review of systematic reviews assessing the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of serotonergic hallucinogens/psychedelic was performed using the PubMed data base until 11 April 2018. Systematic reviews with or without meta-analysis were analyzed, but only reviews that described at least one randomized controlled trial (RCT) were included. Expert Commentary: Psilocybin and LSD reduced anxiety and depression in cancer patients and symptoms of alcohol and tobacco dependence, and ayahuasca reduced depression symptoms in treatment-resistant depression. Although the results are promising, several studies were open label, and only few were RCTs, and most had small sample sizes and a short duration. Single or few doses of these drugs seem to be well tolerated, but long-term studies are lacking. New RCTs with bigger samples and longer duration are needed to replicate these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael G Dos Santos
- a ICEERS Foundation (International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services) , Barcelona , Spain.,b Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School , University of São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto , Brazil.,c Translational Medicine , National Institute of Science and Technology , Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- a ICEERS Foundation (International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services) , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Miguel Ángel Alcázar-Córcoles
- d Departamento de Psicología Biológica y de la Salud. Facultad de Psicología , Universidad Autónoma de Madrid , Madrid , Spain
| | - Jaime E C Hallak
- b Department of Neurosciences and Behavior, Ribeirão Preto Medical School , University of São Paulo , Ribeirão Preto , Brazil.,c Translational Medicine , National Institute of Science and Technology , Ribeirão Preto , Brazil
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12
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Abstract
Several novel psychoactive substances have emerged in recent years. Users are typically young men who use other substances. In the category of stimulants, cathinones ("bath salts") have predominated and can lead to agitation, psychosis, hyperthermia, and death. Synthetic cannabinoids ("spice") are more potent than marijuana and can lead to agitation, psychosis, seizures, and death. There are no rapid tests to identify these substances and general treatment includes benzodiazepines for agitation and supportive therapy. Many Synthetic opioids are potent analogues of fentanyl and carry a high risk of overdose. In addition, there are several designer benzodiazepines that have emerged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Graddy
- Division of Chemical Dependence, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5200 Eastern Avenue, Suite D5W, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Megan E Buresh
- Division of Chemical Dependence, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5200 Eastern Avenue, Suite D5W, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Darius A Rastegar
- Division of Chemical Dependence, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 5200 Eastern Avenue, Suite D5W, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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13
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Papaseit E, Farré M, Pérez-Mañá C, Torrens M, Ventura M, Pujadas M, de la Torre R, González D. Acute Pharmacological Effects of 2C-B in Humans: An Observational Study. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:206. [PMID: 29593537 PMCID: PMC5859368 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (2C-B) is a psychedelic phenylethylamine derivative, structurally similar to mescaline. It is a serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A), 5-hydroxytryptamine-2B (5-HT2B), and 5-hydroxytryptamine-2C (5-HT2C) receptor partial agonist used recreationally as a new psychoactive substance. It has been reported that 2C-B induces mild psychedelic effects, although its acute pharmacological effects and pharmacokinetics have not yet been fully studied in humans. An observational study was conducted to assess the acute subjective and physiological effects, as well as pharmacokinetics of 2C-B. Sixteen healthy, experienced drug users self-administered an oral dose of 2C-B (10, 15, or 20 mg). Vital signs (blood pressure and heart rate) were measured at baseline 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 hours (h). Each participant completed subjective effects using three rating scales: the visual analog scale (VAS), the Addiction Research Centre Inventory (ARCI), and the Evaluation of the Subjective Effects of Substances with Abuse Potential (VESSPA-SSE) at baseline, 2–3 and 6 h after self-administration (maximum effects along 6 h), and the Hallucinogenic Rating Scale (maximum effects along 6 h). Oral fluid (saliva) was collected to assess 2C-B and cortisol concentrations during 24 h. Acute administration of 2C-B increased blood pressure and heart rate. Scores of scales related to euphoria increased (high, liking, and stimulated), and changes in perceptions (distances, colors, shapes, and lights) and different body feelings/surrounding were produced. Mild hallucinating effects were described in five subjects. Maximum concentrations of 2C-B and cortisol were reached at 1 and 3 h after self-administration, respectively. Oral 2C-B at recreational doses induces a constellation of psychedelic/psychostimulant-like effects similar to those associated with serotonin-acting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Institute for Health Science Research Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Institute for Health Science Research Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Germans Trias i Pujol University Hospital, Institute for Health Science Research Germans Trias i Pujol, Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Drug Addiction Program, Institute of Neuropsychiatry and Addictions, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mitona Pujadas
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Experimental and Health Sciences, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Débora González
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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14
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Barrett FS, Schlienz NJ, Lembeck N, Waqas M, Vandrey R. "Hallucinations" Following Acute Cannabis Dosing: A Case Report and Comparison to Other Hallucinogenic Drugs. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2018; 3:85-93. [PMID: 29682608 PMCID: PMC5908416 DOI: 10.1089/can.2017.0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Cannabis has been historically classified as a hallucinogen. However, subjective cannabis effects do not typically include hallucinogen-like effects. Empirical reports of hallucinogen-like effects produced by cannabis in controlled settings, particularly among healthy research volunteers, are rare and have mostly occurred after administration of purified Δ-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) rather than whole plant cannabis. Methods: The case of a healthy 30-year-old male who experienced auditory and visual hallucinations in a controlled laboratory study after inhaling vaporized cannabis that contained 25 mg THC (case dose) is presented. Ratings on the Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS) following the case dose are compared with HRS ratings obtained from the participant after other doses of cannabis and with archival HRS data from laboratory studies involving acute doses of cannabis, psilocybin, dextromethorphan (DXM), and salvinorin A. Results: Scores on the Volition subscale of the HRS were greater for the case dose than for the maximum dose administered in any other comparison study. Scores on the Intensity and Perception subscales were greater for the case dose than for the maximum dose of cannabis, psilocybin, or salvinorin A. Scores on the Somaesthesia subscale were greater for the case dose than for the maximum dose of DXM, salvinorin A, or cannabis. Scores on the Affect and Cognition subscales for the case dose were significantly lower than for the maximum doses of psilocybin and DXM. Conclusion: Acute cannabis exposure in a healthy adult male resulted in self-reported hallucinations that rated high in magnitude on several subscales of the HRS. However, the hallucinatory experience in this case was qualitatively different than that typically experienced by participants receiving classic and atypical hallucinogens, suggesting that the hallucinatory effects of cannabis may have a unique pharmacological mechanism of action. This type of adverse event needs to be considered in the clinical use of cannabis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick S Barrett
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Nicolas J Schlienz
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Natalie Lembeck
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Muhammad Waqas
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Ryan Vandrey
- Behavioral Pharmacology Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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15
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Palma-Conesa ÁJ, Ventura M, Galindo L, Fonseca F, Grifell M, Quintana P, Fornís I, Gil C, Farré M, Torrens M. Something New about Something Old: A 10-Year Follow-Up on Classical and New Psychoactive Tryptamines and Results of Analysis. J Psychoactive Drugs 2017; 49:297-305. [DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2017.1320732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Álvaro José Palma-Conesa
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Predoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Collaborator, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Manager, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Liliana Galindo
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Consultant Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Postdoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Senior Consultant, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Assistant Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marc Grifell
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Resident Psychiatry, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
- Predoctoral Student, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Quintana
- Collaborator, Resident Family Medicine, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Iván Fornís
- Consultant, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gil
- Technician, Drug Checking Service, Energy Control, Associació Benestar i Desenvolupament, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Predoctoral Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Senior Consultant, Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Hospital Universitari Germans Trías i Pujol, Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Badalona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Professor, Department de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal and Farmacologia, Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Valles, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Researcher, Addiction Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Head Senior Consultant, Addiction Program, Neuropsychiatry and Addiction Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
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16
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Grifell M, Ventura M, Carbón X, Quintana P, Galindo L, Palma Á, Fornis I, Gil C, Farre M, Torrens M. Patterns of use and toxicity of new para-halogenated substituted cathinones: 4-CMC (clephedrone), 4-CEC (4-chloroethcatinone) and 4-BMC (brephedrone). Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28657185 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This paper aims to present results of the analysis of clephedrone (4-CMC), 4-chloroethcathinone (4-CEC), and brephedrone (4-BMC) on recreational drug markets and a systematic review of all the available information concerning these substances. MATERIAL AND METHODS Samples collected by the drug checking service of the Spanish harm reduction NGO-Energy Control were analyzed and systematic research was conducted. Between June 2014 and October 2016, 1,471 samples with at least one NPS were analyzed, 397 of which contained cathinones. RESULTS Clephedrone was found in 29 samples, brephedrone in 8, and both were present in 2 samples. 4-Chloroethcathinone was detected in 5 samples. Eleven out of the 47 purchased samples (23.4%) were tested to contain the substance the user expected. Samples received were mainly sold as 3-MMC, MDMA, ketamine, and other cathinones. No literature on the effects or toxicity of these substances was found; the only information available was on internet fora. On many posts, users exhibit concerns about potential toxicity and side effects of using these substances. CONCLUSION Since the emergence of these substances could prove to be the next step to the cat-and-mouse game existing between drug producers and legislation, further clinical and epidemiological research should be carried out in order to build evidence to support policy for public health issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Grifell
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain.,Unitat de Recerca en Neurociencia Cognitiva, Departament de Psiquiatria i Medicina Legal, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallés, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Mireia Ventura
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xoán Carbón
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Quintana
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain.,IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Liliana Galindo
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Álvaro Palma
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ivan Fornis
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina Gil
- Energy Control, Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Magi Farre
- Pharmacology, Consorci Mar Parc de salut de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Departament de Farmacologia Terapèutica i Toxicologia, Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona Ringgold Standard Institution, Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain.,Servei de Farmacología Clínica, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol Ringgold Standard Institution, Badalona, Catalunya, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Addiccions, Hospital del Mar-IMIM, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Psychiatry, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Plaça Cívica, s/n, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
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17
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Bouso JC, Pedrero-Pérez EJ, Gandy S, Alcázar-Córcoles MÁ. Measuring the subjective: revisiting the psychometric properties of three rating scales that assess the acute effects of hallucinogens. Hum Psychopharmacol 2016; 31:356-72. [PMID: 27470427 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2015] [Revised: 05/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE In the present study we explored the psychometric properties of three widely used questionnaires to assess the subjective effects of hallucinogens: the Hallucinogen Rating Scale (HRS), the Mystical Experience Questionnaire (MEQ), and the Addiction Research Center Inventory (ARCI). METHODS These three questionnaires were administered to a sample of 158 subjects (100 men) after taking ayahuasca, a hallucinogen whose main active component is N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). A confirmatory factorial study was conducted to check the adjustment of previous data obtained via theoretical proposals. When this was not possible, we used an exploratory factor analysis without restrictions, based on tetrachoric and polychoric matrices and correlations. RESULTS Our results sparsely match the theoretical proposals of the authors, perhaps because previous studies have not always employed psychometric methods appropriate to the data obtained. However, these data should be considered preliminary, pending larger samples to confirm or reject the proposed structures obtained. CONCLUSIONS It is crucial that instruments of sufficiently precise measurement are utilized to make sense of the information obtained in the study of the subjective effects of psychedelic drugs. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Carlos Bouso
- ICEERS Foundation (International Center for Ethnobotanical Education, Research and Services), Spain.
| | - Eduardo José Pedrero-Pérez
- Departamento de Evaluación y Calidad, Instituto de Adicciones, Madrid Salud, Ayuntamiento de Madrid, Spain
| | - Sam Gandy
- The College of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Aberdeen, UK
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18
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Brunt TM, Nagy C, Bücheli A, Martins D, Ugarte M, Beduwe C, Ventura Vilamala M. Drug testing in Europe: monitoring results of the Trans European Drug Information (TEDI) project. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:188-198. [PMID: 26888408 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 12/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Drug testing is a harm reduction strategy that has been adopted by certain countries in Europe. Drug users are able to hand in their drugs voluntarily for chemical analysis of composition and dose. Drug users will be alerted about dangerous test results by the drug testing systems directly and through warning campaigns. An international collaborative effort was launched to combine data of drug testing systems, called the Trans European Drug Information (TEDI) project. Drug testing systems of Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria, Portugal, and the Netherlands participated in this project. This study presents results of some of the main illicit drugs encountered: cocaine, ecstasy and amphetamine and also comments on new psychoactive substances (NPS) detected between 2008 and 2013. A total of 45 859 different drug samples were analyzed by TEDI. The drug markets of the distinct European areas showed similarities, but also some interesting differences. For instance, purity of cocaine and amphetamine powders was generally low in Austria, whilst high in Spain and the Netherlands. And the market for ecstasy showed a contrast: whereas in the Netherlands and Switzerland there was predominantly a market for ecstasy tablets, in Portugal and Spain MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) crystals were much more prevalent. Also, some NPS appearing in ecstasy seemed more specific for one country than another. In general, prevalence of NPS clearly increased between 2008 and 2013. Drug testing can be used to generate a global picture of drug markets and provides information about the pharmacological contents of drugs for the population at risk. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor M Brunt
- Drug Information and Monitoring System (DIMS), Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Daniel Martins
- Agência Piaget para o Desenvolvimento (APDES), V. N. Gaia, Portugal
| | | | - Cécile Beduwe
- Modus Vivendi ASBL, Harm Reduction among drug users, Brussels, Belgium
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19
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Nugteren-van Lonkhuyzen JJ, van Riel AJHP, Brunt TM, Hondebrink L. Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and toxicology of new psychoactive substances (NPS): 2C-B, 4-fluoroamphetamine and benzofurans. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 157:18-27. [PMID: 26530501 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2015] [Revised: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 10/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recently, the number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) appearing on the illicit drug market has shown a marked increase. Although many users perceive the risk of using NPS as medium or low, these substances can pose a serious health risk and several NPS have been implicated in drug-related deaths. In Europe, frequently detected NPS are 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) and benzofurans (5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) or 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)). However, little is known about the health risks of these specific NPS. METHODS In this paper, existing literature on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) was reviewed. RESULTS Our review showed that the clinical effects of 2C-B, 4-FA and benzofurans (5-APB/6-APB) are comparable with common illicit drugs like amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Therefore, NPS toxicity can be handled by existing treatment guidelines that are based on clinical effects instead of the specific drug involved. Even so, information on the health risks of these substances is limited to a number of case reports that are complicated by confounders such as analytical difficulties, mislabelling of drugs, concomitant exposures and interindividual differences. CONCLUSION To aid in early legislation, data on clinical effects from poisons centres and user fora should be combined with (in vitro) screening methods and collaboration on an (inter)national level is essential. As a result, potentially hazardous NPS could be detected more quickly, thereby protecting public health.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Antoinette J H P van Riel
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring, Da Costakade 45, 3521 VS Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Laura Hondebrink
- National Poisons Information Centre, University Medical Centre Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3508 GA Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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Acute Effects of the Novel Psychoactive Drug 2C-B on Emotions. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:643878. [PMID: 26543863 PMCID: PMC4620274 DOI: 10.1155/2015/643878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Background. 2C-B (Nexus) is one of the most widespread novel psychoactive substances. There is limited information about its pharmacological properties, and few studies in humans concern its acute and chronic effects. 2C-B has been classified as a stimulant, hallucinogen, entactogen, and/or empathogen. Objectives. To evaluate the emotional, subjective, and cardiovascular effects of 2C-B. Methods. Twenty healthy recreational 2C-B users (12 women) self-administered a 20 mg dose of 2C-B. Evaluations included emotional (IAPS, FERT, and speech), subjective (visual analog scales, ARCI, VESSPA, HRS, and POMS questionnaires), and cardiovascular effects (blood pressure and heart rate). Results. Positive subjective effects predominated with a reduction of anger under the influence of 2C-B. It did, however, increase reactivity to negative emotional stimuli and decrease the ability to recognize expressions of happiness. Augmented emotionality in speech could be appreciated by others. 2C-B induced euphoria and well-being, changes in perceptions, and slight hallucinogenic states. Mild sympathetic actions were observed. Conclusions. The specific profile that 2C-B exerts on emotions suggests its classification as an entactogen with psychedelic properties.
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Martins D, Valente H, Pires C. CHECK!NG: A última fronteira para a Redução de Riscos em contextos festivos. SAUDE E SOCIEDADE 2015. [DOI: 10.1590/s0104-12902015000200020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
No contexto atual de proliferação de novas substâncias psicoativas (NSP) e de adulteração de substâncias psicoativas que circulam no mercado negro o Drug Checking é aqui encarado como uma estratégia major de redução de riscos e minimização de danos (RRMD). É um serviço que se tem vindo a afirmar como uma necessidade em termos de saúde pública, através da monitorização informal de mercados informais de substâncias psicoativas e emitindo alertas sempre que se identificam substâncias potencialmente tóxicas. É também uma boa prática na mediação da comunicação entre o técnico de RRMD e o utilizador de substâncias psicoativas, fornecendo informação objetiva sobre a substância que o utilizador disponibilizou para análise e produzindo e disseminando informação sobre os padrões de adulteração locais. Através da apresentação de práticas e resultados referentes à intervenção do projeto CHECK!NG, pretende-se neste artigo levantar pistas para uma reflexão sobre a pertinência e as particularidades de um serviço de Drug Checking em contexto festivos.
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Hondebrink L, Nugteren-van Lonkhuyzen JJ, Van Der Gouwe D, Brunt TM. Monitoring new psychoactive substances (NPS) in The Netherlands: data from the drug market and the Poisons Information Centre. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015; 147:109-15. [PMID: 25541244 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2014] [Revised: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, the number of new psychoactive substances (NPS) appearing on the illicit drug market strongly increased. However, little is known about their toxic effects and risks. Therefore, we determined the most frequently occurring NPS in The Netherlands and combined this with data regarding drug-related intoxications. METHODS Data from the Drugs Information and Monitoring System (DIMS) and the Dutch Poisons Information Centre (DPIC) were combined and jointly analyzed. RESULTS The number of drug samples submitted to DIMS for analysis containing NPS increased from 22 in 2007 to 431 samples in 2013. The most frequently submitted NPS in 2013 included 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA), methoxetamine (MXE) and 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB). From 2012 onwards, the number of NPS bought as drug of choice exceeded those appearing as adulterants in established drugs. The DPIC was consulted about 35 NPS exposures in 2013, most frequently involving 4-FA, mephedrone, MXE, 2C-B and 6-APB. Following NPS exposure, neurological and psychological symptoms were most frequently reported, like agitation and hallucinations. In addition, cardiovascular symptoms like hypertension and tachycardia often occurred. CONCLUSIONS NPS are currently being purchased as drug of choice in The Netherlands and their availability and use is increasing. Although pharmacological and toxicological data are scarce, NPS can induce pronounced clinical effects. Therefore, the monitoring of trends in NPS prevalence needs to be continued, combined with reported clinical effects, and preferably supported by analytical confirmation of exposures in such patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Hondebrink
- National Poisons Information Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Daan Van Der Gouwe
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tibor M Brunt
- Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction (Trimbos Institute), Department of Drug Monitoring, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Riba J, McIlhenny EH, Bouso JC, Barker SA. Metabolism and urinary disposition ofN,N-dimethyltryptamine after oral and smoked administration: a comparative study. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:401-6. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Riba
- Human Neuropsychopharmacology Group; Sant Pau Institute for Biomedical Research (IIB-Sant Pau); Sant Antoni María Claret, 167 Barcelona 08025 Spain
- Centre d'Investigació de Medicaments, Servei de Farmacologia Clínica; Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau; Sant Antoni María Claret, 167 Barcelona 08025 Spain
- Departament de Farmacologia, de Terapèutica i de Toxicologia; Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM; Spain
| | - Ethan H. McIlhenny
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine; Louisiana State University; Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
| | - José Carlos Bouso
- Human Neuropsychopharmacology Group; Sant Pau Institute for Biomedical Research (IIB-Sant Pau); Sant Antoni María Claret, 167 Barcelona 08025 Spain
- ICEERS - International Center for Ethnobotanical Education Research & Service; The Netherlands
| | - Steven A. Barker
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine; Louisiana State University; Baton Rouge LA 70803 USA
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Giné CV, Espinosa IF, Vilamala MV. New psychoactive substances as adulterants of controlled drugs. A worrying phenomenon? Drug Test Anal 2014; 6:819-24. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2013] [Revised: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Vidal Giné
- Energy Control - Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo; Quevedo 2 bajos 08012 Barcelona Spain
| | - Iván Fornís Espinosa
- Energy Control - Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo; Quevedo 2 bajos 08012 Barcelona Spain
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González D, Ventura M, Caudevilla F, Torrens M, Farre M. Consumption of new psychoactive substances in a Spanish sample of research chemical users. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013; 28:332-40. [PMID: 23881881 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To know the pattern of use of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) in a Spanish sample of research chemical (RC) users and to deepen the RC user profile and risk reduction strategies employed. METHODS This study is a cross-sectional survey by means of a specific questionnaire. Recruitment was carried out at music festivals, at non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and through announcements on an online forum. Two RC user profiles were defined, according to whether they search information through online forums. RESULTS A total of 230 users participated. The most frequent RCs were hallucinogenic phenethylamines (2C-B 80.0%, 2C-I 39.6%) and cathinones (methylone 40.1%, mephedrone 35.2%). The most frequent combination of RC with other illegal drugs was with cannabis (68.6%) and 2C-B with MDMA (28.3%). Subjects who are consulting drug forums (group 1) use more RC, obtain RC by Internet, and use more frequently risk prevention strategies. Regarding the risk-reduction strategies in this group, users sought information concerning RC before consuming them (100%), used precision scales to calculate dosage (72.3%), and analyzed the contents before consumption (68.8%). CONCLUSIONS There is a specific RC user profile with extensive knowledge and consumption of substances, using different strategies to reduce risks associated to its consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora González
- Human Pharmacology and Clinical Neurosciences Unit and Drug Addiction Unit, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, INAD-Hospital del Mar, Parc de Salut MAR, Barcelona, Spain
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XXXIII International Congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists (EAPCCT) 28–31 May 2013, Copenhagen, Denmark. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2013. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2013.785188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Páleníček T, Fujáková M, Brunovský M, Horáček J, Gorman I, Balíková M, Rambousek L, Syslová K, Kačer P, Zach P, Bubeníková-Valešová V, Tylš F, Kubešová A, Puskarčíková J, Höschl C. Behavioral, neurochemical and pharmaco-EEG profiles of the psychedelic drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 225:75-93. [PMID: 22842791 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2797-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2012] [Accepted: 06/25/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE AND OBJECTIVES Behavioral, neurochemical and pharmaco-EEG profiles of a new synthetic drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) in rats were examined. MATERIALS AND METHODS Locomotor effects, prepulse inhibition (PPI) of acoustic startle reaction (ASR), dopamine and its metabolite levels in nucleus accumbens (NAc), EEG power spectra and coherence in freely moving rats were analysed. Amphetamine was used as a reference compound. RESULTS 2C-B had a biphasic effect on locomotion with initial inhibitory followed by excitatory effect; amphetamine induced only hyperlocomotion. Both drugs induced deficits in the PPI; however they had opposite effects on ASR. 2C-B increased dopamine but decreased 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) in the NAc. Low doses of 2C-B induced a decrease in EEG power spectra and coherence. On the contrary, high dose of 2C-B 50 mg/kg had a temporally biphasic effect with an initial decrease followed by an increase in EEG power; decrease as well as increase in EEG coherence was observed. Amphetamine mainly induced an increase in EEG power and coherence in theta and alpha bands. Increases in the theta and alpha power and coherence in 2C-B and amphetamine were temporally linked to an increase in locomotor activity and DA levels in NAc. CONCLUSIONS 2C-B is a centrally active compound similar to other hallucinogens, entactogens and stimulants. Increased dopamine and decreased DOPAC in the NAc may reflect its psychotomimetic and addictive potential and monoaminoxidase inhibition. Alterations in brain functional connectivity reflected the behavioral and neurochemical changes produced by the drug; a correlation between EEG changes and locomotor behavior was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Páleníček
- Prague Psychiatric Center, Ústavní 91, 181 03 Bohnice, Prague 8, Czech Republic.
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Taniguchi M, Yamamoto Y, Nishi K. Comparative <i>in Vitro</i> Studies of the Metabolism of Six 4-Substituted Methamphetamines and Their Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 2D6 by GC-MS with Trifluoroacetyl Derivatization. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/ajac.2013.44022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Cardiovascular toxicity of novel psychoactive drugs: lessons from the past. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012; 39:244-52. [PMID: 22580238 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 04/30/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The long use of ephedrine, amphetamines, cocaine, LSD and more recently 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine (MDMA; "Ecstasy") allows us to predict with some confidence what cardiovascular risks are likely to be associated with novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Once the probably multiple biological activities of a compound are known it is possible to define the likely risks of cardiovascular toxicity. Agonists of 5-HT(2A) receptors or alpha-adrenoceptors may cause vasoconstriction and tissue ischemia. Drugs which have agonist affinity for 5-HT(2B) receptors will probably promote heart valve fibrosis leading to heart failure. Compounds that interfere with uptake of dopamine or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) are likely to also have effects on noradrenergic neurotransmission and lead to sympathomimetic effects on the heart and vasculature. Drugs that cause dopamine release, or inhibit uptake are likely to be addictive and lead to chronic use. Other drugs (particularly the so-called empathogens) are associated with weekly usage in social settings; over time such use can lead to cardiovascular harm. Defining which of these effects NPS have is an important element of predicting the harm they may cause and informing those appointed to introduce regulations to control them.
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