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Comeau D, Spinato MT, Ojkic D, Foster RA, Caswell JL. Bovine astrovirus and its role in lymphocytic encephalitis in cattle in Ontario, Canada, 1988-2019. J Vet Diagn Invest 2024; 36:447-456. [PMID: 38500024 PMCID: PMC11110778 DOI: 10.1177/10406387241237192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Astroviruses have been found in cattle and other species with encephalitis. Our objective was to determine the frequency of neurotropic bovine astrovirus (BoAstV) in cases of encephalitis in cattle ≥ 4-mo-old. Of 56 cases of idiopathic lymphocytic encephalitis examined retrospectively (1988-2019), fixed brain from 11 cases (19%) tested positive by semi-quantitative RT-PCR for BoAstV CH13/NeuroS1. None of the control cases tested positive, including 32 with other forms of encephalitis and 40 with no neurologic disease. Most astrovirus-positive cases were 1-2-y-old, with a range of 7 mo to 7 y, and affected both beef and dairy breeds with wide geographic distribution. BoAstV-positive cases had acute onset of neurologic signs of 12 h to 7 d before death or euthanasia. Affected cattle had lymphocytic inflammation throughout the brain including cerebrum, thalamus, midbrain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and spinal cord, and affecting gray and white matter. Further PCR testing identified a possible cause in 9 of the 45 (20%) remaining idiopathic cases of lymphocytic encephalitis, including eastern equine encephalitis virus, Listeria monocytogenes, bovine viral diarrhea virus, bovine alphaherpesvirus 1, and ovine gammaherpesvirus 2 (malignant catarrhal fever); we found no cases of infection by West Nile virus, rabies virus, or Chlamydia spp. No cause was identified in 36 of 56 (64%) cases of lymphocytic encephalitis. We frequently identified neurotropic BoAstV in cases of lymphocytic encephalitis that had no previously identified cause. Neurotropic BoAstV infections had gone undetected for decades, but the frequency of BoAstV infections has not increased among contemporary cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Comeau
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Maria T. Spinato
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Davor Ojkic
- Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robert A. Foster
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeff L. Caswell
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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2
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Dastjerdi A, Strong R, La Rocca SA, Wessels M, Wessels J, Whitaker K, Strugnell B, Williamson S. Investigation into an outbreak of Border disease virus in pigs in England. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022; 69:1698-1706. [PMID: 35353447 PMCID: PMC9544453 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Border disease (BD) was first reported in 1959 in lambs from the border region of England and Wales. The causative virus (BD virus; BDV) has since been identified in several other ruminant species and pigs. The virus is prevalent in sheep flocks of UK, Europe and USA and has potential to inflict substantial economic losses. Natural BDV infection of pigs was first reported in the UK in 1992 from pigs with haemorrhagic lesions and more recently from healthy pigs in Spain and Japan. Here, a persistent problem of poor growth and anaemia in a small proportion of growing pigs on a mixed pig and sheep holding was investigated and tissues were tested in a pan viral microarray. The microarray detected BDV RNA in several tissues which was further confirmed by sequencing, specific BDV PCR and immunohistochemistry. Phylogenetically, the virus clustered with other BDVs in the sub‐genotype 1b. This investigation highlights likely interspecies transmission of pestiviruses and their impact on pestivirus detection and eradication programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akbar Dastjerdi
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Rebecca Strong
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S Anna La Rocca
- Virology department, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA)-Weybridge, Addlestone, Surrey, KT15 3NB, UK
| | - Mark Wessels
- APHA-Preston, Animal Health Centre, Barton Hall, Garstang Road, Barton, Preston, . PR3 5HE, UK
| | - Julie Wessels
- APHA-Bury St. Edmunds, Rougham Hill, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, IP33 2RX, UK
| | - Kate Whitaker
- APHA-Preston, Animal Health Centre, Barton Hall, Garstang Road, Barton, Preston, . PR3 5HE, UK
| | - Ben Strugnell
- APHA-Thirsk, West House, Station Road, Thirsk, YO7 1PZ, UK
| | - Susanna Williamson
- APHA-Bury St. Edmunds, Rougham Hill, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, IP33 2RX, UK
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3
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Epigenomic and Proteomic Changes in Fetal Spleens Persistently Infected with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus: Repercussions for the Developing Immune System, Bone, Brain, and Heart. Viruses 2022; 14:v14030506. [PMID: 35336913 PMCID: PMC8949278 DOI: 10.3390/v14030506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection during early gestation results in persistently infected (PI) immunotolerant calves that are the primary reservoirs of the virus. Pathologies observed in PI cattle include congenital defects of the brain, heart, and bone as well as marked functional defects in their immune system. It was hypothesized that fetal BVDV infection alters T cell activation and signaling genes by epigenetic mechanisms. To test this, PI and control fetal splenic tissues were collected on day 245 of gestation, 170 days post maternal infection. DNA was isolated for reduced representation bisulfite sequencing, protein was isolated for proteomics, both were analyzed with appropriate bioinformatic methods. Within set parameters, 1951 hypermethylated and 691 hypomethylated DNA regions were identified in PI compared to control fetuses. Pathways associated with immune system, neural, cardiac, and bone development were associated with heavily methylated DNA. The proteomic analysis revealed 12 differentially expressed proteins in PI vs. control animals. Upregulated proteins were associated with protein processing, whereas downregulated proteins were associated with lymphocyte migration and development in PI compared to control fetal spleens. The epigenetic changes in DNA may explain the immune dysfunctions, abnormal bone formation, and brain and heart defects observed in PI animals.
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4
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Montgomery DL. Distribution and Cellular Heterogeneity of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Viral Antigen Expression in the Brain of Persistently Infected Calves: A New Perspective. Vet Pathol 2016; 44:643-54. [PMID: 17846236 DOI: 10.1354/vp.44-5-643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Persistent infection following in utero exposure to bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) early in gestation is a serious cause of morbidity and mortality in cattle industries worldwide. The brain is a primary target of persistent infection. In the current study, the types of cells infected and topography of viral antigen expression were examined in brain sections from 9 BVDV persistently infected crossbred calves, all less than 1 year of age, by immunohistochemical staining using the 15C5 primary monoclonal antibody. BVDV antigen was detected in the brains of all persistently infected calves. A variety of cell types was infected, including neurons, astrocytes, oligodendroglia, blood vessel-associated cells (pericytes, perivascular macrophages, smooth muscle cells), and cells in the leptomeninges (blood vessel-associated cells). Conclusive demonstration of viral antigen in vascular endothelial cells was elusive. The intensity and distribution of viral antigen staining in neurons were highly variable. Viral antigen staining was most consistent and intense in thalamic nuclei, most notably in dorsal and medial nuclear groups, followed by the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, basal nuclei, and piriform cortex. Staining in other brain areas was often less intense and inconsistent. The variability in the intensity and topography of viral antigen in the brain may explain the heterogeneity in the clinical manifestations of BVDV-induced disease. Additionally, infection of the brain in persistently infected calves may underlie or at least contribute to endocrine disturbances and immunologic deficits that are protean manifestations of BVDV-induced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- D L Montgomery
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, College of Agriculture, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 82070, USA.
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5
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Confer AW, Fulton RW, Step DL, Johnson BJ, Ridpath JF. Viral Antigen Distribution in the Respiratory Tract of Cattle Persistently Infected with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Subtype 2a. Vet Pathol 2016; 42:192-9. [PMID: 15753473 DOI: 10.1354/vp.42-2-192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Tissues were obtained at necropsy from the nasal vestibule, turbinates, nasopharynx, trachea, tracheobronchial bifurcation, and lung from each of 10 clinically healthy calves persistently infected (PI) with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) serotype 2a. Tissues from the nasal vestibule were obtained by biopsy from five additional PI calves. Formalin-fixed tissues were processed for immunohistochemistry to localize the distribution of BVDV throughout the respiratory tract. Antigen distribution and intensity were subjectively evaluated. Throughout the respiratory tract, mononuclear leukocytes, vascular smooth muscle, and endoneural and perineural cells had BVDV immunoreactivity (BVDV-IR). Multifocally, squamous and ciliated columnar epithelium throughout the respiratory tract contained weak to moderate BVDV antigen. Viral antigen was not seen in goblet cells. BVDV-IR in mixed tubuloalveolar glands of the nasal cavity was weak to strong in serous secretory cells and ductular epithelium. Chondrocytes of the concha often contained BVDV antigen diffusely. Nasal mucus-secreting and tracheobronchial glands multifocally contained weak viral signal. In all cases, alveolar macrophages had moderate to strong BVDV-IR, whereas BVDV-IR in alveolar epithelial cells was weak to moderate. BVDV was present in interalveolar leukocytes and mesenchymal cells. Results indicate that serous secretions of the nasal cavity, productive viral infection of epithelium, and infected leukocytes in respiratory secretions are likely major sources of infectious BVDV from PI calves. The presence of BVDV antigen in respiratory epithelium is, at least, indirect support for the notion that this virus predisposes PI cattle to secondary microbial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Confer
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology and the Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, 211 McElroy Hall, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078-2007, USA.
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Abstract
Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) continues to be of economic significance to the livestock industry in terms of acute disease and fetal loss. Many of the lesions relating to BVDV infection have been well described previously. The virus is perpetuated in herds through the presence of calves that are persistently infected. Relationships between various species and biotypes of BVDV and host defenses are increasingly understood. Understanding of the host defense mechanisms of innate immunity and adaptive immunity continues to improve, and the effects of the virus on these immune mechanisms are being used to explain how persistent infection develops. The noncytopathic biotype of BVDV plays the major role in its effects on the host defenses by inhibiting various aspects of the innate immune system and creation of immunotolerance in the fetus during early gestation. Recent advances have allowed for development of affordable test strategies to identify and remove persistently infected animals. With these improved tests and removal strategies, the livestock industry can begin more widespread effective control programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. W. Brodersen
- Nebraska Veterinary Diagnostic Center, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
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Complete genome sequences of two bovine viral diarrhea viruses isolated from brain tissues of nonambulatory (downer) cattle. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2013; 1:1/5/e00733-13. [PMID: 24029765 PMCID: PMC3772149 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00733-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report the complete genome sequences of two bovine viral diarrhea viruses (BVDVs) (strains 11F011 and 12F004) isolated from brain tissues from nonambulatory (downer) cattle. The complete genomes of strains 11F011 and 12F004 contain 12,287 nucleotides (nt) with a single large open reading frame and 12,301 nt with a single large open reading frame, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that these strains belong to the BVDV-2a and -1b genotypes, respectively.
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8
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Yavru S, Kale M, Gulay M, Yapici O, Bulut O, Ata A. Effects of bovine viral diarrhoea virus on the fertility of cows. Acta Vet Hung 2013; 61:281-9. [PMID: 23661395 DOI: 10.1556/avet.2013.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to determine the possible relationship between bovine viral diarrhoea (BVD) virus infection and the appearance of cervical mucous discharge (CMD) and the reproductive performance of cows in oestrus. For this purpose, CMD from 97 Holstein cows in oestrus was evaluated visually before artificial insemination (AI). Cows in oestrus were inseminated with frozen semen free from BVD virus (BVDV). Blood samples were tested by enzyme-linked immunoassay (ELISA) for antigen (Ag) and antibodies (Ab) of BVDV. The presence of the BVDV genome in cervical mucus samples was tested by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). The presence of BVDV Ab, Ag or genome was not associated with abnormal cervical mucous discharge (A-CMD). However, the presence of BVDV Ag (but not of the BVDV Ab) in blood samples was associated with a lower first service conception rate (FSCR; 27.8 vs. 70.9%; P < 0.01), indicating that BVDV viraemia at the time of AI has a negative effect on the fertility of cows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibel Yavru
- 1 Selçuk University Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Konya Turkey
| | - Mehmet Kale
- 2 Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Department of Virology 15030 Burdur Turkey
| | - Mehmet Gulay
- 3 Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Department of Physiology 15030 Burdur Turkey
| | - Orhan Yapici
- 1 Selçuk University Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Konya Turkey
| | - Oya Bulut
- 1 Selçuk University Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine Konya Turkey
| | - Ayhan Ata
- 4 Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Department of Theriogenology and Artificial Insemination, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine 15030 Burdur Turkey
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9
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Herder V, Hansmann F, Wohlsein P, Peters M, Varela M, Palmarini M, Baumgärtner W. Immunophenotyping of inflammatory cells associated with Schmallenberg virus infection of the central nervous system of ruminants. PLoS One 2013; 8:e62939. [PMID: 23667545 PMCID: PMC3646890 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 03/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) is a recently discovered Bunyavirus associated mainly with abortions, stillbirths and malformations of the skeletal and central nervous system (CNS) in newborn ruminants. In this study, a detailed immunophenotyping of the inflammatory cells of the CNS of affected animals was carried out in order to increase our understanding of SBV pathogenesis. A total of 82 SBV-polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positive neonatal ruminants (46 sheep lambs, 34 calves and 2 goat kids) were investigated for the presence of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord. The study focused on 15 out of 82 animals (18.3%) showing inflammation in the CNS. All 15 neonates displayed lymphohistiocytic meningoencephalomyelitis affecting most frequently the mesencephalon and the parietal and temporal lobes. The majority of infiltrating cells were CD3-positive T cells, followed by CD79α-positive B cells and CD68-positive microglia/macrophages. Malformations like por- and hydranencephaly, frequently found in the temporal lobe, showed associated demyelination and axonal loss. SBV antigen was detected in 37 out of 82 (45.1%) neonatal brains by immunohistochemistry. In particular, SBV antigen was found in 93.3% (14 out of 15 ruminants) and 32.8% (22 out of 67 ruminants) of animals with and without encephalitis, respectively. Highest amounts of virus-protein expression levels were found in the temporal lobe. Our findings suggest that: (i) different brain regions display differential susceptibility to SBV infection; (ii) inflammatory cells in the CNS are found only in a minority of virus infected animals; (iii) malformations occur in association with and without inflammation in the CNS; and (iv) viral antigen is strongly associated with the presence of inflammation in naturally infected animals. Further studies are required to explore the cell tropism and pathogenesis of SBV infection in ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Herder
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Florian Hansmann
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Peter Wohlsein
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
| | - Martin Peters
- Staatliches Veterinäruntersuchungsamt, Arnsberg, North-Rhine Westphalia, Germany
| | - Mariana Varela
- MRC Centre for Virus Research, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Massimo Palmarini
- MRC Centre for Virus Research, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Lower Saxony, Germany
- Center for Systems Neuroscience, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail:
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10
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Henningson JN, Steffen DJ, Topliff CL, Kurth KL, Dubielzig RR, Brodersen BW, Bedenice D, Eskridge KM, Callan RJ, Reggiardo C, Rupp GP, Kelling CL. Systemic Distribution of Viral Antigen in Alpacas Persistently Infected With Bovine Pestivirus. Vet Pathol 2012; 50:308-17. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985812447827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Recently, confirmed occurrences of persistent bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection in North American alpacas have raised concerns about the role of persistently infected (PI) alpacas in transmission of virus among herds, yet only limited pathological descriptions of persistent infections in alpacas have been reported. The objective of this study was to characterize BVDV antigen distribution in 10 PI alpacas of varying age and to compare viral antigen distribution and localization in tissues of PI alpacas with 5 PI calves of varying age. Ocular dysplasia was evident in 1 PI alpaca, constituting the first reported congenital ocular lesion in PI alpacas. Viral antigen was widely distributed in alpaca tissues and was prominent in neurons, endothelial cells, and vascular tunica media myocytes but had limited distribution in lymphoid tissues and moderate distribution in epithelium of several organ systems of alpacas. Macrophages in the alpaca gastrointestinal system submucosa and lymph node medullary sinuses often had prominent labeling. In addition, only 1 alpaca had antigen labeling in the bone marrow in contrast to PI cattle. Labeled cells in calf tissues were more widely distributed, occurring prominently in lymphoid and epithelial tissues. Common features of the 2 host species were widespread antigen labeling and absence of lymphoid depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. N. Henningson
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
- Current address: Kansas State Veterinary
Diagnostic Laboratory, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas
| | - D. J. Steffen
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - C. L. Topliff
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - K. L. Kurth
- Wisconsin Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory,
Madison, Wisconsin
| | - R. R. Dubielzig
- Department of Pathobiology, University of
Wisconsin School of Veterinary Medicine, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - B. W. Brodersen
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - D. Bedenice
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts
University, North Grafton, Massachusetts
| | - K. M. Eskridge
- Department of Statistics, University of
Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - R. J. Callan
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado
| | - C. Reggiardo
- Arizona Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory,
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
| | - G. P. Rupp
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
| | - C. L. Kelling
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical
Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska
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Fetal protection against bovine viral diarrhoea type 1 virus infection after one administration of a live-attenuated vaccine. Vet J 2012; 192:242-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2009] [Revised: 05/09/2011] [Accepted: 05/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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12
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Passler T, Walz HL, Ditchkoff SS, van Santen E, Brock KV, Walz PH. Distribution of bovine viral diarrhoea virus antigen in persistently infected white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). J Comp Pathol 2012; 147:533-41. [PMID: 22520818 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2012.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2011] [Revised: 02/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Infection with bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), analogous to that occurring in cattle, is reported rarely in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). This study evaluated the distribution of BVDV antigen in persistently infected (PI) white-tailed deer and compared the findings with those from PI cattle. Six PI fawns (four live-born and two stillborn) from does exposed experimentally to either BVDV-1 or BVDV-2 were evaluated. Distribution and intensity of antigen expression in tissues was evaluated by immunohistochemistry. Data were analyzed in binary fashion with a proportional odds model. Viral antigen was distributed widely and was present in all 11 organ systems. Hepatobiliary, integumentary and reproductive systems were respectively 11.8, 15.4 and 21.6 times more likely to have higher antigen scores than the musculoskeletal system. Pronounced labelling occurred in epithelial tissues, which were 1.9-3.0 times likelier than other tissues to contain BVDV antigen. Antigen was present in >90% of samples of liver and skin, suggesting that skin biopsy samples are appropriate for BVDV diagnosis. Moderate to severe lymphoid depletion was detected and may hamper reliable detection of BVDV in lymphoid organs. Muscle tissue contained little antigen, except for in the cardiovascular system. Antigen was present infrequently in connective tissues. In nervous tissues, antigen expression frequency was 0.3-0.67. In the central nervous system (CNS), antigen was present in neurons and non-neuronal cells, including microglia, emphasizing that the CNS is a primary target for fetal BVDV infection. BVDV antigen distribution in PI white-tailed deer is similar to that in PI cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Passler
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.
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13
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Oem JK, Chung JY, Roh IS, Kim HR, Bae YC, Lee KH, Jin YH, Lee OS. Characterization and Phylogenetic Analysis of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Brain Tissues from Nonambulatory (Downer) Cattle in Korea. J Vet Diagn Invest 2010; 22:518-23. [DOI: 10.1177/104063871002200404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Between August 2008 and May 2009, 386 brain and serum samples from adult cattle (2–7 years old) showing a variety of clinical signs of downer cow syndrome were received by the National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service. All brain samples were tested for the presence of Bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and antigen capture ELISA (Ag-ELISA). The BVDV nucleic acid was detected in 54 of 386 (15.5%) brain samples tested by RT-PCR. Positive results were detected in 14 (3.67%) and 13 (3.4%) of samples tested by IHC and Ag-ELISA, respectively. Both BVDV nucleic acid and antigen were detected in 11 cattle (2.9%) by all 3 diagnostic tests; however, antibodies against BVDV were not detected in these 11 cattle. A molecular classification of the identified viral strains ( n = 40) was also carried out. Neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysis revealed that most of the identified viruses belonged to BVDV genotype 1a ( n = 10), 1b ( n = 16), and 2a ( n = 8). The remaining strains were subtypes 1c ( n = 1), 1n ( n = 4), and 1m ( n = 1). Interestingly, most of the BVDV-1b strains ( n = 9) identified in brain samples were confirmed by all 3 diagnostic tests. Further studies should be performed to determine why the BVDV-1b strain was found in brain samples that were positive using all 3 diagnostic tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Ku Oem
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Joon-Yee Chung
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Soon Roh
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Ryoung Kim
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - You-Chan Bae
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Hyun Lee
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Hwa Jin
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - O-Soo Lee
- National Veterinary Research and Quarantine Service, Ministry for Food, Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Anyang, Republic of Korea
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14
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Otter A, Welchman DDB, Sandvik T, Cranwell MP, Holliman A, Millar MF, Scholes SFE. Congenital tremor and hypomyelination associated with bovine viral diarrhoea virus in 23 British cattle herds. Vet Rec 2009; 164:771-8. [PMID: 19542551 DOI: 10.1136/vr.164.25.771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents data from 23 British herds investigated between 1991 and 2007 where neurological disease in calves was caused by bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) infection. A variety of clinical signs, most commonly tremor or trembling, were apparent in the calves from birth, and most were recumbent or unable to stand unsupported. Severe diffuse neuraxial hypomyelination was present in all of the calves, and immunohistochemistry revealed cerebral neuronal labelling consistent with congenital persistent pestivirus infection in each brain. BVDV was detected in peripheral blood samples from eight of 15 calves tested using an antigen ELISA, and was isolated in culture from samples of viscera, brain or blood collected from 17 of 24 affected calves. TaqMan RT-PCR for pestivirus RNA was positive for BVDV-1 in all six calves tested. Six of the virus isolates on which molecular classification was carried out, obtained from calves in four of the herds, were identified as BVDV-1a, while three isolates from one affected and two unaffected calves on a fifth farm were confirmed as BVDV-1b.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Otter
- Veterinary Laboratories Agency (VLA) - Shrewsbury, Kendal Road, Harlescott, Shrewsbury, UK.
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Montgomery DL, Van Olphen A, Van Campen H, Hansen TR. The Fetal Brain in Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus-infected Calves: Lesions, Distribution, and Cellular Heterogeneity of Viral Antigen at 190 Days Gestation. Vet Pathol 2008; 45:288-96. [DOI: 10.1354/vp.45-3-288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that the brain is a target of persistent infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) and have demonstrated viral tropism for neurons as well as other endogenous cell types in diverse brain areas. Apart from foci of mild residual inflammation in some postnatal calves, consistent brain lesions, per se, have not been reported. No similar comprehensive studies of the brain have been reported in bovine fetuses. In the current study, 12 BVDV-seronegative heifers were inoculated intranasally with a 2-ml 4.4 log10 TCID50/ml dose of noncytopathic type 2 BVDV at 75 and 175 days of gestation to create persistently and transiently infected fetuses, respectively. In only persistently infected fetuses, encephaloclastic lesions resulting in pseudocysts were observed in the subependymal zone in the region of the median eminence and adjacent corona radiata as well as in the region of the external capsule associated with lenticulostriate arteries. Additionally, areas of rarefaction in white matter were observed at the tips of cerebrocortical gyri and in the external capsule. The distribution of viral antigen was examined by immunohistochemical labeling using the 15C5 anti-BVDV monoclonal antibody. Viral antigen was detected only in calves inoculated at 75 days of gestation, i.e., persistently infected. The pattern of BVDV immunolabeling revealed both similarities and differences compared with previous studies in postnatal calves, suggesting that viral infection in the brain is a dynamic and progressive rather than static process.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. L. Montgomery
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY
| | - A. Van Olphen
- Department of Global Health, College of Public Health, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL
| | - H. Van Campen
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
| | - T. R. Hansen
- Department and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
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16
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Blas-Machado U, Saliki JT, Duffy JC, Caseltine SL. Bovine viral diarrhea virus type 2-induced meningoencephalitis in a heifer. Vet Pathol 2004; 41:190-4. [PMID: 15017036 DOI: 10.1354/vp.41-2-190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The brain from a 15-month-old, black female Angus, with a 48-hour history of central nervous system disease, was submitted to the Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory. Microscopic findings consisted of acute, multifocal meningoencephalitis, with neuronal degeneration and necrosis and gliosis. Viral isolation yielded noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Virus genotyping classified the virus as BVDV type 2. Immunohistochemical labeling for BVDV antigens with BVD MAb 3.12F1 clone was prominent in the cytoplasm of neurons, glial cells, ependymal epithelium, perivascular macrophages and spindle cells, smooth muscle cells, and intravascular monocytes of the cerebrum and brain stem. Laboratory results support that tissue alterations occurred as a result of BVDV type 2 infection. In the absence of other clinical signs related to BVDV infection and using the microscopic and laboratory evidence presented, we propose that the BVDV type 2 isolated from this case may represent a neurovirulent strain of the virus. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of brain lesions and neuronal viral antigen localization in BVDV genotype 2 viral infection, acquired either congenitally or postnatally.
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Affiliation(s)
- U Blas-Machado
- Oklahoma Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, PO Box 7001, Stillwater, OK 74076, USA.
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17
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Citver AS, Shields AM, Ciaccia LM, Schulingkamp RJ, Raffa RB. Indirect modulation of dopamine D2 receptors as potential pharmacotherapy for schizophrenia: III. Retinoids. J Clin Pharm Ther 2002; 27:161-8. [PMID: 12081629 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2710.2002.00410.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Present antipsychotic drugs, whose clinical activity correlates with direct binding to dopamine D2 or other receptors, alleviate some of the symptoms of schizophrenia, but not all and not completely in many patients. In continuation of our overview of potential novel antipsychotic pharmacotherapy that would be based upon indirect modulation of dopamine or other neurotransmitter functioning, we focus in this article on the postulated use of retinoid analogs as novel antipsychotic agents. Several lines of evidence can be viewed as implicating retinoid dysregulation in schizophrenia, either as a causative or contributory factor. It has been proposed that using retinoid analogs to alter the downstream expression of dopamine D2 receptors might represent a novel approach to the treatment of the disease or amelioration of symptoms when used either as monotherapy or as adjunct pharmacotherapy to dopamine D2 receptor antagonists.
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18
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Carfagno ML, Hoskins LA, Pinto ME, Yeh JC, Raffa RB. Indirect modulation of dopamine D2 receptors as potential pharmacotherapy for schizophrenia: II. Glutamate (Ant)agonists. Ann Pharmacother 2000; 34:788-97. [PMID: 10860140 DOI: 10.1345/aph.19146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To summarize the published preclinical and clinical data that suggest the possible use of glutamate receptor agonists or antagonists as novel antipsychotic agents. DATA SOURCES Primary and review articles were identified by MEDLINE search (from 1966 to December 1999) and through secondary sources. STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION All of the articles identified from the data sources were evaluated and all information deemed relevant was included. DATA SYNTHESIS The standard antipsychotic drugs, whose clinical activity correlates with affinity for dopamine D2 receptors, alleviate some of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, but have limited impact on negative symptoms. Several lines of evidence implicate glutamate-receptor system dysfunction(s) in schizophrenia, either as causative or contributory factors. In addition, several standard antipsychotic drugs modulate glutamate or glutamate receptor activity, suggesting an alternative view of their mechanism of antipsychotic action. Preliminary studies have shown that drugs which modulate glutamate brain concentrations have positive effects in animal models of schizophrenia. CONCLUSIONS A role for glutamate in the pathogenesis or pharmacotherapy of schizophrenia is suggested from anatomic (interactions between glutamatergic and dopaminergic systems in relevant brain regions), physiologic (implication of glutamate-receptor dysfunction), and pharmacologic (modulation of glutamate or glutamate receptors) evidence. Therefore, compounds that function at glutamate receptors might represent a novel approach to the treatment of the disease or to the amelioration of symptoms, either as monotherapy or as an adjunct to dopamine D2 receptor antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Carfagno
- School of Pharmacy, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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19
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Fredriksen B, Press CM, Sandvik T, Odegaard SA, Løken T. Detection of viral antigen in placenta and fetus of cattle acutely infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus. Vet Pathol 1999; 36:267-75. [PMID: 10421093 DOI: 10.1354/vp.36-4-267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The reproductive organs and fetuses of seven Norwegian Red heifers were investigated for the presence of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) antigen during the time of initial transplacental transmission of the virus. The heifers were inoculated with a noncytopathogenic BVDV at day 85/86 of gestation and were slaughtered at day 7, 10, 14, 18, or 22 postinoculation (pi). Cryostat sections of uterus, ovaries, placentomes, intercotyledonary fetal membranes, and fetal organs were examined using immunohistochemical techniques. A double immunofluorescence technique was used to identify cells that showed staining with antibodies against the leukocyte common antigen CD45 or the intermediate filament vimentin and BVDV antigens. The earliest stage of infection at which BVDV antigen could be detected in the fetuses was 14 days pi. At this stage, BVDV antigen was detected in cells of mesenchymal origin in the lungs and in large cells that morphologically resembled immature megakaryocytes in the liver. In the intercotyledonary fetal membranes and in the placentomes, BVDV antigen was not detected until 18 and 22 days pi, respectively. BVDV antigen was not detected in maternal tissue from any of the heifers. The present results indicate that fetal infection with BVDV can take place without preceding or simultaneous high concentrations of BVDV in uterus or placenta of acutely infected heifers.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Fredriksen
- Department of Reproduction and Forensic Medicine, Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Oslo.
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20
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Dixon DA, Fenix LA, Kim DM, Raffa RB. Indirect modulation of dopamine D2 receptors as potential pharmacotherapy for schizophrenia: I. Adenosine agonists. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33:480-8. [PMID: 10332540 DOI: 10.1345/aph.18215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To review preclinical and clinical information related to pharmacologic modulation of dopamine D2 receptors as potential novel antipsychotic therapy. Specifically, to summarize the data that suggest a modulatory action of adenosine A2A receptors on dopamine D2 receptors and, therefore, a possible rational role of adenosine A2A agonists as novel antipsychotic agents. DATA SOURCES Primary and review articles were identified by MEDLINE search (from 1966 to May 1998) and through secondary sources. STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION All of the articles identified from the data sources were evaluated and all information deemed relevant was included in this review. DATA SYNTHESIS For all of the older and many of the newer antipsychotic agents, there is a strong correlation between clinical antipsychotic activity and affinity for dopamine D2 receptors. Unfortunately, dopamine D2 receptors are believed to also be involved in the adverse effect profile of these agents. The indirect modulation of dopamine D2 receptors, rather than direct block, might produce antipsychotic effects without the usual adverse reactions. Several lines of evidence from animal studies suggest that the use of selective A2A agonists might represent a novel approach to the treatment of psychoses. CONCLUSIONS Dopamine receptor modulation might represent a novel antipsychotic approach or adjunct therapy. The data regarding adenosine agonists (particularly selective A2A receptor agonists) are inconclusive at the present time. Direct clinical demonstration of effectiveness is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Dixon
- School of Pharmacy, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA
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21
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Letellier C, Kerkhofs P, Wellemans G, Vanopdenbosch E. Detection and genotyping of bovine diarrhea virus by reverse transcription-polymerase chain amplification of the 5' untranslated region. Vet Microbiol 1999; 64:155-67. [PMID: 10028170 PMCID: PMC7117503 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1135(98)00267-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was developed to differentiate the bovine diarrhea virus (BVDV) from other pestiviruses, and to determine the genotype of the BVDV isolates. For this purpose, primer pairs were selected in the 5' untranslated region (5'UTR). The primers BE and B2 were located in highly conserved regions and were pestivirus-specific. Two primer pairs named B3B4 and B5B6 were specific of BVDV genotypes I and II, respectively. With this technique, an amplification product of the expected size was obtained with either the B3B4 or the B5B6 primer pairs for the 107 BVDV isolates tested but not for BDV or CSFV. For some isolates that were grouped in the genotype II, sequence analysis of the PCR fragments confirmed their classification into this genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Letellier
- Centre d'Etude et de Recherches Vétérinaires et Agrochimiques 99, Brussels, Belgium.
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22
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Fredriksen B, Press CM, Løken T, Odegaard SA. Distribution of viral antigen in uterus, placenta and foetus of cattle persistently infected with bovine virus diarrhoea virus. Vet Microbiol 1999; 64:109-22. [PMID: 10028166 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1135(98)00263-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The tissue distribution and cellular localisation of bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV) was investigated in the uterus, placentomes, intercotyledonary foetal membranes and foetal organs of three persistently infected (PI) pregnant heifers. The uterus and ovaries of a non-pregnant PI heifer were also included in the study. Cryostat sections were examined using immunohistochemical techniques and monoclonal antibodies against BVDV. A double immunofluorescence technique was used to identify BVDV positive cells that also showed staining for either the leukocyte common antigen CD45 or the cytoskeletal filament vimentin. BVDV antigen was detected in all the organs examined, and was present in both epithelial and non-epithelial cells. In all organs many of the virus-positive cells also showed reactivity for vimentin. In the foetal liver and spleen a small, scattered population of virus-positive cells showed reactivity for CD45. A few cells showed reactivity both for BVDV antigen and for CD45 in the placentomes and intercotyledonary foetal membranes. In contrast to earlier reports, only scattered cells in the foetal part of the placentomes, the cotyledons, showed reactivity for BVDV antigen. However, in the chorion of the intercotyledonary foetal membranes, a larger proportion of the trophoblast cells showed reactivity for BVDV, especially the binuclear trophoblast cells. In the uterus, pregnancy appeared to favour virus replication, as the section from the pregnant heifers showed much stronger staining and a higher proportion of viral antigen-positive cells than sections from the non-pregnant PI heifer.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Fredriksen
- Department of Reproduction and Forensic Medicine, Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine, Oslo, Norway.
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23
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Brownlie J, Hooper LB, Thompson I, Collins ME. Maternal recognition of foetal infection with bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV)--the bovine pestivirus. CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC VIROLOGY 1998; 10:141-50. [PMID: 9741639 DOI: 10.1016/s0928-0197(98)00030-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pestiviruses are the veterinary viruses with genome homology to human hepatitis C virus (HCV). This group includes classical swine fever virus (CSFV), border disease virus of sheep (BDV) and bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV). There are some similarities in the pathology of all three virus infections; in utero transmission to the foetus can cause early embryonic losses, severe congenital abnormalities and, particularly with BVDV, lifelong persistent infections. In situ hybridisation studies have demonstrated virus within reproductive tissues and the germinal centres of lymphoid tissue. OBJECTIVES To examine the immune response of cattle throughout their pregnancy following infection with bovine pestivirus (BVDV) during the first trimester (before 110 days). STUDY DESIGN In two experimental studies, heifers were infected with BVDV before 98 days gestation. Their antibody response was monitored during the remainder of the pregnancy. In another study, the antibody response of pregnant cattle was monitored following a natural infection of BVDV on a farm. Calves of the dams from all these three studies were examined, following birth, for persistent BVDV infection. RESULTS It was observed that in dams carrying persistently infected foetuses, the immune response was markedly higher (13811 + 1273 U ELISA antibody) than in those dams carrying uninfected foetuses (2542+/-588 U ELISA antibody). These results were used to establish an antibody threshold (10000 U ELISA antibody) to predict the virus status of unborn calves during a farm outbreak of BVDV infection. The combined results of experimental and farm studies showed that in dams with low antibodies, 5/15 calves were infected whereas in dams with high antibodies, 17/19 calves were infected. CONCLUSIONS The predictive reliability of the assay appeared valuable but not secure. The ability of BVDV to infect the foetus with consequent maternal recognition, whilst remaining inaccessible to maternal immune exclusion, is a novel finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Brownlie
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Herts, UK.
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24
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Spagnuolo-Weaver M, Allan GM, Kennedy S, Foster JC, Adair BM. Distribution of cytopathic and noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus antigens in tissues of calves following acute experimental infection. J Vet Diagn Invest 1997; 9:287-97. [PMID: 9249168 DOI: 10.1177/104063879700900310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The distribution of cytopathic and noncytopathic biotypes of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) in the tissues of colostrum-fed and colostrum-deprived calves was investigated. Colostrum-fed (group A) and colostrum-deprived (group B) calves were experimentally infected with the BVDV isolate 80/1, which contains both BVDV biotypes. Colostrum-deprived calves were also experimentally infected with a noncytopathic BVDV (group C) or with a cytopathic BVDV (group D) cloned from the 80/1 isolate. All calves were sequentially euthanized, and a wide range of tissue samples were processed for immunofluorescent and virus isolation studies. In group A, consistent immunofluorescent staining for BVDV was detected in vascular smooth muscle of numerous blood vessels in the tissues examined, mainly at 11 and 13 days postinoculation. A predominance of samples containing cytopathic BVDV was observed in the calves of this group, following virus isolation studies. Both cytopathic and noncytopathic BVDV were detected/recovered from a larger range of specimens in the calves in group B than from the calves in group A. In the calves in all the experimental groups, large amounts of BVDV antigen were detected mainly in tissue samples from the lymphoid and gastrointestinal systems, whereas only minimal amounts of BVDV were detected in the respiratory tract. Abundant noncytopathic BVDV antigen was also detected in pituitary gland and in Langerhans islets in pancreases of colostrum-deprived calves infected with the cloned noncytopathic BVDV. Noncytopathic BVDV was isolated from a wider range of tissues from calves in group C than in the colostrum-deprived calves infected with both BVDV biotypes. A cytopathic BVDV was isolated/detected in retropharyngeal, mesenteric, and abomasal lymph nodes and in thymus of 2 calves in group C. Cytopathic BVDV was detected/isolated mainly from mesenteric lymph nodes and Peyer's patches of the calves in group D.
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25
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Marshall DJ, Moxley RA, Kelling CL. Distribution of virus and viral antigen in specific pathogen-free calves following inoculation with noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus. Vet Pathol 1996; 33:311-8. [PMID: 8740705 DOI: 10.1177/030098589603300308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Gross and microscopic lesions and distribution of virus were studied in specific pathogen-free calves (SPF) 10 days post-inoculation (PI) with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). To investigate possible differences in tissue tropism between BCDV isolates, two clinically and antigenically different noncytopathic (ncp) isolates of BVDV were compared in the study. Four calves were exposed to noncytopathic (ncp) BVDV 7937, and four to ncp-BVDV 126. Two additional calves that were not exposed to virus served as controls. Both ncp-BVDV 7937 and ncp-BVDV 126 induced mild disease characterized by variable fever and anorexia. Lymphoid depletion was evident in Peyer's patch of four calves and the thymus of two calves exposed to BVDV. Differences between these isolates in the distribution of BVDV or BVDV antigen in tissues of inoculated calves were not found. High concentrations of BVDV and BVDV-specific antigen were detected in the thymus, Peyer's patch, and mesenteric lymph node of all exposed calves. BVDV was shown to infect cells of the bone marrow without causing microscopic lesions. High concentrations of BVDV were recovered from the bone marrow of all calves exposed to BVDV and BVDV-specific antigen was demonstrated at this location in six of these calves. Platelet counts of calves exposed to BVDV were significantly reduced during infection, which resulted in thrombocytopenia in one calf. Focal areas of necrosis were observed in squamous epithelial cells of the tonsil and ruminal mucosa. BVDV-specific antigen was found in and adjacent to these foci. Calves exposed to ncp-BVDV 7937 had slightly more severe clinical signs than those exposed to ncp-BVDV 126.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Marshall
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, USA
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26
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Bielefeldt-Ohmann H. The pathologies of bovine viral diarrhea virus infection. A window on the pathogenesis. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 1995; 11:447-76. [PMID: 8581857 PMCID: PMC7111321 DOI: 10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30461-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathologic lesions caused by bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infections comprise a wide spectrum of type, degree, and, by implication, pathogenesis, including congenital defects, necroticerosive lesions in mucosal epithelia and skin, and reactive as well as degenerative changes in lymphoid tissues. At least some of the pathology may not be solely due to BVDV replication per se, but rather caused by a host response to the virus, particularly the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bielefeldt-Ohmann
- Centre for Molecular Biotechnology (Arbovirology Group) School of Life Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
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27
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Baszler TV, Evermann JF, Kaylor PS, Byington TC, Dilbeck PM. Diagnosis of naturally occurring bovine viral diarrhea virus infections in ruminants using monoclonal antibody-based immunohistochemistry. Vet Pathol 1995; 32:609-18. [PMID: 8592795 DOI: 10.1177/030098589503200601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues from 50 spontaneous cases (39 bovine, nine ovine, two caprine) of bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) infection diagnosed by virus isolation were retrospectively examined for BVDV antigen by immunohistochemistry using anti-BVDV gp-43 monoclonal antibody (Mab 15C5). The cases were separated into enteric disease syndrome, respiratory disease syndrome, and abortion/weak calf syndrome based upon clinical disease. The purposes of the study were to 1) compare routine virus isolation with immunohistochemistry in determining BVDV infection and 2) define tissue and cellular distribution of BVDV in various clinical manifestations of infection. In bovids, there was 100% concordance of virus isolation and immunohistochemistry using Mab 15C5 in cases of enteric disease (mucosal disease, acute and chronic diarrhea, neonatal diarrhea), respiratory disease, and abortion. When laboratory tests were restricted to gastrointestinal tissue and/or feces, virus isolation detected BVDV in only 65% of cattle, whereas immunohistochemistry detected BVDV antigen in 100% of cattle. Immunohistochemical detection of pestivirus was poor in cases of ovine abortion, ovine hairy shaker syndrome, and caprine abortion. The tissue distribution of BVDV antigen was widespread in individual cattle with all clinical forms of BVDV infection. Viral antigen accumulation was spatially correlated with tissue lesions (in the absence of other pathogens) only in the gastrointestinal tract, lymphoid tissue, lung, placenta, and eye. This study demonstrates the utility of immunohistochemistry using Mab 15C5 to diagnose BVDV infections in cattle with a broad spectrum of clinical disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- T V Baszler
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, Washington State University, Pullman, USA
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28
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Gruber AD, Moennig V, Hewicker-Trautwein M, Trautwein G. Effect of formalin fixation and long-term storage on the detectability of bovine viral-diarrhoea-virus (BVDV) RNA in archival brain tissue using polymerase chain reaction. ZENTRALBLATT FUR VETERINARMEDIZIN. REIHE B. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. SERIES B 1994; 41:654-61. [PMID: 7597858 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.1994.tb00276.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Detection of DNA or RNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) may be hindered by degradation of nucleic acids during tissue collection, preparation and archivation. This study describes investigations on the effect of formalin fixation and prolonged storage of paraffin-embedded tissues on bovine viral-diarrhoea (BVD)-virus RNA as a model system. Brain tissues from eight persistently BVDV-infected calves containing high amounts of the virus were fixed in 5% neutral-buffered formalin or 10% non-buffered formalin for different fixation times, respectively, and paraffin embedded. Subsequent detection of an 803 bp fragment from single tissue sections using nested PCR after reverse transcription (nested RT-PCR) demonstrated a loss of detectability of viral RNA after more than 10 days (10% non-buffered formalin) and 3 months (5% neutral-buffered formalin) of fixation. Additional studies with 280 initially BVDV-positive brain tissues from 25 persistently BVDV-infected calves after storage of up to 10 years revealed a loss of detectable RNA after more than 1 year of storage. For estimation of the higher sensitivity of nested RT-PCR compared to single step RT-PCR, serially diluted BVD virus suspensions were examined using both methods. Nested RT-PCR was found to be about 100-fold more sensitive than single-step RT-PCR, and is therefore recommended as the appropriate technique for archival studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Gruber
- Institute of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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29
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Hewicker-Trautwein M, Trautwein G. Porencephaly, hydranencephaly and leukoencephalopathy in ovine fetuses following transplacental infection with bovine virus diarrhoea virus: distribution of viral antigen and characterization of cellular response. Acta Neuropathol 1994; 87:385-97. [PMID: 8017174 DOI: 10.1007/bf00313608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The distribution of viral antigen, histological lesions and inflammatory responses were examined in brains from ovine fetuses following experimental transplacental infection with a cytopathogenic strain of bovine virus diarrhoea virus (BVDV). At 10 and 14 days post inoculation (p.i.) viral antigen-containing cells were found throughout the different zones of the developing telencephalon and cerebellum. Corresponding to the distribution of viral antigen, necrotic lesions both of already differentiated and of undifferentiated fetal brain cells occurred. The extent and severity of microscopic lesions correlated positively with the number of viral antigen-containing cells. The destructive lesions were accompanied by meningeal and parenchymal cellular infiltrations predominantly with phagocytosing macrophages. In fetuses examined at 21 days p.i. a massive necrosis of the cerebral hemispheres and severe infiltrations with macrophages and CD3-positive lymphocytes had developed. In fetuses studied between 32 and 80 days p.i. porencephaly, hydranencephaly and leukoencephalomalacic lesions were present. In brain tissue of these fetuses, with the exception of two cases, BVD viral antigen was no longer detected.
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30
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Gruber AD, Greiser-Wilke IM, Haas L, Hewicker-Trautwein M, Moennig V. Detection of bovine viral diarrhea virus RNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded brain tissue by nested polymerase chain reaction. J Virol Methods 1993; 43:309-19. [PMID: 8408445 DOI: 10.1016/0166-0934(93)90149-l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Isolation and amplification of RNA from formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is delicate due to its fragility and ubiquitous ribonucleases. For retrospective studies, however, a convenient procedure for the detection of RNA in archived material is of great value. Bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus is a member of the pestivirus genus in the family Flaviviridae. Different protocols for the isolation of BVD virus RNA from fresh and autolytic as well as from routinely formalin-fixed and paraffin-embedded brain tissue of BVDV-infected calves were compared. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) after reverse transcription (RT-PCR) was carried out subsequently for the detection of viral RNA. Using proteinase K digestion of deparaffinized tissue sections without additional ribonuclease inhibitors and subsequent nested PCR, a 803 bp fragment of the gene coding for the nonstructural protein p125 of BVD virus could be consistently detected. In addition, BVD virus RNA was detected by RT-PCR from non-fixed brain tissue after 10 days of autolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D Gruber
- Institute of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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31
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Evermann JF, Berry ES, Baszler TV, Lewis TL, Byington TC, Dilbeck PM. Diagnostic approaches for the detection of bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus and related pestiviruses. J Vet Diagn Invest 1993; 5:265-9. [PMID: 8389602 DOI: 10.1177/104063879300500222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- J F Evermann
- Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman 99164
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32
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Hewicker-Trautwein M, Trautwein G, Moennig V, Liess B. Infection of ovine fetal brain cell cultures with cytopathogenic and non-cytopathogenic bovine viral diarrhoea virus. Vet Microbiol 1992; 33:239-48. [PMID: 1336242 DOI: 10.1016/0378-1135(92)90052-u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro cell tropism of non-cytopathogenic (ncp) and cytopathogenic (cp) bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) was studied in primary dissociated brain cell cultures derived from ovine fetuses of different gestational ages. The cell types infected were identified by double immunofluorescence using antibodies against BVDV and cell type-specific markers. In cultures infected with ncp BVDV viral antigen was present in neurofilament (NF 200 kDa)-positive neurons, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive astrocytes and fibronectin-expressing cells. Estimation of the percentages of individual cell types infected with ncp BVDV indicated a tropism for NF 200-positive neurons. In cultures infected with cp BVD virus cytopathic changes were observed beginning at 40 hours post infection. Viral antigen was present in vacuolated NF 200-, GFAP- and fibronectin-positive cells. In comparison with non-infected control cultures a considerable reduction of the number of the different cell types was seen.
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33
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Wöhrmann T, Hewicker-Trautwein M, Fernandez A, Moennig V, Liess B, Trautwein G. Distribution of bovine virus diarrhoea viral antigens in the central nervous system of cattle with various congenital manifestations. ZENTRALBLATT FUR VETERINARMEDIZIN. REIHE B. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. SERIES B 1992; 39:599-609. [PMID: 1334302 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.1992.tb01211.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Distribution of bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) antigens in the central nervous system (CNS) of 26 cattle persistently BVDV infected, 11 cattle with mucosal disease (MD), and 32 calves with congenital brain malformations was studied using monoclonal antibodies against BVDV epitopes. In persistently infected cattle and in cattle with MD, a widespread infection of neurons was present. Predilection sites for BVDV antigens were the cerebral cortex and the hippocampus. In calves with congenital encephalopathies, viral antigen-containing neurons could only be detected in the CNS of four animals. From the topographical distribution of BVDV antigens in these four postnatal cases with end-stage lesions, no conclusions could be drawn concerning the pathogenesis of BVDV-induced encephalopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Wöhrmann
- Institute of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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34
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Affiliation(s)
- E D McGee
- Mississippi Board of Animal Health, Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Jackson, MS 39216
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35
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Wohlsein P, Trautwein G, Depner KR, Hübschle OJ, Liess B. Pathomorphological and immunohistological findings in progeny of goats experimentally infected with pestiviruses. ZENTRALBLATT FUR VETERINARMEDIZIN. REIHE B. JOURNAL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. SERIES B 1992; 39:1-9. [PMID: 1316022 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.1992.tb01131.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A total of 25 pregnant goats without neutralizing antibodies against BVD virus were inoculated with two different pestivirus isolates at eight different stages of gestation. In both infection groups, various malformations were observed in fetuses and neonates. In three twins with neutralizing antibodies against BVD virus leukoencephalomalacia occurred, characterized by gelatinous transformation in the cerebral hemispheres. These lesions were comparable to alterations described in alternative pathology of Border disease in sheep. Although the immunohistological findings are characteristic for immunological tolerance and viral persistence, viable offspring persistently infected with pestivirus was not observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Wohlsein
- Institute of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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36
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Affiliation(s)
- V Moennig
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Veterinary School, Germany
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37
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Liebler EM, Waschbüsch J, Pohlenz JF, Moennig V, Liess B. Distribution of antigen of noncytopathogenic and cytopathogenic bovine virus diarrhea virus biotypes in the intestinal tract of calves following experimental production of mucosal disease. ARCHIVES OF VIROLOGY. SUPPLEMENTUM 1991; 3:109-24. [PMID: 9210932 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-9153-8_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Mucosal disease can be experimentally induced by inoculating calves persistently viremic with noncytopathogenic (ncp) Bovine Virus Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) with an antigenetically closely related cytopathogenic (cp) BVDV strain. Calves suffering from mucosal disease develop severe intestinal lesions causing breakdown of the gastrointestinal barrier and death. Knowledge about tissue distribution of ncp/cp biotypes of BVDV may contribute to the understanding of the pathogenesis of these lesions. Distribution of cpBVDV versus ncpBVDV was demonstrated in the intestinal tract of nine calves with experimentally induced mucosal disease and in five persistently viremic calves. Biotypes were distinguished immunohistochemically in organ tissues using monoclonal antibodies against marker epitopes on the viral surface glycoprotein gp53. In persistently viremic calves ncpBVDV was present in a few epithelial cells, mononuclear cells and intramural ganglia. A multifocal reaction was observed in vascular walls. In calves with mucosal disease a striking increase of antigen containing cells occurred. Viral antigen in these cells reacted with marker antibodies for cpBVDV. A distinct tissue distribution of biotypes was observed in intramural ganglia and duodenal glands. Severe tissue damage was correlated to the presence of cpBVDV antigen. This indicates the importance of cpBVDV for the development of lesions. Interactions of cpBVDV and immunemediated mechanisms will need further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Liebler
- Institute of Pathology, Hannover Veterinary School, Federal Republic of Germany
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38
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Brownlie J. The pathways for bovine virus diarrhoea virus biotypes in the pathogenesis of disease. ARCHIVES OF VIROLOGY. SUPPLEMENTUM 1991; 3:79-96. [PMID: 9210929 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-9153-8_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BVDV infections of cattle ranges from the transient acute infections, which may be inapparent or mild, to mucosal disease which is inevitably fatal. On occasions the acute infections can lead to clinical episodes of diarrhoea an agalactia but as these syndromes cannot be reproduced experimentally, the pathogenesis remains unclear. The immunosuppressive effect of acute BVDV infections can enhance the clinical disease of other pathogens and this may be an important part of the calf respiratory disease complex. Although BVDV antigen has been demonstrated within the lymphoid tissues, for prolonged periods, the evidence for viral latency remains to be proven. Venereal infection is shown to be important in the transfer of virus to the foetus and congenital infections can cause abortions, malformations and the development of persistently viraemic calves. The two biotypes of BVDV, non-cytopathogenic and cytopathogenic, are described. Their sequential role in the pathogenesis of mucosal disease arises from the initial foetal infection with the non-cytopathogenic virus and the subsequent production of persistently viraemic calves. These calves may later develop mucosal disease as a result of superinfection with a "homologous" cytopathogenic virus and the possible origin of this biotype by mutation is discussed. Chronic disease is defined as a progressive wasting and usually diarrhoeic condition; it is suggested that this may develop following superinfection of persistently viraemic cattle with a "heterologous" cytopathogenic biotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Brownlie
- AFRC, Institute for Animal Health, Compton Laboratory, Newbury, Berkshire, U.K
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39
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Martin De Las Mulas J, Fernandez A, Sierra M, Poveda J, Carranza J. Immunohistochemical demonstration of Mycoplasma gallinarum and Myoplasma gallinaceum in naturally infected hen oviducts. Res Vet Sci 1990. [DOI: 10.1016/0034-5288(90)90070-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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40
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Wilhelmsen CL, Bolin SR, Ridpath JF, Cheville NF, Kluge JP. Experimental primary postnatal bovine viral diarrhea viral infections in six-month-old calves. Vet Pathol 1990; 27:235-43. [PMID: 2169664 DOI: 10.1177/030098589002700404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Eight clinically healthy calves were inoculated intranasally, four with either noncytopathic or four with cytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus, and were necropsied 5 or 12 days post-inoculation. The most frequent gross lesion associated with noncytopathic or cytopathic viral infection was proximal colonic mural edema. Consistent microscopic findings were acute to subacute tracheitis, mild enterocolitis with edema, petechial hemorrhages of mesenteric lymph nodes with mild follicular lymphocytic depletion, and paracortical lymphocytic hyperplasia. At necropsy, cytopathic virus was recovered from 4/4 calves and noncytopathic virus was isolated from 2/4 calves. Neutralizing antibodies to noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus were detected in the two calves from which noncytopathic virus was not recovered. Immunohistochemical analysis of lymphoid tissues demonstrated a small, randomly distributed population of mononuclear cells that contained bovine viral diarrhea viral antigen in 7/8 calves.
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Affiliation(s)
- C L Wilhelmsen
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Iowa State University, Ames
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41
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Hewicker M, Wöhrmann T, Fernandez A, Trautwein G, Liess B, Moennig V. Immunohistological detection of bovine viral diarrhoea virus antigen in the central nervous system of persistently infected cattle using monoclonal antibodies. Vet Microbiol 1990; 23:203-10. [PMID: 2169673 DOI: 10.1016/0378-1135(90)90150-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
In a total of 25 cattle persistently infected with bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) the distribution of viral antigens in the central nervous system was studied. Using a panel of monoclonal antibodies (anti pestivirus C16; anti cytophathic BVDV C38; anti cytopathic and non-cytopathic BVDV C42; anti gp53 BVDV CA-1 and CA-3) and the indirect immunoperoxidase technique, BVDV antigen was located exclusively in neurons. Predilection sites for viral persistence were cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Morphological cellular alterations were not seen. Reactive perivascular lymphocytic infiltrations were occasional findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hewicker
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Federal Republic of Germany
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