An Exploratory Examination of College Students' Likelihood of Reporting Sexual Assault to Police and University Officials: Results of a Self-Report Survey

Where do those experiencing sexual violence seek help and is routine enquiry acceptable within a sexual healthcare setting? Findings from a population-based survey

OBJECTIVES

Most sexual violence (SV) remains undisclosed to healthcare professionals. The aims of this study were to identify where support would be sought after SV and whether routine enquiry about SV was acceptable in a sexual healthcare setting.

DESIGN

An online population-based survey collected data on a history of SV and preferences on support after SV, in addition to sociodemographic data. Respondents' views on being routinely asked about SV were sought.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

This online survey was based in England, UK. There were 2007 respondents.

RESULTS

The police were the most frequent first choice for support after experiencing SV (n=520; 25.9%); however, this was less common in individuals in younger age groups (p<0.001) and in those with a history of SV (17.2% vs 29.9%, p<0.001). For the 27.1% (532 of 1960) of respondents who reported a history of SV, the first choice of place for support was Rape Crisis or similar third-sector organisation. The majority of respondents supported routine enquiry about SV during Sexual and Reproductive Health Service (SRHS) consultations (84.4%), although acceptability was significantly lower in older age groups.

CONCLUSIONS AND STUDY IMPLICATIONS

A greater awareness of the influence of sociodemographic factors, including ethnicity, age, gender, disability and a history of SV, when planning and delivering services for those who have experienced SV is needed. A history of SV is common in the general population, and a 'one-size-fits-all' approach to encourage disclosure and access to support is unlikely to be optimal. Routine enquiry about SV is highly acceptable in an SRHS setting and likely to improve disclosure when appropriately implemented.

Alerting Faculty, Staff, and Students? Public Opinion on Sex Offender Notification on College Campuses

Institutes of higher education have been called to action to address and prevent sexual violence perpetrated against college students. Based on legislation, one potential pathway is the extension of sex offender registration and notification (SORN) to the campus community. No research has assessed public perceptions of extending SORN, and in particular the perceived importance of notifying faculty, staff, and/or students about an enrolled student on campus that is registered. Via an online survey, this research assessed public perceptions of 1,269 U.S. adults in relation to campus notification. Using logistic regression, influencing factors that increased the odds respondents would find notification important for faculty/staff and students included their level of concern about registered persons attending college, number of children, and perceptions of social problems being worse now compared to 10 years ago. In regard to notifying students, African American respondents were more likely to think notifying students was important. Findings are discussed in relation to prior work on SORN as well as policy implications and considerations.

Assessing Sorority Women's Perceptions of Barriers to Reporting Sexual Assaults That Occur Within College Campus Greek Organizations

Involvement in college campus Greek organizations is associated with an elevated risk of experiencing sexual assault victimization. Experiencing sexual assault victimizaiton is associated with myriad of consequences that could be mitigated by reporting the experience to friends, campus authorities, or police, yet researchers' understanding of reasons why women participating in Greek organizations do not report sexual assaults committed by a fraternity member is understudied. Thus, the goal of this study was to assess perceived barriers to reporting a sexual assault committed by a member of a fraternity. Women associated with Greek organizations from two large universities in the south and southwestern region of the US (n = 235) completed an online survey about sexual assault. Participants were asked to describe why they thought women assaulted by a fraternity member would not report their experience. An inductive and deductive coding process suggested women perceived barriers to reporting across intrapersonal (e.g. feeling afraid/shame), interpersonal (e.g. sorority sisters would ostracize them), organizational (e.g. reporting would jeopardize Greek life), community (e.g. reporting on campus/police is challenging) and societal levels (e.g. victim blame culture). Findings suggest larger socio-cultural factors may influence whether women would report a sexual assault committed by a fraternity member. Collaboration between Greek organizations, campus Fraternity and Sorority advisors, and sexual assault prevention advocates could help to provide a supportive environment for women when sexual assaults occur.

Who Can You Trust? The Impact of Procedural Justice, Trust, and Police Officer Sex on Women's Sexual Assault Victimization Reporting Likelihood

Sexual assaults are underreported to the police, even though this crime affects one in four college women. Using a vignette design, this study fills a gap in the literature by examining the influence of prior police perceptions, procedurally unjust treatment, and the sex of the responding officer on college women's likelihood to report sexual assault. Results indicate positive prior police perceptions significantly increase students' perceived likelihood to report sexual victimization. Even when controlling for prior perceptions, procedurally unfair treatment significantly decreases the likelihood of future victimization reporting. Responding officer sex does not affect students' decision to report.

"Take It Out on the Floor": Experiences of Violence Among Black LGBT House and Ball Community Youth in a Rust Belt City

Black, lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), individuals experience higher rates of violent victimization compared to their cisgender heterosexual counterparts over their life course. Among Black LGBT people, witnessing and experiencing violence have been related to poor health outcomes, including depression, risky sexual behavior, substance use, and lower engagement in healthcare services. We engaged in research to better understand the effects of violence experienced by the Black LGBT youth community. We conducted a qualitative, phenomenological study focused on the causes of violence occurring in the lives of Black LGBT youth engaged in a recreation-based community health program. The study consisted of four focus groups with Black LGBT youth (N = 24) and in-depth individual interviews with medical and social service providers who work with Black LGBT youth (N = 4). Data analysis presented three themes: (1) causes of violence, (2) the context of intracommunity violence, and (3) solutions to violence. The first theme describes the reasoning, motivation, or explanation for violence experienced by the Black LGBT youth community. The second theme, the context of intracommunity violence, describes how violence occurs specifically within Black LGBT young adult communities. The third theme, solutions to violence, describes the recommendations for addressing, reducing, and/or eliminating violence within the Black LGBT youth community. Our findings highlight the need for safe spaces, culturally-relevant services, and trusted figures for Black LGBT young adults, which can serve as mechanisms for mitigating violence.

Increasing knowledge and campus trust in reporting sexual and interpersonal violence: The role of the Title IX coordinator

Objective: The present study explores the influence of Title IX awareness on systematic barriers to reporting sexual and interpersonal violence among college students. Participants: The study surveyed undergraduate and graduate students from a public Northeastern institution (n = 10,615). The study also used a sub-sample of those that did not report their experience of violence (n = 6,319). Methods: The relationship between Title IX awareness and non-reporting was examined using the total sample (n = 10,615) and the relationship between Title IX awareness and systematic barriers was examined using the sub-sample of non-reporting participants (n = 6,319). Analysis was conducted using chi-square tests and logistic regression modeling. Results: Students who could identify their Title IX Coordinator were more likely to report their experience of sexual and interpersonal violence and less likely to identify the systematic barriers. Conclusions: The Title IX Coordinator may play a crucial role in increasing reporting knowledge and improving the campus climate.

Beyond Obstacles: Toward Justice for Victims of Sexual Violence in Hungary. A Literature Review

Alarmed by research that reveals Hungary as having one of the lowest reporting rates in cases of sexual violence in Europe, this article provides an overview of the research that explains why, historically, sexual violence has been and continues to be underreported all over the globe, from law enforcement and criminal justice perspective. Furthermore, we describe the unique circumstances that might influence Hungarian victims of sexual violence to make formal reports. Among other possible factors, we discuss rape myth acceptance, victim blaming, feminist activism, institutional betrayal, and media representations of rape. In an effort to provide insight into Hungarian gender politics, this article raises salient theoretical works on gender ideology and gender policy in contemporary Hungary. This article concludes with a discussion on what implications such research in Hungary may have on a global understanding of sexual violence reporting.

Hope Shattered: An Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis of Survivors' Experiences With Untested Rape Kits

Rape survivors who submit to a medical forensic exam generally expect the resulting rape kit to be tested, but hundreds of thousands of rape kits have been left untested in police storage facilities nationwide. The current study sought to understand what the experience of having an untested rape kit was like for survivors. Using Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis, this study examined narratives of 15 survivors whose rape kits had been part of the rape kit backlog. Analysis suggested that survivors experience an extreme sense of betrayal and loss of faith in the criminal justice system when their kits are not tested. For these survivors, the rape kit was more than just evidence in a box; it was part of them. Implications are discussed.

A Review of Undergraduate Student Disclosures of Sexual Violence

INTRODUCTION

Sexual violence (SV) has been a prevalent issue on college campuses for decades. Researchers, universities, and legislators have tried to understand and prevent it. Despite these efforts, 25% of female and 6% of male undergraduate students will experience a nonconsensual sexual experience (NSE) as a student. An immense amount of research has been conducted on the prevalence, effects, resources for, and outcomes of SV over the last few decades.

OBJECTIVES

The current paper aims to compile and summarize the extant literature on undergraduate student disclosures of sexual violence. The objective is to provide a comprehensive review of the research.

METHODS

A literature search was performed using the terms sexual violence, NSE, undergraduate students, informal and formal reporting, and disclosure.

RESULTS

Disclosure patterns and outcomes for survivors vary widely based on individual factors including type of disclosure source (ie, informal or formal reporting), disclosure recipient response, previous history of NSEs, and personal identity (ie, gender identity, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity). Though there are many formal resources (ie, police, Title IX), the majority of survivors report to informal sources (ie, family or friends). In addition to researching survivors' experiences and rates of disclosures, research also evaluates how disclosure recipients perceive their response to a survivor's disclosure, their likelihood of receiving a disclosure based on their own individual identities, and how the disclosure impacts the recipient and their relationship with the survivor.

CONCLUSION

The individualized response and decision to report SV has made prevention and the creation of effective resources difficult. As there are so many individual factors to consider when evaluating how or whether a NSE will be disclosed, future research should consider these individual differences and use them to create more effective reporting sources and resources. Sears-Greer MA, Friehart BK, Meston CM. A Review of Undergraduate Student Disclosures of Sexual Violence. Sex Med Rev 2022;XX:XXX-XXX.

Factors Associated With Law Enforcement Reporting in Patients Presenting for Medical Forensic Examinations

Law enforcement reporting following sexual assault is lower than for other violent crimes. Sexual assault nurse examiners (SANEs) provide care for patients in the acute period following sexual assault and are well-positioned to identify and address barriers to reporting. We examined data from medical forensic examination records documented by SANEs for a 5-year period (2011-2015). We examined 347 records of women 18 and older to identify factors associated with law enforcement reporting at the time of the exam using binomial logistic regression to construct odds ratios (OR). A total of 56.5% of patients in the sample reported to law enforcement. Patients who did not voluntarily consume alcohol were more likely to report than those who did (OR = 4.45; p = .001). Patients who were not students were more likely to report than students (OR = 3.24; p = .002). Patients who had a medical forensic exam within 32 hr of the assault were more likely to report than those having exams after 32 hr (OR = 2.68; p = .007). Patients who had anogenital and/or bodily injuries were more likely to report than those who had no injuries (OR = 2.50; p = .008). Patients who were penetrated (vaginally, orally, and/or anally) were more likely to report than those who were not penetrated (OR = 2.50; p = .056). Knowing the assailant, having multiple assailants, and patient and assailant race/ethnicity were not associated with different likelihood of reporting to law enforcement. SANEs and others who work with victims of sexual assault can use data to understand and address barriers to reporting.

Examining Support for University-to-Police Reporting Policies for Sexual Assault: The Role of Survivors' Consent

In several states, bills have been introduced that require universities to report sexual assaults to law enforcement. Opponents argue that such policies can compel survivors to disclose against their will, stripping survivors of autonomy and harming campus communities. We used a mixed method approach to examine people's support for reporting policies that do and do not consider survivor consent: compelled police disclosure (requires a report regardless of victim consent) and consented police disclosure (requires a report if the victim consents). We examined individual characteristics and attitudes associated with support for these approaches (i.e., had experienced sexual assault, trust in police). Participants (1,045 adults in the United States) were randomly assigned to read one of three policy statements, and we collected quantitative and qualitative survey data. Participants were less supportive of compelled police disclosure than consented police disclosure. People who supported compelled disclosure frequently focused on the crime and potential social benefits, were more likely to be non-victims, and held greater trust in the police. People who supported consented disclosure focused on the victim's needs, were more likely to be survivors, and held less trust in the police. Survivor consent should be considered in the discussion of university-to-police reporting policies for sexual assault.

Perceptions of campus authorities: Institutional responses, fairness, and bystander action

Objective: This study is an examination of college students' bystander behaviors in relation to several exosystem factors related to their institution, including trust in their college's support systems, perceived procedural justice by campus police, and perceived procedural justice by campus administrators. Participants: Online surveys were completed by 223 students at a mid-sized public institution in the Northeastern U.S. Methods: Responses were analyzed using an OLS multiple regression to examine bystander behaviors in relation to their perceptions of institutional exosystem factors. Results: Students who felt more favorably about both campus police and campus admin were more likely to have intervened in the past as a bystander; trust in school had no effect. Conclusions: Perceptions of institutional leaders and representatives are important to consider as influential motivators for bystander behavior. School personnel trainings and policies which increase visibility of staff as trustworthy and fair should be part of comprehensive campus antiviolence efforts.

College student perceptions of institutional responses to sexual assault reporting and general help-seeking intentions

College students are a high-risk population for sexual assault exposure. This study examines 1) sociodemographic differences in student perceptions of institutions of higher education (IHEs) responses to sexual assault reporting and 2) the relationship between student perceptions, knowledge of campus sexual assault (CSA) services, and general help-seeking intentions. Participants: A sample of 1,648 college students completing an online survey during the 2016-2017 academic year. Methods: A secondary analysis of data from the Healthy Minds Study. Results: Transgender/nonconforming, sexual minority, and domestic students held more negative perceptions of IHEs. Positive perceptions were significantly associated with increased odds for both formal (odds ratio [OR] = 1.09, p < .05) and informal help-seeking intentions (OR = 1.05, p < .05). Knowledge of CSA services did not significantly moderate the relationship between perceptions of IHEs' responses and help-seeking intentions. Conclusions: Student perceptions of their IHEs vary based on aspects of identity and may contribute to general help-seeking.

Who Are You to Me? Relational Distance to Victims and Perpetrators Affects Advising to Report Rape

The victim's decision to report a crime is generally dependent on the advice received from a confidant. The effects of a confidant's relationship to victims and perpetrators on the advice given to report rape were investigated. Indian participants (N = 418) read one of the seven scenarios of acquaintance rape as a confidant; the scenarios depicted different relationships between the victim and perpetrator (family vs. friend vs. stranger). Confidants closer to victims were more likely to advise reporting, whereas confidants closer to the perpetrator were less likely to advise reporting. Rape myth acceptance and victim blaming negatively predicted reporting to agencies.

Factors Related to College Students' Decisions to Report Sexual Assault

Sexual assault is a serious problem on college campuses. Using a sample of 266 survivors of sexual assault during their college years, results from a multinomial regression identified factors linked with the odds of making either a formal report to university officials, an informal disclosure, or telling no one of the assault. Survivors were more likely to formally report the sexual assault to university officials if they had received sexual assault training, if the assault included vaginal or anal penetration, and if the survivor had a positive perception of the overall campus climate. Survivors were less likely to formally report the assault to university officials if the perpetrator was an acquaintance, friend, or dating partner compared with a stranger. Racial or ethnic minorities were less likely to formally report or informally disclose the assault. Our findings suggest that universities can aid survivors in reporting their sexual assault through education, training, and improving the overall campus climate.

"Call for Help Immediately": A Discourse Analysis of Resident Assistants' Responses to Sexual Assault Disclosures

Formal support providers can play a critical role in sexual assault survivors' well-being (e.g., providing resource referrals). In a university setting, resident assistants (RAs) are key support providers with a unique relationship to survivors based on their dual roles as help-provider and peer. We examined 305 RAs' responses to student sexual assault disclosure scenarios. Employing a critical discourse analysis, we identified four discourses used by RAs in their discussion of resources: controlling, gatekeeping, minimizing, and empowering. Due to power dynamics between RAs and residents, we conclude that empowering discourses would facilitate survivors' access to other resources (e.g., sexual assault center).

Deconstructing Incidents of Campus Sexual Assault: Comparing Male and Female Victimizations

Research on campus sexual assault (CSA) has almost exclusively drawn on self-report data, examined undergraduates (i.e., students aged 18-24), and focused on female victimization. The few studies which included male CSA victims generally had fewer than 100 male subjects, which makes important statistical analyses difficult. To build upon prior literature and expand knowledge on male CSA victimization, we analyzed more than 5,000 incidents of CSA that were reported to police from across the United States using National Incident-Based Reporting System data (NIBRS; 1993-2014). We expanded victim age ranges to include those 17 to 32 years old and investigated more male CSA victimizations than prior work to date, approximately 350 incidents. Comparisons of male victim versus female victim CSA incidents, estimated via multivariate logistic regression, revealed several important patterns. Although both male and female victims were approximately 19 years old on average, perpetrators who assaulted females tended to be 23 years old while those assaulting males were on average 29. While 1% of CSA perpetrators offending against female victims were themselves female, 17% of perpetrators offending against male victims were female. Finally, CSA incidents with male victims were more likely to include multiple offenders, but less likely to involve stranger or Black perpetrators and also less likely to result in injuries relative to CSA incidents with female victims. Implications are discussed in terms of policing practices, and we pose new questions to the field regarding the study and prevention of CSA.

"It Happens to Girls All the Time": Examining Sexual Assault Survivors' Reasons for Not Using Campus Supports

Sexual assault is a prevalent problem in higher education, and despite the increasing availability of formal supports on college campuses, few sexual assault survivors use them. Experiencing sexual assault can have devastating consequences on survivors' psychological and educational wellbeing, which may intensify if survivors do not receive adequate care. Drawing from existing theoretical frameworks and empirical research, this study used a mixed methodological approach to examine why survivors did not use three key campus supports-the Title IX Office, the sexual assault center, and housing staff-and if these reasons differed across the three supports. Using data from 284 women who experienced sexual assault in college, our qualitative findings identified four overarching themes, including logistical issues (e.g., lacking time and knowledge), feelings, beliefs, and responses that made it seem unacceptable to use campus supports, judgments about the appropriateness of the support, and alternative methods of coping. Quantitative findings revealed that survivors' reasons for not seeking help differed across supports. Collectively, our findings suggest that community norms and institutional policies can make it challenging for survivors to use campus supports. We propose several suggestions for institutional change (e.g., taking a stronger stance against "less serious" forms of sexual assault, reducing a quasi-criminal justice approach to investigation and adjudication, limiting mandated reporting).